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Сидорова И А Иностранный язык Diesel engine Дизельный двигатель

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МИНИСТЕРСТВО ТРАНСПОРТА РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО МОРСКОГО И РЕЧНОГО ТРАНСПОРТА
ФГБОУ ВО
«СИБИРСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ВОДНОГО ТРАНСПОРТА»
81.2Англ
С 347
И.А. Сидорова
Иностранный язык
DIESEL ENGINE
Дизельный двигатель
Учебное пособие
Новосибирск 2020
81.2Англ
С 347
Сидорова Ирина Анатольевна.
Иностранный язык. Diesel engine. Дизельный двигатель:
учебное пособие / И.А. Сидорова. – Новосибирск: Сиб. гос. унив.
водн. трансп., 2020.
ISBN 978-5-8119-0851-6
Данное пособие предназначено для студентов 2-3 курса специальности «Эксплуатация судовых энергетических установок» по
дисциплине «Иностранный язык».
Пособие разработано на основе компетентностного подхода к
обучению иностранному языку для специальных целей и с учетом
принципа взаимосвязанного обучения всем видам речевой деятельности на профессионально-ориентированном материале. В основе
пособия тематический принцип подачи текстового материала.
Пособие ставит целью овладение лексическим и терминологическим словарем в профессиональной сфере, обучение различным
видам чтения литературы по специальности, а также развитие
умений и навыков устной речи, аннотирования и реферирования.
Пособие разработано на основе аутентичных текстов и содержит разговорные темы, тренировочные упражнения, диалоги,
тексты для дополнительного чтения, тестовые задания, список
сокращений, используемых в современной литературе по судомеханике.
Рекомендовано в печать редакционно-издательским советом
ФГБОУ ВО «СГУВТ» 23.06.2020 протокол № 42.
 Сидорова И. А., 2020
 ФГБОУ ВО «СГУВТ», 2020
UNIT I
TYPES OF MARINE ENGINES
ТИПЫ МОРСКИХ ДВИГАТЕЛЕЙ
Vocabulary
blade
brake horsepower (bhp)
to drive
лопатка (турбины)
тормозная мощность
вращать, приводить в движение;
привод
gearing
зубчатая передача (привод)
friction
трение
internal combustion engine двигатель внутреннего сгорания
maintenance
ремонт, эксплуатация
medium-speed engine
среднеоборотный двигатель
nuclear plant
атомная силовая установка
oil fuel
жидкое топливо
rather than
а не, скорее чем
rpm (revolutions per min- обороты в минуту
ute)
piston
поршень
to put out
вырабатывать (энергию)
power output
мощность (выходная, на выходе,
генерируемая)
shaft
вал
via
через, посредством
efficiency
КПД
to reduce
сокращать, снижать
size
размер
weight
вес
to attach
прикреплять
conventional
обычный, стандартный
decay
распад
There are four main types of marine engines: the diesel engine,
the steam turbine, the gas turbine and the marine nuclear plant. Each
type of engine has its own particular application. The diesel engine is
a form of internal combustion engine. Its power is expressed as brake
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horsepower (bhp). This is the power put out by the engine. Effective
horsepower is the power developed by the piston in the cylinder, but
some of this is lost by friction within the engine. The power output of a
modern marine diesel engine is about 40,000 brake horsepower. This is
now expressed in kilowatts (kwts). By comparison the engine of a small
family car has an output of about 80 bhp. Large diesel engines, which
have cylinders nearly 3 ft in diameter, turn at the relatively slow speed
of about 108 rpm. These are known as slow-speed diesel engines. They
can be connected directly to propeller without gearing. Although higher
power could be produced by higher revolutions, this would reduce the
efficiency if it is larger and if it turns slower. These large slow running
engines are used in large merchant ships particularly in tankers and bulk
carriers. The main reason is their low fuel consumption. More and more
of the larger merchant vessels are being powered by medium-speed
diesel engines. These operate between 150 and 450 rpm, therefore
they are connected to the propeller by gearing. They are cheaper than
slow-speed diesel engines, and their smaller size and weight can result
in a smaller cheaper ship.
In steam turbines high pressure steam is directed into a series of
blades attached to the shaft, causing it to rotate. This rotary motion is
transferred to the propeller shaft by gears. Steam is produced by boiling
water in a boiler, which is fired by oil. Recent developments in steam
turbines which have reduced fuel consumption and raised power output
have made them more attractive as an alternative to diesel power in
ships. They are 50 percent lighter and on very large tankers some steam
turbines can be used to drive the large cargo oil pumps. Turbines are
often used in container ships, which travel at high speeds.
Gas turbines are known to differ from steam turbines in that gas
rather than steam is used to turn a shaft. These have also become more
suitable for use in ships. Many naval vessels are powered by gas turbines
and several container ships are fitted with them. A gas turbine engine
is very light and easily removed for maintenance. It is also suitable for
complete automation.
Nuclear power in ships has mainly been confined to icebreakers.
A nuclear-powered ship differs from a conventional turbine ship in
that it uses the energy released by the decay of radioactive fuel to
4
generate steam. The steam is used to turn a shaft via a turbine in the
conventional way.
EXERSISES
Ex.1. Give Russian equivalents for the following.
Internal combustion engine, brake horse power (bhp), low fuel
consumption, high pressure steam, rotary motion, propeller shaft,
power output, to reduce fuel consumption, to raise power output,
complete automation, nuclear power ship, conventional turbine ship,
oil-fired boiler, to generate steam, to release energy, to drive oil
pumps, to turn a shaft, to cause rotation.
Ex.2. Say it in English.
выделять энергию, снижать КПД / эффективность, малооборотный дизельный двигатель, соединять с винтом с помощью редуктора, направлять пар на лопатки, производить пар, передавать
вращательное движение на вал, вырабатывать пар, увеличивать/
снижать мощность, приводить в движение, оснащать чем-либо.
Ex.3. Match the English words in A with their Russian equivalents
in B.
A
1) power
2) without gearing
3) nearly 3 ft
4) propeller
5) as well as
6) modern engine
7) particularly
8) reduce
9) pump
10) steam engine
11) fast cargo liner
12) main reason
13) slow speed
14) maintenance
B
1) небольшая скорость
2) быстроходное грузовое судно
3) без привода (зубчатой передачи)
4) мощность
5) почти 3 фута
6) так же, как и
7) винт
8) основная причина
9) эксплуатация
10) особенно
11) паровой двигатель
12) насос
13) современный двигатель
14) снижать
5
Ex.4. Answer the questions.
1. What are the main types of marine engines?
2. What is a diesel engine?
3. How is the power of the diesel engine expressed?
4. What are characteristics of low-speed engines? What is their main
advantage?
5. What kind of engines (slow, medium or high speed) are installed
on large merchant vessels in most cases today? What are their
main characteristics?
6. What kind of vessels use steam turbines for propulsion today?
7. What makes them so preferable?
8. Where does the difference between gas turbines and steam turbines
lie?
9. What types of ships are equipped with nuclear power plant?
Ex.5. Translate into English paying attention to the Passive
constructions (to be + Participle II)
Model: Турбины часто используют(ся) на контейнерных судах.
Turbines are often used in container ships.
1. Часть мощности теряется из-за трения.
2. Мощность выражается в киловаттах.
3. Малооборотный (дизельный) двигатель соединяется (соединен) прямо на винт без редуктора.
4. Он называется двигателем с прямым соединением на винт.
5. Все больше торговых судов оснащается (оснащено) среднеоборотными двигателями. Они соединяются с винтом с помощью
редуктора.
6. В паровых турбинах пар высокого давления направляется на
ряд лопаток, прикрепленных к валу.
7. Вращательное движение (вала) передается на гребной вал с
помощью редукторов.
8. Расход топлива в современных паровых турбинах уменьшен, а
мощность увеличена.
9. Газовая турбина очень легкая и легко вынимается/извлекается для ремонта.
10. На атомоходах пар производится энергией, выделяемой при
распаде радиоактивного топлива.
6
Did you know?
The engines of some of the world’s biggest container ships
weigh 2,300 tons! Their propellers alone weigh 130 tons. They’re
so powerful and complicated that they require over a dozen people
PLUS a computer system to operate! That really puts the $200
million price tag of the world’s largest ships into perspective, doesn’t
it?
7
UNIT II
DIESEL ENGINE OPERATION AND MAIN COMPONENTS
РАБОТА ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГАТЕЛЯ И ЕГО ЧАСТИ
Vocabulary
internal combustion engine
turbine
to drive
to spray
to ignite
to compress
to draw in
charge
stroke
suction stroke
exhaust stroke
compression
combustion
expansion
heat
volume
scavenging
two-stroke engine
four-stroke engine
to force
to force out
to drop
to occur
to require
to increase
to decrease
to transmit
to cast
stationary parts
moving parts
bedplate
двигатель внутреннего сгорания
турбина
приводить в движение
впрыскивать
зажигать
сжимать
втягивать, всасывать
порция, загрузка, заряд
ход, такт, длина хода
ход впуска (всасывание)
ход выхлопа
сжатие
сгорание
расширение
тепло
объем
продувка
двухтактный двигатель
четырехтактный двигатель
заставлять, принуждать
вытеснять, выкачивать
падать
происходить
требовать
увеличивать(ся)
уменьшать(ся)
передавать
лить, отливать
неподвижные части
рабочие части
фундаментная плита
8
crankcase
piston
bearing
cylinder
cast iron
cylinder covers (heads)
to ensure
alloy
liner
connecting rod
crankshaft
flywheel
valve
inlet valve
fuel injection valve (spray
valve)
exhaust valve (or port)
crank
forged steel
alternator
to fasten
displacement
sump
environment
картер двигателя
поршень
подшипник
цилиндр
чугун
крышки цилиндров
обеспечивать
сплав
втулка, гильза
шатун
коленчатый вал
маховик
клапан
впускной клапан
форсунка
выхлопной клапан (или окно)
мотыль
кованая сталь
генератор переменного тока
прикреплять
перемещение, сдвиг
поддон
окружающая среда
Diesels are the most economical heat engines. Invented by
Rudolph Diesel in 1892, the Diesel engine is an “internal combustion”
engine; that is to say, the fuel is burnt inside the engine cylinders and
not externally in a separate boiler. Its power is expressed as brake
horsepower (b. h. p). The first marine diesel engine was installed in the
Selandia, an oceangoing vessel, in 1912.
The principle of operation is as follows,- a charge of pure air is
drawn, or pumped, into the engine cylinder and then compressed by the
moving piston to a pressure of about 500 lbs per square inch. When air is
compressed, it’s temperature rises. Fuel is now sprayed into the engine
cylinder, is ignited by the hot air and in burning supplies more heat
to the air charge thus causing it to expand and drive the engine piston.
9
There are two main types of diesels: two-stroke and four- stroke
engines. Engines of either type may be single-acting or double-acting.
As to their construction they may be of trunk-piston type, crosshead type and opposed-piston type. They can also be classified into
high speed, medium speed, slow speed engines.
In two-stroke diesels compression occurs during the first stroke,
combustion and expansion occur during the second stroke; exhaust,
scavenging and recharging with air occur at the end of the second stroke
and at the beginning of the first stroke.
The working cycle of a four-stroke diesel requires four separate
strokes of the engine piston to complete the operation. These four strokes
are called suction, compression, combustion-expansion and exhaust,
but only the third stroke provides the power to drive the ship. So, what
happens during these four cycles?
First stroke: suction.
Inlet valve is open, exhaust valve is closed. Air is drawn into the
cylinder.
Second stroke: compression.
Both valves are closed. Piston compresses the air to high
temperature.
Third stroke: combustion-expansion.
Fuel injected burns. Temperature and pressure of combustion gases
increase. Gas pressure forces the piston down (valves are closed). As the
volume available for the gases increases, their pressure and temperature
decrease. Piston displacement is used to produce power.
Fourth stroke: exhaust.
Exhaust valve is open, inlet valve is closed. Burnt gases are forced
out of the engine.
The Diesel Engine is made up of stationary and moving parts.
Stationary parts. These are principally:
Bedplate and crankcase. These two parts make a supporting
structure to hold the cylinders, crankshaft and main bearings in firm
relation to each other. Crankcase also serves as sump for the lubricating
oil.
Cylinders. They are stationary walls of the combustion chamber,
they serve also to guide the pistons to which the mechanical energy
10
created by combustion is transmitted. The ordinary engine is made of
cast iron and heavy-duty engines are made of steel alloys or aluminum
alloys. In the multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders are cast in one block
known as cylinder block.
Cylinder covers (heads) close the top end of the cylinders over
which inlet and exhaust valve are mounted.
Cylinder liners. As the cylinders have to ensure smooth movement
of the piston rings, their walls are covered with a material that has good
friction resistance qualities, such as a special cast iron or alloy. This
covering is sometimes removable, which means it can be replaced at
low cost when it becomes worn. It is called a liner.
Moving parts. These include: piston, connecting-rod, crankshaft,
flywheel and valves.
Piston. It is made of steel, cast iron or special alloy which is highly
resistant to heat stresses. According to size, the piston is provided with
piston rings. Piston transfers the strain resulting from the pressure to
the connecting rod.
Рис.1
11
Connecting rod. The connecting rod transmits force from the piston
to the crank on the crankshaft. The special steel alloys or aluminum
alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rod.
Valves serve to admit the air and to discharge the exhaust gases.
Crankshaft. It is made of forged steel. It receives the sum of the
mechanical energy produced in the cylinders and transfers it to the parts
that use it: the propeller, the alternator, etc.
Flywheel is a heavy wheel fastened to the crankshaft. Its purpose
is to keep the engine running smoothly from the time of one power
stroke to the next power stroke.
Diesels have a universal record of reliability in marine environment,
they are long-lived and easier to maintain.
EXERCISES
Ex.1. Answer the questions.
1. What are the main types of marine engines?
2. What is the Diesel engine?
3. Where and when was the first Diesel engine installed?
4. How is the Diesel engine power expressed?
5. What is the principle of operation of the Diesel engine?
6. How many strokes are necessary to complete the operation?
7. What are the strokes of the four-cycle Diesel engine?
8. What happens during each stroke?
9. What stationary parts does the Diesel engine consist of?
10. What are the moving parts of the Diesel engine?
11. What’s the function of a cylinder?
12. What material is used to make the engine parts?
Ex.2. Give Russian equivalents.
air charge, gas pressure, piston displacement, combustion gases,
heat stresses, closed chamber, controlled movement, sprayed fuel,
expanded gases, compressed air, increased volume, mechanical work,
burnt gases, to produce power, to drive a ship, to transmit the energy,
to hold crankshaft and cylinders in firm relation, to run smoothly,
removable covering, moving parts, stationary parts, cylinder block.
12
Ex.3. Make up sentences of your own using the following verbs.
To compress; to inject; to force out; to increase, to produce, to
transmit, to cast.
Model: To draw.
Air is drawn into the combustion chamber.
Ex.4. Put the proper English equivalents instead of Russian words.
1. The diesel engine (состоит) of the following parts: (фундаментной
плиты двигателя и картера).
2. The crankcase (сделан) of steel.
3. (Крышки цилиндра) close (верхнюю часть) of the cylinders.
4. (Втулка) is a comparatively thin cylinder.
5. Piston (сжимает воздух) to high temperature.
6. The connecting rod (соединяет) the piston to the crank on (коленчатом вале).
7. (Коленчатый вал) transmits the mechanical energy (на винт).
8. Temperature and pressure of (газов сгорания) increase.
Ex.5. Translate.
1. Двигатель - это любая машина, которая потребляет тепловую
энергию и превращает ее в механическую работу.
2. Дизель является двигателем внутреннего сгорания.
3. Топливо сгорает внутри цилиндров двигателя.
4. Когда воздух сжимается, его температура поднимается.
5. В двухтактном двигателе сгорание и расширение происходят
во время второго такта.
6. Энергия образующаяся во время третьего такта поршня обеспечивает движение судна.
7. Дизельный двигатель состоит из неподвижных и подвижных
частей.
8. Дизели долговечны и легки в эксплуатации.
Ex.6. Give a short description of the working process of.
a) the first stroke;
b) the second stroke;
c) the third stroke;
d) the fourth stroke.
13
Ex.7. The answers are given. What are the questions?
1. ______________________?
It is expressed in bhp.
2. _______________________?
During the 3rd stroke.
3. _______________________?
They close the top end of the cylinders.
4. _______________________?
It’s a connecting rod.
5. ________________________?
It is made of forged steel.
Ex.8. Choose the right term to the following definitions.
Cylinder cover, crankshaft, piston, bedplate, cylinder liner,
connecting rod, piston rings, turbocharger, flywheel, inlet valves
1. It is a key component of an engine transmitting cylinder power
to the propeller shaft.
2. This part converts the force of expanding gases during
combustion process to mechanical energy.
3. It increases the overall power and efficiency of an engine.
4. This part of the engine represents a thin metal cylinder inserted
on top of a cylinder block and secured at the top by cylinder head. It
also provides area for cooling, lubrication and scavenging.
5. It works as a foundation block for the two-stroke marine diesel
engines. It is strong and flexible to support weight and handle fluctuating
forces produced by the engine.
6. They prevent the combustion gases leak or escape from the
space in between cylinder head and piston crown. They are made up
of cast iron alloys with added minerals like molybdenum, chromium,
titanium and nickel.
7. Its main function is to form the top part of the combustion
space; while supporting all necessary valves required for the
operation such as inlet, exhaust and fuel injector. They are exposed to
14
maximum temperature and pressure so provided with adequate cooling
arrangement.
8. This part does the function of transforming the reciprocating
motion of a piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. It also does the
work of transferring power produced by the piston to the crankshaft.
9. Their function is to inject a charge of fresh air in the combustion
space.
10. It is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently
store rotational energy (kinetic energy).
Ex.9. Study the basic engine performance parameters and be ready
to discuss and remember them.
An important parameter for a marine diesel engine is the rating
figure, usually stated as BHP (or kW) per cylinder at a given rev/min.
The basic engine performance parameters are:
Indicated Power: The amount of power developed by the
combustion of the fuel in the cylinder.
Fuel Energy: The actual amount of energy stored in the Fuel = Mass
of the fuel × Calorific value of the fuel.
Indicated Thermal Efficiency: This is the ratio between the
Indicated power to the Fuel Energy is called.
Mechanical Efficiency: The mechanical efficiency is defined as the
ratio of the power output to the power developed in the cylinder.
Volumetric Efficiency: Volumetric efficiency is nothing but the
breathing ability of the engine. And this is one of the important
performance parameters for the four stroke engines. Volumetric efficiency is defined as the amount of air intake to the rate at which the
volume is displaced by the system.
Mean Effective Pressure: The average pressure inside the cylinders
of the internal combustion engine based on the resulted power
output.
Mean Piston Speed
Specific Power Output: The specific Power output can be simply
defined as the power output per unit area of the piston.
15
Specific Fuel Consumption: It is an important parameter in terms of
determining the performance of the Engine. It is defined as the ratio
of the fuel consumed per unit time to the power output generated.
Calorific Value (CV) of the Fuel: The calorific value of the fuel is
defined as the amount of thermal energy released per unit quantity of
fuel when it is burned completely.
Air-Fuel Ratio: The proportions of the air with the fuel play a
crucial role in the performance of the engine. This is expressed in
the terms of air-fuel ratio. In diesel engines where the fuel is entered
separately with the help of the fuel injectors, so that if the load need
to be increased, then the fuel amount will be increased directly in the
cylinder.
Ex.10. Be ready to speak on Diesel engines.
16
UNIT III
TYPES OF MARINE DIESELS
ТИПЫ ДИЗЕЛЬНЫХ ДВИГАТЕЛЕЙ
TEXT 1
A 4-STROKE ENGINE
ЧЕТЫРЕХТАКТНЫЙ ДИЗЕЛЬНЫЙ ДВИГАТЕЛЬ
Vocabulary
internal combustion engine
двигатель внутреннего сгорания
stroke
ход, такт
revolution
оборот
single – acting
простого действия
double – acting
двойного действия
to require
требовать
to complete = to make
делать,совершать
suction (intake)
всасывание
to draw in
втягивать, всасывать
inlet valve
впускной клапан
cam
кулачок
upward stroke
ход (поршня) вверх
downward stroke
ход (поршня) вниз
to compress
сжимать
compression
сжатие
clearance volume
рабочий объем цилиндра
lb. per sq. in – pounds per square фунтов на кв.дюйм
to reach
достигать
fuel injection valve
форсунка
finely atomized
мелко распыленный
to spray
впрыскивать
combustion space = combustion камера сгорания
chamber
to ignite
воспламеняться
heat
тепло, нагревать
to expand
расширяться
power stroke
рабочий ход
17
exhaust valve
to escape
to drop (fall)
combustion products
except
expansion
ignition (firing)
T.D.C.
B.D.C.
выпускной клапан
уходить, исчезать
падать
продукты сгорания
за исключением
расширение
воспламенение
верхняя мертвая точка
нижняя мертвая точка
Any internal combustion engine has a four-stroke cycle or a twostroke cycle. The four-stroke engine requires four piston strokes to
convert fuel into work. The movement of the piston from the top to
the bottom of its cylinder is known as a stroke. While the piston moves
up and down the cylinder two times, the crankshaft revolves twice.
The strokes are commonly known as suction, compression, power
(combustion-expansion) and exhaust.
1. Suction stroke. This stroke of the piston begins at top dead
center (T.D.C.) and ends at bottom dead center (B.D.C.). As the piston
moves down on its suction stroke, a charge of pure air containing the
necessary oxygen for combustion is drawn in through the inlet valve
in the cylinder head.
2. Compression stroke. This stroke begins at B.D.C or just at
the end of the suction stroke, and ends at T.D.C After the piston has
completed the suction stroke, the inlet valve closes, and the piston
starts on an upward stroke, called compression stroke, compressing the
charge of pure air into the clearance volume to a pressure of between
350 and 450 lb. per sq. in.
3. Combustion (Power). This is the start of the second revolution
of the four stroke cycle. About the time that the piston reaches the end
of its upward stroke, the fuel injection valve opens for a short period,
and finely atomized fuel oil is sprayed in the combustion space under
high pressure. Because of the heat compression, the fuel oil is ignited
and burns generating heat. The piston has now started downward on
its third stroke, and the hot gases generated by the combustion of the
oil expand and force the piston downward on its working or power
18
stroke. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn
the crankshaft.
4. Exhaust. Near the end of the working stroke the exhaust valve
in the cylinder head opens, part of the gases escape, and the pressure in
the cylinder drops approximately to the atmospheric. The piston now
returns from B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open, and all
the products of combustion are forced out through the open exhaust
valve. The exhaust valve now closes, and the cycle is renewed.
EXERCISES
Ex1. Give Russian equivalents to the following.
to convert fuel into work, single acting engine, from the top to
the bottom, the crankshaft revolves twice, a charge of pure air,
containing oxygen for combustion, previous stroke, about the time,
open for a short period, because of, generating heat, generated
by the combustion of the oil, to force the piston down, to turn the
crankshaft, approximately to the atmospheric, are forced out through
the valve, the cycle is renewed.
Ex.2. Find English equivalents to the following Russian words and
word combinations.
4 - (2) - тактный двигатель, каждый оборот коленчатого вала,
такты всасывания, сжатия, горения и расширения, выхлоп, ход
поршня вверх (вниз), давление и температура, падать, атмосферное давление, камера сгорания, впрыскиваться, форсунка,
повторяется, продукты сгорания, выталкивать через открытый
выпускной клапан.
Ex.3. Match the opposites.
1. rise
2. draw in
3. top
4. upward
5.complete
6. exhaust valve
7. single
8. generate
1. use
2. outside
3. inlet valve
4. force out
5. next
6. drop
7. downward
8. bottom
19
9. previous
10.inside 9. start
10.double
Ex.4. Point out the suffixes in the following words, translate them
into Russian and use in sentences of your own.
1. compression, combustion, expansion, revolution, injection,
formation;
2. expanded, injected, renewed, increased, atomized, generated;
3. removable, measurable, suitable, considerable, reliable, possible;
4. stability, safety, ability, activity, reality, viscosity;
5. greatly, easily, carefully, clearly, extremely, directly.
Ex.5. Answer the following questions.
1. What types of diesel engines can you name?
2. What is a piston stroke?
3. How many strokes of the piston are necessary to complete the cycle
in the 4 cycle engine? What are they?
4. What valves must be closed during compression stroke? Why?
5. How do the expanded gases act?
6. Does the piston start its upward or downward movement during
the compression stroke?
7. When and how is fuel sprayed into the combustion chamber?
8. What takes place when the exhaust valve opens?
9. What happens after the exhaust valve closes?
Ex.6. Describe the 4-stroke internal combustion engine and all the
processes occurring in it.
Did you know?
How and where is ship’s engine made?
If you have seen engines on ships, including small 4 stroke
generator engines and also the massive 2 stroke propulsion engines,
one thought which must have crossed your mind is how and where
these engines were made?
The most famous engine manufacturers, whose engines, are used
in ships are:
1. MAN Diesel & Turbo (Previously B&W engines) – famous for
high, medium and slow speed marine engines.
20
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Wärtsilä (previously Sulzer Engines) – famous for high, medium
and slow speed marine engines.
Mitsubishi – producing engines for light, medium, and heavy-duty
applications.
Rolls-Royce – famous for the cruise ship and naval ship engines.
Caterpillar manufactures – for medium speed and high-speed
marine diesel engines.
Wärtsilä is still the Guinness World Record holder for the largest
ship engine ever built.
The Wärtsilä RT-flex96C two-stroke engine fitted with
turbocharger holds this record. Manufactured for large container ships,
its dimensions are as follows:
Length - 27 meters (88 ft 7 in),
Height - 13.5 meters (44 ft 4 in)
Weight > 2,300 tones.
Power output ~ 84.42 Megawatts (114,800 bhp).
The size of the ship engine varies from ship to ship, type of stroke
it has, and its power output. The ship engine can be as high as a 5-story
building, and to accommodate it, the ship engine room has to be designed
accordingly.
TEXT 2
A 2 STROKE ENGINE
ДВУХТАКТНЫЙ ДИЗЕЛЬНЫЙ ДВИГАТЕЛЬ
Vocabulary
scavenging
scavenging air receiver
recharging
to complete
to occur
to comprise
sequence of events
to substitute
to arrange
exhaust manifold
продувка
ресивер продувочного воздуха
перезарядка, перезагрузка
завершать
происходить
охватывать, включать
порядок действий
заменять
устанавливать
выхлопной коллектор
21
to store
slightly
simultaneously
to cover
to uncover
port
to rush in
remainder
to incline
tangentially
whirling motion
disadvantage
while
still
partially
below
to increase
increase
trunk type
crosshead type
stuffing box
splash up
хранить (ся)
немного, слегка
одновременно
прикрывать, закрывать
открывать
окно
врываться
остаток
отклонять
тангенциально
вихревое движение
недостаток
в то время как, пока
все еще
частично; здесь: немного
ниже
увеличить, поднять
увеличение, подъем
тронковый тип
крейцкопфный тип
муфта
брызгать, разбрызгивать
Two-stroke (or two-cycle) engine is a type of internal combustion
engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down
movements) of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is
in contrast to a “four-stroke engine“, which requires four strokes of the
piston to complete a power cycle during two crankshaft revolutions. In
a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning
of the compression stroke happen simultaneously, with the intake and
exhaust (or scavenging) functions occurring at the same time.
In a two-stroke engine power is produced in one revolution of the
crankshaft (360° rotation) whereas in case of four-stroke engine power
is produced in two revolutions of the crankshaft (720° rotation).
There are two cycles in two-stroke engines. The 1st stroke
(upstroke) comprises suction- compression and the 2nd stroke (down
stroke) comprises combustion-exhaust.
22
Scavenging and recharging with air occur during the latter part of
the down stroke and the beginning of the next succeeding upstroke. This
sequence of events is made possible by substituting ports in the bottom
of the cylinder wall for one or more exhaust valves. There are two
groups of these ports, one for the exhaust and the other for scavenging
air, usually on opposite sides of the cylinder, but in some designs both
groups are arranged on the same side. The exhaust ports connect with
the exhaust manifold, while the scavenging ports communicate with
the scavenging air receiver.
The exhaust ports are slightly higher than the scavenging ports, so
that they are uncovered by the piston while the scavenging ports are
still closed. This is necessary because the cylinder gas is at a pressure
of about 40 lb. per sq. in when exhaust begins, and, if the scavenging
ports were open, the exhaust gas would blow into the scavenging air
receiver. During the short time before the piston uncovers the scavenging
ports, the gas pressure falls to atmosphere with the result that when the
scavenging ports are uncovered, scavenging air rushes into the cylinder
and blows the remainder of the burned gas out. The scavenging ports
are inclined upward to direct the air toward the top of the cylinder and
usually are positioned tangentially to give the air whirling motion.
A two-stroke diesel, however, is less thermally efficient than a
four-stroke and fuel consumption is higher. The life of a two-stroke
diesel tends to be shorter than that of a four-stroke model because of
the higher loads placed on the engine. What's more two-stroke diesels
tend to be far noisier in operation than four-stroke engines.
Crosshead and Trunk differences.
There are two variants of a two-stroke diesel engine: the trunk
type or the crosshead type. Trunk engines have a shorter stroke than a
crosshead and have the piston connected to the crankshaft by a simple
connecting rod. They will use a common lubricating oil for all aspects
of the engine and the oil will splash up to lubricate the liner. Trunk
two-strokes are rarely used these days as prime movers.
Crosshead engines have much longer strokes and in these engines,
a diaphragm plate separates the crankcase from the cylinder liner space
and the piston has a long rod passing through the plate using a stuffing
box that separates the upper cylinder lubricant from the system oil. The
23
piston rod is connected at the crosshead to the connecting rod attached
to the crankshaft. These are the engines that power the vast majority of
bulk carriers, container ships and general cargo vessels. There are also a
significant number of LNG carriers that have two-stroke diesel engines.
EXERCISES
Ex.1. Translate into Russian.
To complete a power cycle, compression occurs, upstroke (down
stroke) of the piston, during the latter part of the down stroke, up and
down movements to be made possible by substituting opposite sides
of the cylinder, in some designs, on the same side, less thermally
efficient, low pressure scavenging air receiver, the gas pressure
falls to the atmosphere, to be slightly higher, to be uncovered by
the piston, to be still closed, toward the top of the cylinder, with
the result that, to be inclined upward, to direct, to be positioned
tangentially, to be thermally efficient, fuel consumption, crosshead
diesel engine.
Ex.2. Give opposites to the following words.
Down stroke, intake, to disconnect, bottom, to cover, upper, to blow
in, advantage, partially, below, to increase, to start, usual, high,
necessary, fall, long,, upward, before, vast, efficient.
Ex.3. Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them
into Russian.
to rotate
___________
to operate
___________
to substitute
___________
to scavenge
___________
to start
___________
to compress
___________
to move
___________
to transform
___________
to revolve
___________
to locate
___________
to construct
___________
to connect
___________
24
to measure
___________
to increase
___________
to communicate ___________
to exhaust
___________
to recharge
___________
to complete
___________
Ex.4. Study and read the following noun chains, translate them into
Russian and use in sentences of your own.
Note: NOUN CHAIN (Цепочка существительных) – это вид
словосочетания, представляющий собой ряд трех или более
существительных, определяющих одно понятие. В таких словосочетаниях главное существительное, выполняющее непосредственно функцию существительного, стоит всегда в конце
цепочки, а все предшествующие слова, связанные с ним, являются определениями. В начале словосочетания, как правило,
стоит артикль или другой определитель.
Noun + Noun + Noun + Noun
Example
a power plant
a ship power plant
a ship power plant operation
a ship power plant operation survey
a ship power plant operation survey issues ( problems)
four-stroke diesel engine; diesel engine power output; low-speed
diesel engines; compression stroke beginning; combustion gases
temperature; scavenging air receiver; removable piston covering;
combustion-expansion stroke; upward piston movement; heat
stresses problem; piston rings smooth movement.
Ex.5. Translate into English using your active vocabulary.
1. Движение поршня от верхней мертвой точки до нижней мертвой точки называется ходом поршня.
2. Цикл четырехтактного дизельного двигателя состоит из впуска, сжатия, сгорания-расширения и выхлопа.
25
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Рабочий процесс двухтактного двигателя совершается за 2
хода поршня: хода поршня вверх и вниз.
Во время тактов впуска и сгорания поршень перемещается
вниз, а во время тактов сжатия и выпуска он перемещается
вверх.
В двухтактном двигателе мощность вырабатывается за один
оборот коленчатого вала, в четырехтактном двигателе мощность генерируется за два оборота коленчатого вала.
В двухтактном дизеле продувочные окна сообщаются с ресивером продувочного воздуха, а выпускные окна с выхлопным
коллектором.
Двухтактные двигатели тронкового типа редко применятся
сегодня в качестве главных двигателей.
Этот тип двигателя широко применяется на контейнеровозах,
балкерах и универсальных судах.
Ex.6. Make up questions to cover the main contents of the text.
Ex.7. Study the following information, be ready to make a
comparative analysis of two types of diesels in Russian.
2-STROKE ENGINE
1. It has one revolution of
crankshaft within one power
stroke.
2. Power is produced once
during 2 strokes of the piston.
3. A 2-stroke engine has ports
which makes its design simpler.
4-STROKE ENGINE
1. It has two revolutions of
crankshaft between one power
strokes.
2. Power is produced once every
4 strokes of the piston.
3. A 4-stroke engine design is
a bit complicated due to valve
mechanism.
4. 2-stroke engines require
4. A 4-stroke engine requires
lighter flywheel compare to other heavy flywheel because it
engines because it generates
generates unbalance force due to
more balanced force due to one two revolutions for one power
revolution for one power stroke. stroke.
26
5. In 2-stroke engine charge is
5. In 4-stroke engine charge is
partially burnt and mix with the fully burnt and does not mix with
burnt gases during inlet. It is due burnt charge in ideal condition.
to port mechanism.
6. More lubricating oil requires 6. Comparatively, less
because some oil burns with fuel. lubricating oil requires.
7. 2-stroke engines give less
7. 4-stroke engines give more
thermal efficiency.
thermal efficiency.
8. 2-stroke engines are less effi- 8. 4-stroke engines are more
cient and generate more smoke. efficient and generate less
smoke.
9. 2-stroke engines are compara- 9. 4-stroke engines are expensive
tively cheaper.
due to valve and lubrication
mechanism.
10. 2-stroke engines create more 10. 4-stroke engines are less
noise.
noisy.
11. 2-stroke engines are easy to 11. 4-stroke engines are
manufacture.
comparatively hard to
manufacture.
12. In 2-stroke engines due to
12. In 4-stroke engines less wear
poor lubrication more wear and and tear occurs.
tear occurs.
Ex.8. Act the dialogues.
Dialogue A
- Что Вы знаете о типах дизельных двигателей?
- Существуют четырехтактные и двухтактные двигатели.
- Что касается принципов действия, каковы они?
- Простого действия и двойного действия.
- А что насчет конструкции?
- Двигатели бывают крейцкопфными, тронковыми и с противоположно движущимися поршнями.
Dialogue B
- Во время такта сжатия все клапаны должны быть закрыты, не
так ли?
- Какие клапаны вы имеете в виду?
27
-
Воздушный впускной клапан, форсунку и выпускной клапан.
Да, естественно. Иначе не будет сжатия.
Каковы давление и температура сжатия?
Около 500 фунтов и около 1000 градусов по Фаренгейту, то
есть около 100 кг/кв.см и 500 градусов по Цельсию.
Топливо впрыскивается под давлением, не так ли?
Да, оно довольно высокое, 3550 фунтов на квадратный дюйм.
Во время горения температура газов растет?
Да, до 3000 градусов по Фаренгейту, то есть около 1500 градусов по Цельсию.
В конце такта (хода) расширения давление газов падает до
примерно 40 фунтов и они начинают выходить, не так ли?
Да, так. Таким образом, мы теперь видим полный цикл работы.
Ex.9. Describe the 2-stroke internal combustion engine and all the
processes occurring in it.
Ex.10. Diesel engine Quiz. Check yourself.
1. When was the diesel engine invented?
a) 1878
b) 1892
c) numa1902
2. The diesel engine was invented by…
a) scientists working for the German corporation Die Siel
Weltwirtschafts.
b) Rudolph Diesel
c) Otto von Diesel
3. What inspired Rudolf Diesel to invent a new kind of engine?
a) family
b) some global problems
c) efficiency
4. What's the first step in a diesel engine's combustion process?
a) fuel mixing
b) air compression
c) fuel injection
28
5. In some diesel engines both exhaust and intake processes happen
on the same piston stroke. These engines are known as ...
a) 2-stroke engines
b) 4-stroke engines
c) non-conforming engines
6. What ignites the diesel to create the 'bang' or 'power' stroke?
a) heat from friction
b) hot compressed air
c) spark plugs
7. The inlet valve and the exhaust valve at the top of the cylinder
open and close during the 4-stroke cycle. During the power stroke
are they ...
a) both open
b) both closed
c) exhaust open and inlet closed
8. Why does the engine need air?
a) for combustion, cooling the engine compartment and for
dispersing any noxious fumes
b) to allow the engineers to breathe in the engine room
c) to stop the engine corroding
9. After an engine oil/filter change why is it necessary to run the
engine?
a) to check if the engine runs smoothly
b) to check for oil leaks, and to allow the oil to be distributed
around the engine equally
c) to make sure it starts
10. What's biodiesel made from?
a) recycled plastics
b) petroleum
c) plant oils and fats
Did you know?
SMART engines
ABC’s medium speed engines are designed to be SMART. SMART
stands for Simple, Mechanical, Affordable, Reliable and Tailor-made.
They are user-friendly and deliver outstanding performance under
29
the toughest and most demanding conditions. ABC (Anglo Belgian
Corporation) engines are characterized by low fuel and lube oil
consumption, resulting in an exceptionally low lifecycle cost. Each
engine is customized to the specific requirements of the customer.
30
UNIT IV
DIESEL ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM
СИСТЕМА ОХЛАЖДЕНИЯ ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГАТЕЛЯ
Vocabulary
damage
properties
crack
to dispose of
burning fuel
combustion chamber
for convenience
put to uses
scavenging air
lubricating oil
exhaust manifold
crosshead guides
point of application
fresh water
cooling medium
circuit
cylinder jacket
thermostat
exhaust valve cage
exhaust manifold jacket
storage tank
the simplest arrangement
enclosed
leakage
scale
sediment
eliminate
ущерб
свойства
трещина
избавляться, ликвидировать
горящее топливо
камера сгорания
для удобства
применять, использовать
продувочный воздух
смазочное масло
коллектор отработавших газов, выхлопной коллектор
направляющие крейцкопфа
точка приложения; возможности
применения (здесь)
пресная вода
охлаждающая среда
контур (здесь)
рубашка цилиндра
термостат
корпус выпускного клапана
рубашка выхлопного коллектора
расходный танк (цистерна); сборный танк (цистерна)
простейшее устройство
замкнутый
утечка
накипь
осадок, отложения
исключать
31
A diesel engine works on the principle of internal combustion of
fuel oil. The pistons of the engine are driven by the controlled explosion
of the fuel-air mixture, and corresponding rapid increase in pressure
inside the cylinders.
A marine diesel engine is designed for non-stop operation. From
the time the ship departs from a port until it reaches another port, the
main engine has to run. This could last several months. The heat from
the combustion of fuel have to be taken away continuously otherwise
the metal components will become damaged. The material properties of
the engine parts can change when it reaches high temperatures. Thermal
stress can occur leading to cracks, deformation and weaknesses in the
material.
Continuous cooling of the engine is necessary. The temperatures
have to be maintained at an optimum level. They must not be too hot
or too cold.
The principle function of the cooling system is to dispose of heat
transferred to the metal surfaces adjacent to the combustion chamber.
It's also used to cool scavenging air, lubricating oil, exhaust gases,
crosshead guides, fresh water, oil and scavenging air.
All these points of application may be included in a single system.
There are three main cooling systems: enclosed fresh water system,
seawater cooling system and oil-cooling system.
The most
often used cooling system is an enclosed fresh water system. In this
case seawater is used for cooling fresh water, oil and scavenging air. An
enclosed cooling system means that there is a small tank on the top of
the engine that uses a combination of fresh water and coolant. This fresh
water is circulated through the engine and through a heat exchanger.
The fresh water, in this system, absorbs the heat of the engine.
The water that enters the bottom of each cylinder jacket flows
upward, passes into the cylinder head, then through the exhaust valve
cage and into a pipe leading to the exhaust gas manifold jacket and then
it is led to the thermostat. The latter delivers part of the water to the
cooler and the rest of it to the circulating pump to be recirculated. In
case the temperature of the cooling water rises, the thermostat directs
greater part of the water to the cooler and lesser part is to be recirculated.
32
All-salt water method is the simplest arrangement, as it results
in fewer pumps and eliminates water coolers and storage tanks. The
use of fresh water method reduces troubles due to scale, sediment and
corrosion.
Oil-cooling method is used for cooling pistons, which eliminates
troubles due to leakage of water into the lubricating oil, but causes
smaller temperature difference between the inner and outer walls of the
piston. In some cases the pistons are cooled with fresh water. Seawater
is used for cooling the coolers, through which the fresh water and oil
are passed after leaving the engine.
EXERCISES
Ex.1. Read, translate and remember.
cooling system, principal function, to dispose of heat, burning
fuel, combustion chamber, scavenging air, lubricating oil, exhaust
manifold, crosshead guides, points of application, single system,
fresh water, cooling medium, enclosed fresh water system, cylinder
jacket, cylinder head, exhaust valve cage, exhaust jacket, temperature
rise, circulating pump, salt-water method, simplest arrangement,
storage tanks, to reduce the troubles, inner walls, outer piston walls.
Ex.2. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the cooling system designed to do?
2. Which parts of the diesel engine require cooling ?
3. Why is cooling necessary ?
4. How many types of cooling systems can be found on board?
5. Why is salt water cooling method considered to be the simplest
arrangement?
6. Why do we not use seawater for direct cooling?
7. What method eliminates troubles due to sediment, scale and
corrosion?
8. What does an enclosed cooling system mean?
9. What is the main advantage of the central cooling system?
10. When is oil-cooling method applied?
33
Ex.3.Match the opposites and translate them into Russian.
1. heater
1. fresh water
2. impossible
2. below
3. to reduce
3. different
4. equal
4. complex
5. salt water
5. possible
6. over
6. to exceed
7. efficiency
7. below
8. simple
8. cooler
Ex.4. Read, study and translate.
VERB STUDY
TO PROVIDE (снабжать, обеспечивать, предоставлять)
1. Thermostatic valves are provided to regulate the flow of either
the fresh water or the seawater.
2. To reduce the corrosive action and inhibit the formation of scale
deposits in the system is usual to provide some form of water
treatment.
3. In order to compensate for air which may become dissolved in the
water and released when heated, an open tank is provided at the
height above the highest point of the system.
The verb “to provide” may be equivalent to the following verbs:
to fit, to mount, to build in, to install, to supply, e.g.:
1. There are thermostatic valves to regulate the flow of either the sea
or the fresh water.
2. Thermostatic valves are fitted (supplied, mounted, placed, installed,
built in) to regulate the flow of either the fresh or the seawater.
Ex.5. Rearrange these sentences using the verb “provide”. Make
all necessary changes. Mind Passive model.
Example: There are doors on the cylinder casing, through which the
water spaces may be cleaned and inspected when overhauling the
engine.
Doors are provided on the cylinder casing, through which the water
spaces may be cleaned and inspected when overhauling the engine.
34
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
These manufacturers supply the piston rings which can be run in
quickly.
Modern medium-speed engines are turbocharged.
There is a control bore in the cylinder cover to enable possible gas
leakage to be detected between the two parts of the cover.
The new maintenance system ensures higher reliability and lower
costs.
On most engines sea water and fresh water pumps are fitted.
In the cylinder head there is an indicator for measuring the cylinder
pressure.
Did you know?
Overcooling causes just as much damage to an engine as
overheating. Overcooling most commonly occurs when the coolant
bypasses a defective water temperature regulator and flows directly
to the radiator preventing the engine from reaching normal operating
temperature.
35
UNIT V
DIESEL ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM
СМАЗОЧНАЯ СИСТЕМА ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГАТЕЛЯ
Vocabulary
to ensure
to maintain
film
tight seal
wear
surface
to remove
lubricating oil failure stop gear
service tank
drain tank
splash lubrication
drilling
groove
store
circulatory
branch
sump
crankpin
wristpin
crosshead bearing
scraper rings
black oil
обеспечить
поддерживать
пленка
герметичное уплотнение
износ
поверхность
удалить, снять
стоп редуктор смазочного масла
расходный резервуар
сливной бак
смазка разбрызгиванием (погружением)
отверстие
паз
хранить(ся)
циркулирующий
ответвление
поддон (картера)
палец кривошипа
цапфа
крейцкопфный подшипник
маслосъемные кольца
мазут
Lubrication is essential for any kind of machinery onboard ships.
Its main function is to ensure the formation of an oil film between the
moving parts to reduce friction and wear and thus prolong their service
life. The lubricating oil is also used to create gas tight seal between the
piston rings and cylinder wall, to keep surfaces clean and to remove heat.
Lubricating system comprises lubricating oil cooler, lubricating
oil filter, lubricating oil pumps and drives, lubricating oil failure stop
gear, cylinder lubricating oil service tank and lubricating oil drain tank.
36
The oil is used for the lubrication of most vital engine components:
cylinders and bearings.
Cylinder lubrication
Its principal purpose is to maintain a film of oil between the piston
rings and the liner and also so that any acid produced by combustion
of the fuel is neutralized by the oil and does not cause corrosion. Some
of this lubrication will be supplied by so called "splash lubrication"
which is the oil splashed up into the liner by the rotating crankshaft.
However, larger medium speed marine diesel engines also use separate
pumps to supply oil under pressure to the cylinder liner. The oil is led
through drillings onto the liner surface where grooves distribute it
circumferentially around the liner, and the piston rings spread it up and
down the surface of the liner.
In 4-stroke engines there are different ways for lubricating the
cylinder liners, depending on the size and type of the engine:
–– splash from the revolving crankshaft
–– inner lubrication where the oil is supplied from the piston side
In 4-stroke engines, the lubricating oil is the same as the system
oil used for example in bearing lubrication. Most of 2-stroke crosshead
engines are fitted with an independent system just for cylinder and piston
lubrication. These systems use separate oil pumps to supply pressurized
oil to the liner. The cylinder oil is stored in tanks and transferred daily to
a small capacity tank by gravity from which it will pass to the cylinder
lubrication system.
Bearing lubrication
Bearing lubrication is effected by means of a circulatory system
through which a large amount of oil under pressure is forced through
the bearings. In general, the system is made up of a sump or reservoir,
from which a circulating pump draws the oil and discharges it through
the coolers and filters to a manifold which has a branch to each main
bearing. Some oil flows out of the ends of the main bearings, while the
rest of it passes through an axial hole in the crankshaft to the crankpin
bearings. Here more oil is lost out of the end of the bearings and the rest
passes up through axial holes in the connecting rods to the wristpin or
crosshead bearings. From here all the oil may be discharged from the
bearings into the crankpin or a portion may be passed through pipes to
37
the interior of the pistons and thence to the crankpin or sump. From the
crankpin or sump the oil returns to the pump for recirculation.
In large engines the cylinders are usually separated from the
crankcase in such a way that no black oil and none of the crankcase
oil can be carried up into the cylinders and burned. In smaller engines,
with the lower ends of the cylinders opening into the crankcase, scraper
rings in the piston or the liner must be used to prevent these things
from happening.
Lube Oil System Monitoring
Typically, the pressures and temperatures of the fluids in the
lubrication system will be monitored and displayed on the engine
control panel. A few other items in the lube oil system may also be
monitored, as follows:
1. Crankcase pressure (vacuum). Because the oil is contained
in the crankcase of the engine, monitoring that space may indicate a
problem in the engine.
2. Main bearings may also be monitored for temperature.
EXERCISES
Ex.1. Form verbs from the following words and translate them
into Russian.
lubrication, cooler, motion, circulation, opening, provision,
connection, heater, production, monitoring, rotation, moving,
combustion, indicator, mixture, blower, leakage, arrangement,
attendance, repetition, passage, resistance, production, atomization,
maintenance.
Ex.2. Give opposites to the following.
down, cooler, individual, inconvenient, inside, separately, increase,
high-speed
Ex.3. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying
attention to the Absolute Participial construction.
NOTE: Absolute Participial Construction выполняет в предложении функцию сложного обстоятельства и как правило переводится придаточным предложением того типа, которому соответ38
ствует определенное обстоятельство. Это может быть придаточное предложение времени (с союзами – когда, после того как),
причины (с союзами – так как, поскольку), условия (с союзом
если).Она также может переводиться и самостоятельным предложением с союзами: и, а, в то время как, причем.
1. In the case of oil cooling the lubricating oil is used, a common
arrangement being to provide a passage way in the center of
the pin.
2. The working pistons are lubricated by forced-feed mechanical
lubricators, the oil being injected when the pistons are at the
bottom of their travel.
3. In large engines the journal bearings, crankpins, cross-heads, and
camshaft bearings are lubricated by the main lubricating oil supply,
the oil being circulated under pressure from the sump by a
motor-driven lubricating oil pump.
4. In some designs the cooling water is passed from the jacket space
in the cylinder head through cored passages in the heavy top
flange of the cylinder, a hole being located between each pair
of cylinder studs.
5. When cylinders and frames are cast separately the frames may be
placed in the same planes as the center through the cylinders, each
frame straddling a crank, or located so that each one straddles a
main bearing the cranks being located between adjacent frames.
6. In the case of the two-cycle engine the air-inlet and exhaust valves
are eliminated, and their place is taken by the scavenging and
exhaust ports, with the piston acting as a valve to control the
opening and closing of these ports.
7. In the two-cycle engine compression occurs on the first
upstroke, combustion and expansion occur during the down stroke,
with exhaust, scavenging and recharging with air occurring during
the latter part of the down stroke and the beginning of the next
succeeding upstroke.
Ex.4. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the main function of lubrication?
2. What else is lubricant used for?
3. 3. What arrangements does the engine lubricating system comprise?
39
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
What are the main lubricating points inside the engine ?
What is the purpose of cylinder lubrication?
How are cylinder liners usually lubricated?
How does bearing lubrication system work?
What parameters should you pay attention to when monitoring the
lubrication oil system?
Ex.5. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Смазочное масло используется для создания герметичного
уплотнения между поршневыми кольцами и стенкой цилиндра.
2. Процесс смазки двигателя необходим для снижения трения
между движущимися частями и удаления тепла.
3. Существуют различные способы смазки частей двигателя
внутреннего сгорания.
4. Масло, используемое для смазки цилиндров должно применяться в небольшом количестве.
5. Масляная циркуляционная система служит для смазки подшипников.
6. Наиболее совершенной является смазка под давлением.
7. За состоянием смазочной системы можно следить на панели
управления двигателем.
Ex.6. State what equipment is used to:
–– control and measure the oil pressure
–– control and measure the oil temperature
–– keep oil clean
–– provide the oil supply to the system
Did you know?
Cylinder lubrication is particularly difficult due to the high
temperatures encountered. This problem is more difficult in twostroke engines than in four-stroke engines as, in the former, there is
no nonworking stroke during which it is easier to form an oil film on
the cylinder walls. Pressure-charged two-stroke engines are the most
difficult of all to lubricate satisfactorily. The problem is aggravated
in engines operating on residual fuel due to the high sulphur content
increasing corrosive wear.
40
UNIT VI
CONVERSATIONAL TOPICS
РАЗГОВОРНЫЕ ТЕМЫ
1. MY SPECIALTY
МОЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЬ
Vocabulary
aim
ship mechanical faculty
to provide with
to solve
field
training field
to include
industrial training
special attention
to devote (to)
fuel system
cooling system
lubricating system
engine arrangement
ship-board training
to last
to keep watch
to repair
damage
junior students
senior students
undergraduates
graduates
graduation paper
to comprise
workshop
at one's disposal
auxiliary mechanism
цель
судомеханический факультет
обеспечить
решать
область, отрасль
направление подготовки
включать
производственная практика
особое внимание
уделять
топливная система
система охлаждения
система смазки
устройство двигателя
плавательская практика
длиться
стоять на вахте
ремонтировать
повреждение
студенты младших курсов
студенты старших курсов
студенты последнего курса
выпускники
диплом
включать в себя
мастерская
в чём-то распоряжении
вспомогательный механизм
41
to obtain
skills
enterprise
experience
получать
мастерство, навыки
предприятие
опыт
The principal aim of the ship mechanical faculty is to train
certificated specialists in the following fields:
1) Shipbuilding
2) Ship power plants
3) Technical maintenance of ship and ship equipment
4) Maintenance of ship power plants
Our specialty is maintenance of ship power plants.
Students of the conventional training field "Maintenance of ship
power plants" study 5,5 years and get a diploma of a specialist. Three
other fields train bachelors. The graduates of the faculty get the specialty
of a mechanical engineer.
The educational course includes both technical and social
sciences. Junior students study higher mathematics, physics, chemistry,
descriptive geometry, strength of materials. Students also have the
humanities: history of Russia, philosophy, foreign languages, etc.
Senior students study many special subjects such as theory of ship
arrangement, details of machines, theory of machines and mechanisms,
ship internal combustion engines and others. Special attention is paid to
studying fuel system, cooling and lubricating systems. Students study
engine arrangement and types of engines. Besides, they study turbine
arrangement, boilers and pumps. Students write term-papers on internal
combustion engine, propulsion machinery, auxiliary mechanisms and
devices.
To acquire professional skills and sea-going experience students
of our specialty have different types of training at the end of each year.
The total duration of practical training within a course of education
shall be one year. Students have industrial training at different plants
and enterprises, shipboard training on river and sea ships. Students keep
watch, do work as motormen, help to repair damages of an engine, study
ship's documents and make entries into the engine log-book.
42
The ship mechanical faculty comprises several chairs: such as ship
internal combustion engines chair, ship building chair, ship repairing
chair, technology of metals chair and others. There are some mechanical
workshops, labs of internal combustion engines, labs of auxiliary
mechanisms, a metal-cutting lab at the disposal of students. Theoretical
training during the educational process is necessarily supported by a
unique simulator training.
After successful completion of training, graduates of our specialty
together with a diploma of higher education, receive a package of
documents with which they have the opportunity to find job in almost
any shipping company in the world.
Answer the following questions:
1. What University do you study at?
2. What's the name of your faculty?
3. What's the aim of teaching at the faculty?
4. What subjects do junior and senior students study?
5. What specialty do the graduates from the ship mechanical faculty
get?
6. What special subjects are the students taught?
7. Why is special attention devoted to studying cooling, fuel,
lubricating systems?
8. What kind of training do the students of the faculty have?
9. Where do the students of the faculty have practical training?
10. What do the students do during this training?
11. What chairs does your faculty comprise?
12. What makes a graduate of your specialty unique?
Did you know?
Personal requirements for marine engineers.
Marine engineers need to be:
–– responsible
–– practical, methodical and adaptable
–– accurate, with an eye for detail
–– excellent problem-solvers
–– confident decision-makers who remain calm in emergencies
–– good communicators
–– good at math and physics.
43
Marine chief engineer duties.
Marine chief engineers are responsible for the entire technical
operations of the vessel including engineering, electrical, and mechanical
divisions. They are the head of the entire engine department aboard the
ship. They have overall responsibility for all technical operations and
equipment on-board the ship. Marine chief engineers collaborate on
security, survival and health care on board, observe the national and
international standards of application.
2. TURBINES
ТУРБИНЫ
Vocabulary
turbine
steam turbine
gas turbine
impulse turbine
impulse-reaction turbine
single-cylinder turbine
compound turbine
tandem-compound turbine
cross-compound
condensing turbine
2-casing unit
low pressure turbine
intermediate pressure turbine
high pressure turbine
axial turbine
radial turbine
H.P. turbine
L.P. turbine
constant-pressure turbine
constant-volume turbine
device
arrangement
турбина
паровая турбина
газовая турбина
активная турбина
активно- реактивная турбина
однокорпусная турбина
составная турбина
одновальная турбина
двух-вальная турбина
конденсационная турбина
двух-корпусный агрегат
турбина низкого давления
турбина среднего давления
турбина высокого давления
осевая турбина
радиальная турбина
турбина высокого давления
турбина низкого давления
турбина с постоянным давлением
сгорания
турбина с постоянным объёмом
сгорания
механизм, устройство
приспособление, устройство
44
converting
steam jet
heat engine
rotor
moving blades
casing
to revolve
stationary nozzles
to expand
gland
bearing
shaft
throttle valve
governor
pressure drop
to impinge
to cause
rotation
to constitute
drive
to increase
to decrease
diaphragm
successive stage
cast iron
cast integral
plate steel
cast steel
to weld
nozzle
orifice
corrosion-resisting alloy
alloy
cross-section
solid section
partition
преобразование
паровая струя
тепловой двигатель
ротор
движущиеся рабочие лопатки
корпус
вращаться
направляющие сопла
расширяться
уплотнение
подшипник
вал
дроссельный клапан
регулятор
перепад давления
ударяться
вызывать
вращение
составлять
привод
увеличивать
уменьшать
перегородка
последовательная ступень
чугун
цельнолитой
толстолистовая сталь
литая сталь
сваривать
сопло
отверстие
коррозийно-стойкий сплав
сплав
поперечное сечение
сплошная секция
перегородка
45
convergent
divergent
steel forging
solid forging
built-up rotor
journal
groove
gland strip
blading
gas turbine power plant
compressor
combustion chamber
intercooler
re-heater
axial-flow
turbo compressor
radial-flow or centrifugal
compressor
positive displacement
compressor
overall thermal efficiency
to withstand
peculiarities
to accommodate
thermal expansion
velocity
ahead turbine
astern turbine
суживающийся
расширяющийся
стальная поковка
цельнокованый
составной ротор
шейка вала
паз
уплотнительное кольцо
комплект лопаток
газотурбинная силовая установка
компрессор
камера сгорания
промежуточный охладитель
нагреватель
аксиально-проточный
турбокомпрессор
радиальный или центробежный
компрессор
поршневой компрессор
общий тепловой КПД
выдерживать
особенности
учитывать (здесь)
тепловое расширение
скорость
турбина переднего хода
турбина заднего хода
The turbine is a heat engine consisting of a rotor carrying moving
blades, a casing in which the rotor revolves, and stationary nozzles
through which the steam is expanded or directed. Glands, bearings,
throttle valve, governor and other devices are necessary for operation
of the unit.
There are two kinds of turbines: steam turbines and gas turbines.
The steam turbine consists of two principal elements:
46
1) nozzles, a device for converting some thermal energy of the
steam into kinetic energy
2) moving blades, an arrangement for converting the kinetic
energy of the steam into shaft work.
Steam turbines may be classified as impulse turbines and reaction
turbines.
In the impulse turbine the steam expands only through stationary
nozzles, dropping in pressure and increasing in velocity. The steam then
impinges against the moving blades causing rotation and mechanical
work.
In the reaction turbine the stationary nozzles have the same
appearance as the moving blades. The steam drops in pressure and at
the same time expands while passing through both the stationary nozzles
and the moving blades.
Turbines are classed also as:
1) high
2) intermediate
3) low pressure
There may be single-cylinder and compound turbines. Singlecylinder indicates that the unit consists of one turbine contained in one
casing. A compound unit consists of two or more individual turbines.
Compound turbines are further classified as
1) tandem-compound
2) cross-compound
In the tandem- compound unit all the individual turbines are
mounted upon a common shaft. In the cross- compound unit each
turbine has a separate shaft. According to the direction of steam flow
the turbines are axial-flow and radial-flow. They may be condensing
and non-condensing as well. The condensing turbine exhausts their
steam to a condenser which maintains back pressure, while the noncondensing unit usually exhausts its steam to another device where it
is used for heating.
Gas turbines work on exactly the same thermodynamic cycle as an
ordinary Diesel engine: they draw in air from the atmosphere, compress
47
it, heat the compressed air by the direct burning of fuel in it and then
make the air perform work.
The units which make up a complete gas turbine power plant are:
the compressor, combustion chamber, intercooler, re-heater, gas turbine
itself. The installation includes an electric motor, which serves to start
the turbine and the computer.
EXERCISES
Ex.1. Suggest English equivalents for the following and memorize
them.
тепловой двигатель, движущиеся лопатки, ротор, корпус, неподвижные сопла, подшипник, дроссельный клапан, уплотнение,
регулятор, механизм, установка, активная турбина, реактивная
турбина, паровая турбина, газовая турбина, преобразование тепловой энергии пара в кинетическую энергию, преобразование
кинетической энергии пара в работу вала, расширяться, падение
давления, увеличение скорости, ударяться о лопатки, вращение,
однокорпусная турбина, составная турбина, одновальная и двухвальная турбина, осевая турбина, радиальная турбина, конденсатор, сжатый воздух, газотурбинная силовая установка, компрессор, камера сгорания, промежуточный охладитель, нагреватель,
электродвигатель.
Ex.2. Answer the questions.
1. What is a steam turbine?
2. What are the principle elements of a steam turbine?
3. What function do they perform?
4. What basic types of steam turbines do you know?
5. What is the difference between an impulse turbine and a reaction
one?
6. Can you speak on classification of turbines as to the a) pressure,
b) steam flow?
7. What units does the gas turbine power plant consists of?
8. What cycle does it work on?
48
Ex.3. Choose the right definition to the terms in the scheme.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A part of a turbine carrying moving blades
A device through which the steam is expanded or directed
An arrangement for converting the kinetic energy of the steam
into shaft work.
A turbine consisting of two or more individual turbines.
Each turbine has a separate shaft inside this unit.
Steam expands only through stationary nozzles in this type of
steam turbines.
This type of turbine exhausts their steam to a condenser.
They work on exactly the same thermodynamic cycle as an ordinary
Diesel engine.
Ex.4. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Паровые турбины служат для превращения тепловой энергии
пара в механическую работу.
2. В соплах потенциальная энергия пара преобразуется в кинетическую.
3. Пар поступает в сопла, где расширяется.
49
4.
5.
6.
7.
Во время этого расширения пар приобретает значительную
скорость.
В активных турбинах расширение пара происходит только в
соплах.
В реактивных турбинах пар расширяется как на неподвижных,
так и рабочих лопатках.
Простейшая газотурбинная установка состоит из компрессора,
камеры сгорания, промежуточного охладителя, нагревателя и
турбины.
Ex.5. Act the dialogues.
1.
2.
–– Do you know where the steam expands in impulse turbine?
–– Yes, I do. In the stationary nozzles.
–– And what about pressure and velocity?
–– The pressure decreases and velocity increases. I’ve seen it in
the diagram.
–– Is there any expansion in the moving blades?
–– No, never. There is no expansion there, only in the nozzles. In
the moving blades the pressure is constant.
–– I see. I have to remember it.
–– Can you explain the difference, between the impulse and
reaction turbine?
–– Yes, sure. The main difference is in construction. Let me show
it to you on the figure.
–– I see only the blades here. Stationary and moving ones.
–– Right you are, and both act as nozzles. That means that there
are two expansions.
–– Let us see them on the diagram.
–– The lines show that the pressure drops in every step and velocity
pulses.
–– Thanks a lot.
50
3.
–– What’s the propulsion of your ship?
–– A set of cross- compound turbines.
–– What type of gear is used there?
–– It’s a double- reduction year.
–– What S.H.P. do the turbines develop?
–– 26.500 at 109 rpm.
–– I think steam conditions are high, aren’t they?
–– Rather. 590 lb/in2 505°C.
–– I see. Thank you.
Ex.6. Complete the dialogues.
1.
A - ..................................................................................................... ?
B - Rotor, casing, moving blades and stationary nozzles.
A - ..................................................................................................... ?
B - In nozzles.
A - ..................................................................................................... ?
B - The kinetic energy of the steam is converted into shaft work.
2.
A - What are the main types of steam turbines?
B - ...................................................................... .
A - Do you know what’s the difference between them?
B - Sure, ........................................................................ .
3.
A - ........................................................................................................
..............?
B - They work on the same thermodynamic cycle as an ordinary Diesel
engine.
A - Can you tell me about other units of a gas turbine power plant?
B - I think, I don’t remember them all, but I’ll try. ....................................
................................................................................................................ .
Ex.6. Get ready to speak on turbines.
51
UNIT VII
TEXTS FOR READING, TRANSLATING AND RENDERING
ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ,ПЕРЕВОДА И
АННОТИРОВАНИЯ И РЕФЕРИРОВАНИЯ
ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЕ РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ ПО НАПИСАНИЮ
АННОТАЦИЙ И РЕФЕРАТОВ
Аннотирование и реферирование являются важнейшими
формами обработки источников информации и отличаются друг
от друга прежде всего глубиной и степенью полноты отражения
информации, а также и средством обучения иностранному языку
в техническом вузе.
АННОТИРОВАНИЕ - подготовительная база для обучения
реферированию. Целесообразно начинать обучение именно с аннотирования. При аннотировании происходит восприятие отдельных
слов, словосочетаний, фрагментов предложений или отрывков
текстов, обобщение разрозненных сведений в одно целое и фиксирование обобщенной информации в форме краткой справки об
аннотируемом произведении; т.е. сущность аннотирования состоит
в том, чтобы понять в общих чертах содержание произведения,
обобщить 2-3 основных положения и оформить полученные сведения в краткую справку об этом произведении - аннотацию (5-8
предложений).
Процесс аннотирования включает ряд последовательных
этапов работы:
1. Просмотровое чтение всего текста с целью получения общего
представления о содержании аннотируемой работы;
2. Просмотр графических изображений и таблиц с целью уточнения понятого при чтении;
3. Выделение основных положений;
4. Обобщение полученных сведений в связный текст;
5. Фиксирование обобщённой информации в форме аннотации.
К написанию аннотации предъявляются определённые требования, из которых наиболее характерным является лаконичность.
Однако, в текст аннотации целесообразно вставлять дополнитель52
ные слова, например «подробно излагается», «кратко рассматривается», «проблема решена путём», «особое внимание уделено»,
«автор приходит к выводу», и т.д. При обучении написанию аннотаций можно проделать следующие упражнения:
1. Краткое изложение основных положений несложной по содержанию статьи или отрывка;
2. Сокращение статьи без искажения её содержания;
3. Составление плана к статье и передача содержания статьи по
плану;
4. Деление статьи на смысловые части и их озаглавливание;
5. Ответы на вопросы, предложенные на языке;
6. Суммирование информации рисунков, таблиц.
Последовательность изложения материала в аннотации всегда
должна быть следующей:
1. Предметная рубрика. В этом пункте называется область или
раздел знания, к которому относится аннотируемый источник.
2. Тема. Обычно тема определяется наименованием источника,
но может формулироваться и самим референтом.
3. Выходные данные источника. В этой рубрике записывается
на иностранном языке автор, заглавие, журнал, издательство,
место и время издания. Затем эти данные даются в переводе на русский язык. Эта рубрика позволяет легко найти сам
первоисточник.
4. Сжатая характеристика материала. Здесь последовательно
перечисляются все затронутые в первоисточнике вопросы, а
также излагается основной вывод автора материала по всей
теме и по основным её вопросам.
5. Критическая оценка первоисточника. Референт не всегда
может дать критическую оценку, но наличие такой рубрики
желательно. Обычно референт излагает свою точку зрения на
актуальность материала, указывает, на кого рассчитан данный
материал, какой круг читателей он может заинтересовать.
53
The plan for
rendering the text
1. The title of the
article.
2. The author
of the article,
where and when
the article was
published.
3. The main idea
of the article.
Some expressions to Translation
be used while
rendering the text
The article is under the Статья под заголовtitle...
ком...
The text is headed...
Текст озаглавлен...
Автор статьи...
The author of the
article is.
The article is written Статья написана...
by...
It is (was) published
опубликована...
in...
It is (was) printed in... напечатана...
The main idea of the Основная мысль
статьи...
article is...
The article is about... Статья о...
The article is devoted Статья посвящена...
to...
В статье рассматриThe article deals
вается ...
with...
Статья рассматриваThe article touches
ет...
upon ...
Цель статьи состоит
The purpose of the
в том, чтобы сообarticle is to give
щить читателю...
the reader some
information on ...
The aim of the article Цель статьи заклюis to provide the reader чается в том, чтобы
предоставить читаwith some material
телю...
(data) on ...
54
4. The contents of
the article. Some
facts, names,
figures.
А) Автор пишет, соA) The author
общает...
writes, states...
believes... considers... полагает... считает...
explains.. .points out... объясняет.. указывает...
обсуждает...
discusses...
сравнивает...
compares...
подчеркивает...
emphasizes...
В) В статье описываB) The article
ется...
describes...
С) Согласно тексту...
C) According to the
В дальнейшем автор
text...
сообщает...
Further the author
Дальше в статье
reports (says)...
The article goes on to говорится...
say that..
D) В заключение...
D) In conclusion...
Автор приходит к
The author comes to
the conclusion that... выводу, что...
5. Your opinion of I found the article
Я считаю статью
the article.
interesting, important, интересной, важной,
of no value, too hard не представляющей
to understand.
ценности, слишком
трудной для понимания.
The problem
Проблема (вопрос)
(question, issue) is
-спорная, актуальdisputable...actual...
ная... Вопрос - наThe problem is vital
сущный...
(urgent, burning)...
The article is
Статья предназнаaddressed to the
чена для широкого
general reader.
круга читателей.
55
РЕФЕРИРОВАНИЕ - выделение наиболее существенной
информации и представление её в виде краткого связного текста
с критической оценкой прочитанного. Реферат во многих случаях
может заменить сам первоисточник.
Основными требованиями, предъявляемыми к реферату, являются:
1. Объективность;
2. Полнота изложения;
3. Единство формы;
4. Объём (2000 печатных знаков независимо от объёма работы).
Целесообразно обучать реферированию на материале переведённых статей. Реферат не является сокращённым переводом
текста. Позже, с приобретением известных навыков, можно предлагать и непереведенные статьи. Тексты для реферирования должны быть конкретные, интересные по содержанию, с элементами
новизны. На начальном этапе рекомендуется делать реферат на
русском языке. Рекомендуются следующие виды упражнений при
переходе к процессу реферирования:
1. Постановка поисковых задач;
2. Деление текста на смысловые отрезки;
3. Озаглавливание каждого отрывка;
4. Устный перевод отдельных абзацев;
5. Составление перечня проблем, затронутых в тексте;
6. Сокращение сложных предложений;
7. Сокращение (выброс) информации, не относящейся к теме;
8. Прочитать текст и найти ответы на вопросы;
9. Выделить главную идею, суть;
10. Рассказать на русском языке, о чем идет речь;
11. Выделить новизну, ценность, полезность информации.
Всякий реферат имеет единую структуру. Синтаксис реферата
однообразен. В тексте преобладают простые предложения (неопределённо-личные, безличные). Для связанности изложения
используются специфичные выражения, типа: «установили, отмечено, рассматриваются, указывается, вызывает интерес», а также
специальные языковые клише: «статья посвящена, автор считает,
целью статьи является, первая глава описывает» и т.д.
56
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Этапы написания реферата:
Прежде чем начать реферировать, необходимо прочесть весь
материал, досконально понять все нюансы его содержания.
Референт приступает к составлению подробного плана всего первоисточника. Весь материал разбивается на разделы,
подразделы и пункты.(Часто сам источник имеет такую разбивку). Желательно все пункты такого плана формулировать
назывными предложениями, оставляя после каждого пункта
свободное место для последующего формулирования главной
мысли этого раздела.
После составления плана первоисточника референт выделяет
главную мысль каждого раздела и важнейшие доказательства,
подкрепляющие эту мысль. Они записываются одним-двумя
краткими предложениями. Необходимо полностью отвлечься
от языка оригинала, выделить главную мысль и суметь кратко
сформулировать её.
Завершив обработку всех пунктов плана, необходимо сформулировать главную мысль всего первоисточника, если это
не сделано самим автором.
Составить текст реферата, начав с его формальной части, т.е.
с предметной рубрики, темы и выходных данных, после чего
записать формулировку главной мысли всего первоисточника
и последовательно все формулировки по каждому из пунктов
плана.
Завершить реферат кратким комментарием по такой схеме: а)
актуальность всего материала; б) на кого материал рассчитан.
Составив полный текст реферата, его следует весь прочитать
и, если необходимо, стилистически отшлифовать, стремясь
увязать отдельные пункты реферата в единый связный текст.
Text 1. FROM THE STEAM ENGINE TO THE DIESEL
Development of the internal combustion engine of which the Diesel
constitutes a particular type began in the second half of the 19th century.
The first Diesel engine was built in Germany in 1897 under the
direction of Rudolf Diesel himself. But it was only after the First World
war that this engine truly left the experimental stage thanks to the
availability of a mechanical fuel injection system.
57
The first Diesel locomotive appeared in the USA in 1925. Then
beginning in the 1930, railcars engines were put into service in Europe.
In the USA Diesels began to be put into general use in the form of
medium- power locomotives in 1942 during the Second World War.
Their use expanded rapidly in the following years.
From 1950, introduction of powerful Diesel engines made it
possible for Diesel locomotives to equal the performance of the
electrically powered engines. First the French Railways were equipped
with a high number of Diesel engines, but then the density of the rail
network and of rail traffic made electrification the preferable choice and
it was only for marine industrial and trucking application that Diesels
enjoyed extensive development.
Text 2. THE TRANSFORMATION OF POTENTIAL ENERGY
INTO MECHANICAL WORK
The principle of all engines consists in transforming the potential
energy of a fuel into mechanical energy, first it is necessary to produce
heat, which is then transformed into work.
In almost all current applications, the production of heat is obtained
by means of the chemical reaction of oxidation occurring between a
hydrocarbon (or other fuel) and an oxidizer which supplies oxygen. The
oxidizer is most often air which contains one-fifth oxygen by volume.
The products of combustion are:
–– Carbon dioxide
–– Water, if the fuel burnt contains hydrogen
–– A great deal of heat, which raises the temperature of the gases
produced, causing them to expand.
The reaction always occurs between gases. If the fuel is not in
gaseous form, it is necessary to make it gaseous. If after combustion
of all the fuel there is oxygen left over, there is, as one says, an excess
of air, meaning the fuel was poor in fuel. If on the other hand, there is
unburned fuel remaining and no oxygen, the mixture is said to be too
rich.
The expansion of the gases heated by combustion produces "work"
or mechanical energy.
58
Text 3. WHO INVENTED THE DIESEL ENGINE?
Not surprisingly, it was German engineer Rudolf Diesel (1858–
1913). Here, briefly, is the story:
–– 1861: French engineer Alphonse Beau de Rochas (1815–1893)
outlines the basic theory of the four-stroke engine and files a
patent for the idea on February 16, 1862, but he fails to put
together a working machine.
–– 1876: German engineer Nikolaus Otto (1832–1891) builds the
first, successful, four-stroke internal combustion engine.
–– 1878: Scotsman Dugald Clerk (1854–1932) develops the twostroke engine.
–– 1 8 8 0 : A g e d 2 2 , R u d o l f D i e s e l g o e s t o w o r k
for refrigerator engineer Carl von Linde (1842–1934), where he
learns about thermodynamics (the science of how heat moves)
and how engines work.
–– 1890: Diesel figures out how to make an improved internal
combustion engine using higher pressures and temperatures,
which doesn't need a sparking plug.
–– 1892: Diesel begins patenting his ideas to prevent others from
profiting by them.
–– 1893: Diesel builds a huge, stationary engine that works for one
entire minute, under its own power, on February 17.
–– 1895: Diesel's engine patent is granted in the United States on
July 16.
–– 1898: With Diesel's help, the first commercial engine is built
in a factory in St Louis, Missouri, United States by Adolphus
Busch (1839–1913), brewer of Budweiser beer.
–– 1899: Manufacture of diesel engines begins at Diesel's plant in
Augsburg. Diesel begins licensing his ideas to other firms and
soon becomes very wealthy.
–– 1903: Petit Pierre, one of the first diesel ships, begins working
on the Marne-Rhine canal in France.
–– 1912: MS Selandia, the first ocean-going diesel ship, makes
its maiden voyage.
–– 1913: Diesel dies in mysterious circumstances, apparently
falling overboard from the ship Dresden while traveling from
59
London, England to Germany. Rumors circulate that he has been
murdered or committed suicide, but nothing is ever proved.
–– 1931: Clessie Cummins, founder of the Cummins Engine
Co., builds one of the first successful diesel-engine cars and
demonstrates its efficiency by driving it from Indianapolis to
New York City on just $1.39 of fuel.
–– 1931: Caterpillar revolutionizes agriculture by introducing the
Diesel Sixty, its first diesel-powered crawler tractor, based on
the popular Caterpillar Sixty.
–– 1936: Mercedes introduces the 260D, one of the first massproduced diesel-engined passenger cars, and it remains in
production until 1940. Over the next four decades, Mercedes
sells nearly two million diesel-powered cars.
–– 1939: General Motors unveils its EMD FT, a powerful dieselelectric locomotive, and sends the first one (Number 103) on
a year-long voyage to demonstrate its worth. Proving beyond
doubt the superiority of diesel, this sounds the death knell for
steam locomotives.
–– 1970s: A global fuel crisis prompts renewed interest in using
small, efficient diesel engines in cars.
–– 1987: The world-famous Queen Elizabeth 2 (QE2) ship
is refitted with nine diesel-electric engines (each the size of a
double-decker bus), making it the most powerful diesel-powered
merchant ship at that time.
–– 2000: Peugeot introduces the world's first particle filters (PF) for
diesel engines on its 607 model, claiming a 99 percent reduction
in soot emissions.
–– 2015: Volkswagen is plunged into a huge global scandal after
systematically cheating on diesel engine emissions tests. Diesel
car sales plummet for the first time in years.
–– 2017: Volvo becomes the first major carmaker to shift away
from gasoline and diesel engines, announcing that all new cars
will be hybrids or fully electric from 2019.
60
Text 4. RUDOLF DIESEL (1858 - 1913)
Rudolf Diesel was born in Paris in 1858.
His parents were Bavarian immigrants. Rudolf
Diesel was educated at Munich Polytechnic.
After graduation, he was employed as a
refrigerator engineer. However, his true love
lay in engines design. Rudolf Diesel designed
many heat engines, including a solar-powered
air engine.
In 1893, he published a paper describing
an engine with combustion within a cylinder,
the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he
filed for a patent for his new invention. Rudolf
Diesel was almost killed by his engine when it exploded. However,
his engine was the first that proved that fuel could be ignited without a
spark. He operated his first successful engine in 1897.
In 1898, Rudolf Diesel was granted patent for an "internal
combustion engine" the Diesel engine. The diesel engines of today are
refined and improved versions of Rudolf Diesel's original concept. They
are often used in submarines, ships, locomotives, and large trucks and
in electric generating plants.
Rudolf Diesel originally conceived the diesel engine to enable
independent craftsmen to compete with large industry.
On August 10, 1893 Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot
iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the
first time. Rudolf Diesel spent two more years making improvements
and in 1896 demonstrated another model. By 1898 Rudolf Diesel
was a millionaire. His engines were used to power pipelines, electric
and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft, and soon
after were used in mines, oil fields, factories, and shipping. Rudolf
Diesel obtained patents for his design in Germany and other countries,
including the USA.
He died at sea after falling from a steamer on the night of Sept.
29/30, 1913.
61
Text 5. DIESEL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
Service life and reliability of Diesel engines depend to a great
extent on their systems. The fuel piping system comprises the fuel supply
lines (1), high-pressure fuel lines (2), and fuel heating pipes (3), when
heavy fuel is used.
Fuel supply lines include the supply lines from the fuel transfer
pumps and preheating arrangements to the fuel filters and fuel pumps on
the engine; and also fuel supply lines to the installation. High-pressure
fuel lines connect the fuel pumps with the fuel valves and are under
very high intermittent pressure. Defective high-pressure lines mustn't be
repaired by welding not to damage the fuel nozzles by welding beads.
Preheating system employs steam up to 7 kg/cm2. Fuel heating pipes
are led adjacently along all fuel pressure and supply lines, also filters.
Fuel system components and fittings are: settling tanks, day / service
tanks, fuel transfer pump, stand-by F.O. pump, fuel oil heaters (if heavy
fuel is used), fuel oil filters: coarse and fine strainers of dual flow type
(or duplex type), and a number of valves: fuel pressure-maintenance
valve, fuel shut-off valve, fuel non-return valve. The function of the
fuel transfer pump or the booster is to deliver fuel and to discharge
against the counter pressure, adjusted at the pressure-retaining valve.
It is driven by an electric motor.
Fuel filters are designed for steam heating. There are some filter
elements which can be switched over during operation. Fuel pressureretaining valve is designed for adjustable back pressure. The pressure
should be high enough to prevent the formation of vapours on the suction
side of the fuel pumps. Fuel shut-off valve opens during operation and is
provided with a double-cone seat to prevent leakage. Thus, the main pipe
can be temporarily isolated for dismantling the fuel pump or preheating.
The non-return valve is situated between the fuel pump and the
overflow line with single-controlled fuel pumps. During operation
the surplus fuel delivered by the fuel transfer pumps runs off into the
overflow line. When dismantling a fuel pump, the latter is isolated from
the overflow line by the non-return valve.
Each cylinder possesses its own fuel pump which discharges a
definite quantity of fuel through the discharge line to the fuel valve at
the correct moment and under high pressure. The fuel is then sprayed
62
into the combustion chamber in a certain direction through a number
of accurate nozzle orifices, and is finely atomized during the process.
Text 6. DIESEL ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The lubrication of moving parts is crucial to diesel engine
performance and longevity.
The movement of various engine parts under high speed and load
conditions creates the requirement for an engine lubrication system.
Without some lubricant, friction between parts would quickly wear and
generate heat causing severe engine damage and eventually seizure. A
number of other lubrication system functions, while not obvious, are
critical to good engine operation and durability. Lubrication systems
in a diesel engine accomplish the following tasks:
1. Reduce friction between moving parts, which minimizes engine
wear, and the creation of heat.
2. Cools a variety of internal engine parts and removes some heat
from the engine.
3. Removes dirt, abrasives and contaminants from inside the engine.
4. Assists sealing of the combustion chamber by forming a film
between the piston rings and the cylinder wall.
5. Absorbs shock loads between bearings and gears thus, cushioning
and protecting engine parts while minimizing engine noise
production.
6. Stores an adequate supply of oil for lubricating internal engine
parts.
7. Minimizes corrosion of internal engine components
How the lubrication system accomplishes some of the above tasks
is a function of a number of lubrication system components:
–– Engine oil
–– Oil pump
–– Oil pan
–– Oil cooler
–– Oil filter(s)
–– Pressure regulating and relief valves
–– Oil level dipstick
63
Engine oil
Of all the components of a lubrication system, engine oil is the
most critical given the functions it accomplishes. Lubricating oil is
primarily a product of petroleum, commonly called mineral oil. Mineral
oils will contain a variety of different hydrocarbon molecules that have
different sizes, shapes and lubricating qualities. This means they will
perform and respond differently to heat, pressure and other engine
operating factors. Today’s oils are a highly refined petroleum product
with a package of chemicals called additives to permit lubricating oil
to meet engine operational requirements .
Text 7. SCAVENGING
Efficient scavenging is essential to ensure a sufficient supply of
fresh air for combustion. In the four-stroke cycle engine there is an
adequate overlap between the air inlet valve opening and the exhaust
valve closing. With two-stroke cycle engines this overlap is limited
and some slight mixing of exhaust gases and incoming air does occur.
A number of different scavenging methods are in use in slowspeed two-stroke engines. In each the fresh air enters as the inlet port
is opened by the downward movement of the piston and continues until
the port is closed by the upward moving piston. The flow path of the
scavenge air is decided by the engine port shape and design and the
exhaust arrangements. Three basic systems are in use: the cross flow,
the loop and the uniflow. All modern slow-speed diesel engines now
use the uniflow scavenging system with a cylinder-head exhaust valve.
In cross scavenging the incoming air is directed upwards, pushing
the exhaust gases before it. The exhaust gases then travel down and out
of the exhaust ports.
In loop scavenging the incoming air passes over the piston crown
then rises towards the cylinder head. The exhaust gases are forced
before the air passing down and out of exhaust ports located just above
the inlet ports.
With uniflow scavenging the incoming air enters at the lower
end of the cylinder and leaves at the top. The outlet at the top of the
cylinder may be ports or a large valve. Each of the systems has various
advantages and disadvantages. Cross scavenging requires the fitting of
a piston skirt to prevent air or exhaust gas escape when the piston is at
64
the top of the stroke. Loop scavenge arrangements have low temperature
air and high temperature exhaust gas passing through adjacent ports,
causing temperature differential problems for the liner material. Uniflow
is the most efficient scavenging system but requires either an opposed
piston arrangement or an exhaust valve in the cylinder head. All three
systems have the ports angled to swirl the incoming air and direct it in
the appropriate path.
Text 8. SUPERCHARGING
In order to increase the indicated mean effective pressure (m. e. p.)
of four-cycle engines and allow them to compete more successfully with
two-cycle engines, supercharging has been introduced. Supercharging
consists of blowing air under pressure into the cylinder of an engine
during the suction stroke and thus having a pressure at the beginning
of a compression greater than that of the atmosphere instead of below
that of the atmosphere.
By increasing the pressure in the cylinder at the beginning of the
compression stroke, a greater weight of air is present for combustion
— i.e., the volumetric efficiency is increased above unity, and more
fuel can be burned per stroke and a higher m. e. p. obtained. The usual
practice is to use a supercharging air pressure varying between 2 and 5
lb. per sq. in., which increases the b. h. p between 30 and 40 per cent.
At times, increases of 70 per cent in the bhp. have been attained. The
value of supercharging is that it allows an increase in m. e. p. without
any increase in the maximum temperature during combustion. If the
weight of air present in the combustion space is increased 30 per cent,
it is possible to inject and burn about 30 per cent more fuel per stroke
without any greater rise in temperature during combustion than was the
case before supercharging.
When supercharging is employed with four-cycle engines, the
timing of the inlet and exhaust valves is changed so that they are both
open a short time at the beginning of the suction stroke. Thus, when
the supercharging air is blown into the cylinder through the inlet
valve, it completely scavenges the clearance space. The exhaust valve
then closes, and the pressure in the cylinder is greater than that of the
atmosphere during the suction stroke. By scavenging the clearance
volume and bringing the cylinder pressure up to only atmospheric, the
65
volumetric efficiency of a four-cycle engine is increased from around
87 to around 108 per cent.
Since the supercharging raises the i. h. p. of an engine with little
increase in the friction horsepower, the mechanical efficiency is
increased.
When supercharging is employed without any change in clearance
volume, the pressure at the end of compression will increase, as will the
maximum pressure at the end of combustion. If the clearance volume is
increased, it is possible to have the pressure at the end of compression
with supercharging the same as without supercharging. This, however,
decreases the compression ratio and reduces the temperature at the
end of compression. The usual practice is to increase the clearance
somewhat and also to allow some increase in the pressure at the end
of compression.
Air for supercharging is obtained either by an engine-driven blower
similar to those used for scavenging two-cycle engines or by a blower
driven by an exhaust-gas turbine.
Text 9. FUNCTIONS OF AUXILIARY MACHINERY
Besides running and maintaining the main propulsion machinery
of the ship, the engine officer has a great deal of auxiliary machinery
to look after. Auxiliary machinery covers everything mechanical on
board ship except the main engines and boilers. It includes almost all
t he pipes and fittings and the equipment needed to carry out a number
of functions. These functions may be summarized as follows:
–– To supply the needs of the main engines and boilers. Air
compressors are used to supply compressed air for starting
engines. Coolers are used for cooling either oil or water. Water
for the boilers is also heated before being admitted in to the
boiler by feed water pumps. This increases the efficiency of
the boiler.
–– To keep the ship dry and trimmed. This is done through the
bilge and ballast pumping systems. The former removes water
which has gathered in machinery, cargo and other spaces. The
latter pumps water into and out of ballast tanks. In general
cargo ships, these systems are usually interconnected and
served by the same pumps. In tankers and other bulk carriers,
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these systems are entirely (completely) separate, because these
ships may need to ballast at 12,000 tons/hour and therefore
need larger pumps.
–– To supply domestic needs such as fresh and seawater, sanitation,
heating or cooling of air, ventilation.
–– To apply the main power of the engines for propulsion and
maneuvering. The engine power is transmitted to the propeller
by a line of shafting. This is made up of the thrust shaft,
intermediate shafts and the propeller shaft. Steering gear is also
necessary to operate the rudder for maneuvering.
–– To supply the ship with electrical power and lighting. This is
done by steam powered generators.
–– To moor the ship and handle cargo. Deck machinery is extensive
and varied. It can be divided into anchor-handling machinery
(windlasses and capstans), mooring machinery (winches and
capstans), and cargo-handling machinery (winches and cranes).
It also includes cargo oil pumps.
–– To provide for safety. Firefighting and fire detection equipment,
lifeboat engines and launching gear are also included.
–– To prevent oil and sewage pollution.
Responsibility for auxiliary machinery is often delegated to
individual engineer officers, each one taking responsibility for the
efficient working of certain items. A lot of equipment is duplicated, so
that for example, one generator can be overhauled without cutting off
the supply of electricity to the ship. Engineer officers on tankers are
also involved in (busy with) operating the cargo pumping machinery.
Text 10. OPERATING PROCEDURES
Medium- and slow-speed diesel engines will follow a fairly similar
procedure for starting and maneuvering. Where reversing gearboxes
or controllable-pitch propellers are used then engine reversing is not
necessary. A general procedure is now given for engine operation which
details the main points in their correct sequence. Where a manufacturer's
instruction book is available this should be consulted and used.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.
2.
3.
Preparations for standby
Before a large diesel is started it must be warmed through by
circulating hot water through the jackets, etc. This will enable the
various engine parts to expand in relation to one another.
The various supply tanks, filters, valves and drains are all to be
checked.
The lubricating oil pumps and circulating water pumps are started
and all the visible returns should be observed.
All control equipment and alarms should be examined for correct
operation.
The indicator cocks are opened, the turning gear engaged and the
engine turned through several complete revolutions. In this way
any water which may have collected in the cylinders will be forced
out. 6. The fuel oil system is checked and circulated with hot oil.
Auxiliary scavenge blowers, if manually operated, should be
started.
The turning gear is removed and if possible the engine should be
turned over on air before closing the indicator cocks.
The engine is now available for standby.
The length of time involved in these preparations will depend upon
the size of the engine.
Engine starting
The direction handle is positioned ahead or astern. This handle
may be built into the telegraph reply lever. The camshaft is thus
positioned relative to the crankshaft to operate the various cams
for fuel injection, valve operation, etc.
The maneuvering handle is moved to 'start'. This will admit
compressed air into the cylinders in the correct sequence to turn
the engine in the desired direction. A separate air start button may
be used.
When the engine reaches its firing speed the maneuvering handle is
moved to the running position. Fuel is admitted and the combustion
process will accelerate the engine and starting air admission will
cease.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Engine reversing
When running at maneuvering speeds:
Where manually operated auxiliary blowers are fitted they should
be started.
The fuel supply is shut off and the engine will quickly slow down.
The direction handle is positioned astern.
Compressed air is admitted to the engine to turn it in the astern
direction.
When turning astern under the action of compressed air, fuel
will be admitted. The combustion process will take over and air
admission cease.
6.
7. When running at full speed:
8. The auxiliary blowers, where manually operated, should be started.
9. Fuel is shut off from the engine.
10. Blasts of compressed air may be used to slow the engine down.
11. When the engine is stopped the direction handle is positioned
astern.
12. Compressed air is admitted to turn the engine astern and fuel is
admitted to accelerate the engine. The compressed air supply will
then cease.
Text 11. INTEGRATED CONTROL
The various control and monitoring systems described so far
may be integrated in order to enable more efficient ship operation and
reduce manning. Machinery control systems are being combined with
navigation and cargo control systems to bring about "Efficient Ship"
integrated control systems. Combining previously separate sources of
data regarding, for example, ship speed and fuel consumption, enables
optimizing of ship or engine operating parameters.
An Integrated Control System would be made up of a Bridge
System, a Cargo Control System, a Machinery Control System and
possibly a Ship Management System.
The Bridge System would include an automatic radar plotting aid
display, an electronic chart table, an autopilot, a gyro, log, and echo
sounder. The Cargo Control System will vary according to the type of
vessel, but will enable loading calculations, cargo management, ballast
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control and data logging. The Machinery Control System will combine
various control systems to enable surveillance to UMS requirements,
performance and condition monitoring, generator control and automatic
data logging. Ship Management would involve administrative record
keeping, word processing, stock control and maintenance planning.
Workstations with computers, monitors and keyboards would be
provided in the appropriate locations, such as the machinery control
room, on the bridge, in the cargo control room and various ship's
offices. A network would connect the various workstations and enable
the exchange of information between them.
Inputs from the various monitored items of equipment would be
fed to Local Scanner and Control Units (LSCU), which would contain
a microprocessor and be effectively a microcomputer. The LSCU is part
of a local control loop which can function independently, if necessary.
The LSCUs are connected up to a central computer which can interface
with them and would act as the workstation for the particular system.
Integrating the various systems enables optimal control of a
ship and improved efficiency. Fuel consumption figures could be
monitored, for example and used to predict an appropriate time to dry
dock the vessel as hull resistance increased due to fouling. Condition
monitoring of machinery would enable maintenance schedules to be
planned in order to minimize breakdowns and repair costs. Satellite
communications will also enable data to be relayed from ship to shore
for analysis by office-based technical staff.
Text 12. INTELLIGENT ENGINES
Today the world needs engines that can cope up with the
stringent emission norms and higher demands for robust, reliable
and smart engines with low operational cost. To achieve the above
possibilities, a whole new generation of engine is being developed with
a comprehensive use of electronics, hardware and software in large 2
stroke low speed cross head engines known as “Intelligent Engines”.
The concept of the intelligent engine revolves around the idea that
the engine is thinking for itself. The brain of the system is an electronic
control system that analyzes the condition of the engine and the
operation of the engine’s system (The fuel injection, exhaust valve,
cylinder lube oil and turbo charging system).
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The intelligent engine concept widens the reliability of traditional
engines to facilitate new applications and concepts. The initial cost of
such engine is quite high but the operational cost is lower than other
engine used with proper operating procedure and trained crew.
Basic Concept of Intelligent Engine
–– A central electronic control system is incorporated which is
the brain of the system and which monitors and evaluate the
general condition to keep the operating parameter within limits
and maintain the performance of the engine at the higher side.
–– Central control system operates Engine control unit (ECU) and
cylinder control unit (CCU).
–– ECU controls the overall protection and efficient performance
of the whole engine. CCU controls the each cylinder of the
engine for safe and efficient working.
–– This control system saves the engine from damage due to
overloading, malfunctioning, maladjustment and lack of
maintenance.
The intelligent engine provides flexibility in operation by replacing
mechanical cam shaft for fuel pump and exhaust valve with common
rail system and computer controlled system.
To comply with the emission norms, system is incorporated with
catalytic clean up system and fuel economy modes which can be selected
from bridge.
A reversing and crash mode option is provided in the bridge,
controlled through the main central electronic control which sends
signal to the engine when in operational mode.
The central system consists of a program in which the protection
system can be overridden in case of emergency.
Text 13. MAIN GOALS OF NEW GENERATION MACHINES
The basic aim for developing intelligent engine is to reduce the
operational cost of the propulsion plant, to have high fluctuation in
operation and to cope up with the stringent emission norms imposed
by regulating authorities under IMO . Apart from this, the following
points to be considered for intelligent engines:
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I.
Reliability of engine increases
–– The central monitoring system keeps an eye on the fluctuation
of load and distribute equally to all the cylinders.
–– It consists of overload protection system which will give alarm
and trip’s the engine, ruling out the possibilities of overload
and thermal stresses.
–– Any other abnormality is displayed with an early warning
and alarm system so that the problem can be tackled before it
hampers the operational aspects of the engine.
–– This system increases the emission control flexibility.
II. Fuel and lube oil consumption cost reduces
–– The load operating efficiency increases as compared to normal
engines which increases the life of the engine and maintenance
schedule can be delayed which cut shorts the operational cost.
–– The performance is fuel optimized. Fuel oil, lube oil and other
lubricants' consumption drastically decreases which reduces
the operational cost.
–– The engine and its performance is maintained “as new” for its
lifetime.
–– The cylinder lubrication is one of the most expensive lubrication
oil used in marine operation. The consumption is controlled
with the help of mechatronic (incorporated with mechanical
and electronic controlled enhanced system) cylinder lubrication
with advanced dosage of oil.
III. Follow up of stringent air pollution emission norms
–– Now almost all the countries are following the stringent norms
for emission from the ship’s propulsion plant. The intelligent
engine gives the flexibility to cope up with different norms
for different controlled bodies by enhancing the emission
performance characteristics.
–– To reduce the emission of harmful substance like NOx and SOx,
catalytic controller and fuel control and consumption modes are
incorporated in the control system.
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Text 14. MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE OF MARINE DIESEL
ENGINE
Engine builders supply detailed instructions on the operation and
maintenance of their machinery so that regular maintenance work
can be carried out and breakdowns can be kept to a minimum. These
instruction manuals are usually kept by the Chief Engineer, but are made
available to all members of the engine-room staff. The intervals at which
an engine and its parts must be inspected will vary from make to make
and will depend on the use the engine has been put to.
At frequent intervals, fuel pumps should be examined and adjusted,
if necessary. When the engine is running, this will be shown by
comparing engine indicator cards and by exhaust temperatures. Pistons
should also be examined frequently for cracks.
At intervals of six weeks, the fuel valves should be taken out and
carefully inspected. Atomizers and filters can be washed with clean diesel
fuel oil. Cleaning rags must not be used because they leave behind small
pieces of fluff, which may block the holes. Valve seats should be tested
and if they are pitted or scratched, the surface should be reground.
At intervals of six months piston heads if cooled, must be inspected
for deposits of carbon in cooling spaces and cooling pipes. When new
piston rings are fitted, care must be taken to ensure there is sufficient
clearance to allow for the expansion of the rings. Exhaust valves
and manifold must also be examined and excessive carbon deposits
removed. All carbon deposits should be removed from cylinder ports.
Cylinder liners must be examined externally for deposits of scale. If
these deposits cannot be removed by flushing with water, then the liner
must be removed for cleaning. The liner should also be measured for
wear and renewed, if the limit for wear has been reached. The clearance
of connecting-rod top and bottom ends should also be examined and
adjusted if necessary.
At intervals of one year the maneuvering gear must be examined
for wear at the joints of levers and rods. The alignment of the crankshaft
should be checked and any incorrect alignment corrected.
The main bearings must be examined and readings taken for wear.
The clearances of all crankshaft bearings must be maintained at the
figure recommended by the makers. Finally, starting air piping and
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air bottles must be cleaned, and the lubricating oil system thoroughly
examined and cleared of deposits.
It must be emphasized that the above-mentioned parts are only
some items which must be regularly maintained to ensure the efficient
working of the machinery.
Text 15. EXHAUST EMISSIONS AND CONTROL
Marine engine designers in recent years have had to address the
challenge of tightening controls on noxious exhaust gas emissions
imposed by regional, national and international authorities responding
to concern over atmospheric pollution.
Exhaust gas emissions from marine diesel engines largely comprise
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor, with smaller
quantities of carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, partially
reacted and non-combusted hydrocarbons and particulate material.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) generated thermally from nitrogen and
oxygen at high combustion temperatures in the cylinder are of special
concern since they are believed to be carcinogenic and contribute to
photochemical smog formation over cities and acid rain (and hence
excess acidification of the soil). Internal combustion engines primarily
generate nitrogen oxide but less than 10 per cent of that oxidizes to
nitrogen dioxide the moment it escapes as exhaust gas.
Sulphur oxides (SOx) produced by oxidation of the sulphur in
the fuel have an unpleasant odor, irritate the mucus membrane and are
a major source of acid rain (reacting with water to form sulphurous
acid). Acid deposition is a trans-boundary pollution problem: once
emitted, SOx can be carried over hundreds of miles in the atmosphere
before being deposited in lakes and streams, reducing their alkalinity.
Sulphur deposition can also lead to increased sulphate levels in
soils, fostering the formation of insoluble aluminum phosphates which
can cause a phosphorous deficiency. Groundwater acidification has
been observed in many areas of Europe; this can lead to corrosion of
drinking water supply systems and health hazards due to dissolved
metals in those systems. Forest soils can also become contaminated
with higher than normal levels of toxic metals, and historic buildings
and monuments damaged.
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Hydrocarbons (HC) created by the incomplete combustion of fuel
and lube oil, and the evaporation of fuel have an unpleasant odor, are
partially carcinogenic and smog forming.
Carbon monoxide (CO) resulting from incomplete combustion
due to a local shortage of air and the dissociation of carbon dioxide is
highly toxic but only in high concentrations.
Particulate matter (PM) is a complex mixture of inorganic and
organic compounds resulting from incomplete combustion, partly
unburned lube oil, thermal splitting of HC from the fuel and lube oil,
ash in the fuel and lube oil, sulphates and water. More than half of the
total particulate mass is soot (inorganic carbonaceous particles), whose
visible evidence is smoke.
Carbon dioxide: some 6 per cent of the exhaust gas emissions
from this engine is carbon dioxide. Although not itself toxic, carbon
dioxide contributes to the greenhouse effect (global warming) and hence
to changes in the Earth’s atmosphere. The gas is an inevitable product
of combustion of all fossil fuels, but emissions from diesel engines
thanks to their thermal efficiency are the lowest of all heat engines. A
lower fuel consumption translates to reduced carbon dioxide emissions
since the amount produced is directly proportional to the volume of
fuel used, and therefore to the engine or plant efficiency. As a rough
guide, burning one ton of diesel fuel produces approximately three tons
of carbon dioxide.
International concern over the atmospheric effect of carbon dioxide
has stimulated measures and plans to curb the growth of such emissions,
and the marine industry must be prepared for future legislation.
The scope for improvement by raising the already high efficiency
level of modern diesel engines is limited and other routes have to be
pursued: operating the engines at a fuel-saving service point; using
marine diesel oil or gas oil instead of low sulphur heavy fuel oil; adopting
diesel-electric propulsion (the engines can be run continuously at the
highest efficiency); or exploiting a diesel combined cycle incorporating
a steam turbine. The steam-injected diesel engine is also promising.
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Text 16. BOILERS
Boilers are used on board the ship for producing steam. This steam
may be used for driving the main engines, when steam turbines are
fitted, or for driving auxiliary machinery such as the windlass. There
are two basic types of boilers in use in ships: the fire-tube boiler, and
the water-tube boiler.
The fire-tube boiler consists of a cylindrical steel shell, which
contains a furnace at the bottom. Two or more furnaces may be fitted,
depending on the size of the boiler. The furnace is connected to a
combustion chamber, situated in the middle part of the boiler. The
furnace, the combustion chamber and the tubes are all surrounded by
water. Boilers are now mainly used for auxiliary purposes on board ship.
Water-tube boilers have replaced fire-tube boilers for generating
steam for main engines. They have a steam drum at the top, which is
partly filled with water, and water drums at a lower level. These drums
are connected by banks of tubes, which also contain water. The furnace
is located at the bottom and the whole system is contained in a fire-proof
casing. Down comer tubes are placed outside the gas system to act as
feeders to the water drums.
Gases are heated in the furnace and pass upward, transferring
their heat to the water in the tubes. Because the steam drum provides a
reservoir of relatively cool water, convection currents are set up causing
the water to circulate round the system.
Superheaters are added to the system to increase its efficiency.
These are located between the rows of tubes.
Various valves and gauges are fitted to the boilers. For a water-tube
boiler these include the following: safety valves, which are needed to
release any excess steam from the boiler; a main stop valve in order to
control the passage of steam to the engines; feed valves to add water
into the boiler; water level indicators to show the level of water in the
boiler; thermometers and pressure gauges for showing the temperature
and pressure inside the boiler. In order to be able to drain water from the
system drain valves are fitted. Chemical dosing valves are also necessary
so that chemicals can be added directly into the boiler.
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Text 17. DECK MACHINERY
Marine deck equipment is very important. Almost every ship
needs a crane of some sort for taking provisions and stores aboard in
addition tankers need cranes for handling hoses and some dry cargo
ships need gear for loading and discharging cargoes. As far as SOLAS
goes there are no regulations concerning cranes but their placement
will have been taken into account at the design stage and by the class
society and all cranes will be marked with a safe working load that
should never be exceeded. Crane operation is a skilled task and while
most of the time cranes will be operated by crew, there are some ports
where local labour will demand the right to operate them under local
employment conditions.
From a safety point of view, the crew will need to ensure the
qualifications of non-crew operatives and ensure that there is some
element of supervision at all times. Older vessels may still be equipped
with derricks but these are gradually becoming obsolete.
Cranes vary enormously in design and operation with the ship
usually being fitted with a type that suits the most common cargoes.
At one time most of the cranes found on ships were operated by wires
for raising and lowering the jib but today it is equally common to see
hydraulic rams used instead.
Some vessels – particularly those carrying containers or packaged
lumber – are fitted with travelling gantry cranes that can run the length
of the cargo deck. For heavy lift ships, cranes are designed to work in
tandem when handling very heavy loads.
On a ship that uses its cranes for several different types of cargo,
specialist equipment is likely to be found onboard. As well as hooks and
spreaders for lifting general cargo and crates, there may be clamps for
lifting newsprint or reels and grabs and buckets for handling cargoes
such as grain and coal.
Winches
A winch is a marine deck equipment device for handling wires or
ropes and works by spooling the wire or rope on a drum with a horizontal
axis. The winch can be powered by electric or hydraulic motors; steam
winches were once common but are now obsolete. Winches on ships
are fixed and used for specific purposes. As previously mentioned
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cargo derricks are now much less common and so the winches needed
to provide power for these have also been more or less abandoned.
The most common use of a winch is for mooring meaning the
winches are mostly located on the fore and after decks at both sides of
the ship. Tugs and offshore vessels such as AHTS, seismic survey and
OSVs will also be equipped with work winches designed for the very
heavy-duty work these ships are used for.
The power source for any winch systems can be, as required by the
customer, low-pressure hydraulic, high-pressure hydraulic, frequencyconverter electric drive or pole-change electric drive. The choice of
drive type often depends on type of application and the actual winch
operations. All types have their pros and cons.
Windlass
Located separately but close to the mooring winches or as an
integral part of them, the windlass is the device used for lowering and
raising the anchor it does this in tandem with the bow or chain stopper
which prevents chain slippage when anchored and when raising the
anchor.
The anchor chain passes from the anchor and through the hawse
pipe, over the windlass and down into the chain locker where the end is
secured. The windlass is driven by a motor, either electric or hydraulic,
and features a brake and clutch for use in different operations. Anchoring
is usually done in one of two ways; letting go or walking back. Before
anchoring the anchor, chain must be released from its lashings on the
bow stopper.
When letting go, the anchor is lowered in controlled steps to a
certain depth before being released under gravity. Limiting the height
from which it is dropped is essential to stop the chain over running.
Walking back means lowering the anchor with gear. The principle
difference between walk back and let go methods is that in walk back
power is used. Anchoring safely is a skill and the speed and direction
of the ship during the process is crucial.
Once anchoring is completed the stopper must be closed on the
chain to prevent movement. The stopper is in effect a rachet arrangement
that prevents the chain from paying out when at anchor and acts as a
78
brake when raising it. This prevents strain on the brake and clutch of
the windlass which could burn out in an uncontrolled situation.
Text 18. WHAT DOES A SHIP ENGINEER DO?
In today's fast paced world, maritime, river and other methods of
water transport is done by commercial vessels that need to be technically
maintained, repaired and monitored for proper operation. This job
requires a deep understanding of technical processes, interaction
between various parts of a ship's equipment, but also communication
with the ship's crew and its captain.
Ships engineers are in charge of crews who maintain and repair
technical equipment such as ship engines, pumps, electrical wiring,
communication systems and refrigeration equipment. These individuals
also have the task of creating comprehensive reports about the ship's
current technical status, and requesting any necessary repairs in nearby
ports.
However, sometimes a ship's technical crew may not have the
"luxury" to wait until the vessel reaches a port, and it has to perform
emergency repairs on the spot to ensure decent ship operation. Ship
engineers also act as liaisons between the ship's command and its captain
and technical crews. While people on the deck are usually responsible
for navigation, cargo safety, legal issues and communication with port
authorities, ship engineers and their crews are responsible for technical
operations "below deck."
The engine is the heart of a ship. Any malfunction may cause
unnecessary delays and even dangerous situations, and it is a ship
engineer's task to quickly figure out where the problem resides, make
the necessary repairs, report to the captain and make sure anything
similar does not happen again during the cruise.
When a ship's captain or navigation officers make changes in a
ship's speed and direction, its technical crews and their engineers are
responsible for making sure that the "technical" aspect of the changes
do not affect the overall operation of the maritime vessel. However,
ship engineers also respond to emergency situations such as leaks,
fires and other dramatic events on board. They conduct and oversee
safety operations, emergency drills and check on the readiness of the
technical crew to face difficult situations while at sea. Ship engineers
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work aboard ships, and more exactly, in the compartments where the
technical equipment and engines are located. However, ship engineers
may also conduct emergency drills and work with the other crew
members to make sure they follow technical safety procedures. They
work closely with navigation officers and with the ship's captain to
ensure proper communication between navigation requirements and
the technical potential of a maritime vessel.
Text 19. SHIP ENGINEER JOB DUTIES AND TASKS
1. Fabricate engine replacement parts such as valves, stay rods,
and bolts, using metalworking machinery.
2. Install engine controls, propeller shafts, and propellers.
3. Maintain and repair engines, electric motors, pumps, winches
and other mechanical and electrical equipment, or assist other crew
members with maintenance and repair duties.
4. Maintain electrical power, heating, ventilation, refrigeration,
water, and sewerage systems.
5. Monitor and test operations of engines and other equipment so
that malfunctions and their causes can be identified.
6. Monitor engine, machinery, and equipment indicators when
vessels are underway, and report abnormalities to appropriate shipboard
staff.
7. Perform general marine vessel maintenance and repair work such
as repairing leaks, finishing interiors, refueling, and maintaining decks.
8. Start engines to propel ships, and regulate engines and power
transmissions to control speeds of ships, according to directions from
captains or bridge computers.
9. Supervise the activities of marine engine technicians engaged in
the maintenance and repair of mechanical and electrical marine vessels,
and inspect their work to ensure that it is performed properly.
10. Act as a liaison between a ship's captain and shore personnel
to ensure that schedules and budgets are maintained and that the ship
is operated safely and efficiently.
11. Clean engine parts, and keep engine rooms clean.
12. Maintain complete records of engineering
department activities, including machine operations.
13. Monitor the availability, use, and condition of lifesaving equipment
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and pollution preventatives, in order to ensure that international
regulations are followed.
14. Operate and maintain off-loading liquid pumps and valves.
15. Order and receive engine room's stores such as oil and spare
parts; maintain inventories and record usage of supplies.
16. Perform and participate in emergency drills as required.
17. Record orders for changes in ship speed and direction, and
note gauge readings and test data, such as revolutions per minute and
voltage output, in engineering logs and bell books.
Text 20. THE WATCHKEEPING SYSTEM
The system of watches adopted on board ship is usually a fourhour period of working with eight hours rest for the members of each
watch. The three watches in any 12-hour period are usually 12-4, 4-8
and 8-12. The word 'watch' is taken as meaning the time period and
also the personnel at work during that period.
The watchkeeping arrangements and the makeup of the watch will
be decided by the Chief Engineer. Factors to be taken into account in
this matter will include the type of ship, the type of machinery and
degree of automation, the qualifications and experience of the members
of the watch, any special conditions such as weather, ship location,
international and local regulations, etc. The engineer officer in charge
of the watch is the Chief Engineer's representative and is responsible for
the safe and efficient operation and upkeep of all machinery affecting
the safety of the ship.
Operating the watch
An engineer officer in charge, with perhaps a junior engineer
assisting and one or more ratings, will form the watch. Each member of
the watch should be familiar with his duties and the safety and survival
equipment in the machinery space. This would include a knowledge
of the fire-fighting equipment with respect to location and operation,
being able to distinguish the different alarms and the action required, an
understanding of the communications systems and how to summon help
and also being aware of the escape routes from the machinery space.
At the beginning of the watch the current operational parameters
and the condition of all machinery should be verified and also the log
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readings should correspond with those observed. The engineer officer
in charge should note if there are any special orders or instructions
relating to the operation of the main machinery or auxiliaries. He should
determine what work is in progress and any hazards or limitations this
presents. The levels of tanks containing fuel, water, slops, ballast, etc.,
should be noted and also the level of the various bilges. The operating
mode of equipment and available standby equipment should also be
noted.
At appropriate intervals inspections should be made of the main
propulsion plant, auxiliary machinery and steering gear spaces. Any
routine adjustments may then be made and malfunctions or breakdowns
can be noted, reported and corrected. During these tours of inspection
bilge levels should be noted, piping and systems observed for leaks,
and local indicating instruments can be observed.
Various parameters for the main engine turbo-blowers are also
logged. Other auxiliary machinery and equipment, such as heat
exchangers, fresh water generator (evaporator), boiler, air conditioning
plant and refrigeration plant will also have appropriate readings taken.
There will usually be summaries or daily account tables for heavy oil,
diesel oil, lubricating oil and fresh water, which will be compiled at
noon. Provision is also made for remarks or important events to be
noted in the log for each watch.
Where situations occur in the machinery space which may affect
the speed, maneuverability, power supply or other essentials for the safe
operation of the ship, the bridge should be informed as soon as possible.
This notification should preferably be given before any changes are
made to enable the bridge to take appropriate action.
The engineer in charge should notify the Chief Engineer in the
event of any serious occurrence or a situation where he is unsure of
the action to take. Examples might be, if any machinery suffers severe
damage, or a malfunction occurs which may lead to serious damage.
However, where immediate action is necessary to ensure safety of
the ship, its machinery and crew, it must be taken by the engineer in
charge. At the completion of the watch each member should hand over
to his relief, ensuring that he is competent to take over and carry out
his duties effectively.
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Text 21. PERIODIC SAFETY ROUTINE
In addition to watch keeping and maintenance duties, various
safety and emergency equipment must be periodically checked. As an
example, the following inspections should take place at least weekly:
1. Emergency generator should be started and run for a reasonable
period. Fuel oil, lubricating oil and cooling water supplies and tank
levels should be checked.
2. Emergency fire pump should be run and the deck fire main operated
for a reasonable period.
3. Carbon dioxide cylinder storage room should be visually examined.
The release box door should be opened to test the alarm and check
that the machinery-space fans stop.
4. One smoke detector in each circuit should be tested to ensure
operation and correct indication on the alarm panel. Aerosol test
sprays are available to safely check some types of detector.
5. Fire pushbutton alarms should be tested, by operating a different
one during each test.
6. Any machinery space ventilators or skylights should be operated
and greased, if necessary, to ensure smooth, rapid closing should
this be necessary.
7. Fire extinguishers should be observed in their correct location and
checked to ensure they are operable.
8. Fire hoses and nozzles should likewise be observed in their correct
places. The nozzles should be tried on the hose coupling. Any
defective hose should be replaced.
9. Any emergency batteries, e.g. for lighting or emergency generator
starting, should be examined, have the acid specific gravity
checked, and be topped up, as required.
10. All lifeboat engines should be run for a reasonable period. Fuel
oil and lubricating oil levels should be checked.
11. All valves and equipment operated from the fire control point
should be checked for operation, where this is possible.
12. Any watertight doors should be opened and closed by hand and
power. The guides should be checked to ensure that they are clear
and unobstructed.
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Text 22. GREEN ENGINE
The green engine is one of the most interesting discoveries of the
millennium. This engine has got some unique features used for the first
time in the making of engines. This engine is a piston less one with
features like sequential variable compression ratio, direct air intake,
direct fuel injection, multi-fuel usage etc. The efficiency of this engine
is high when compared to the contemporary engines and also the
exhaust emissions are near zero. The significance of the engine lies in
the efficiency when the present world conditions of limited resources
of energy are considered.
Technical features
Compared to conventional piston engine operated on four phases,
the Green Engine is an actual six-phase internal combustion engine
with much higher expansion ratio. The six phases are INTAKE,
COMPRESSION, MIXING, COMBUSTION, POWER AND
EXHAUST. The main features of this engine are high air charge
rate, satisfactory air-fuel mixing, complete burning, high combustion
efficiency and full expansion. The most important characteristic is the
expansion ratio being much bigger than the compression ratio. Also,
the other main features are the sequential variable compression ratio,
constant volume combustion, self-adapting sealing system. Because
of these revolutionary inventions the engine has some advantages like
the thermal efficiency of the engine is increased. The engine is free
of the harmful emissions. As more power is obtained in a less space,
the engine is more compact and light. Also, the reciprocating parts are
eliminated, so the engine is vibration free.
Direct Air Intake
Direct air intake means that there is no air inlet pipe, throttle and
inlet valves on the air intake system. Air filter is directly connected to
the intake port of the engine, therefore highest volumetric efficiency
which makes engine produce a high torque of output on all speed range
is achieved, and the pump loss which consumes the part of engine
power is eliminated.
84
Strong Swirling
As a tangential air duck is between combustion chamber and
compression chamber, a very strong swirling of air is achieved.
Consequently, the air-fuel mixing and the combustion process can have
a satisfying working condition.
Sequential variable compression ratio
This greatly revolutionary innovation can provide the most suitable
compression ratio for the engine whatever operation mode it works
on with burning variety of fuels. Therefore, an excellent combustion
performance is attained.
Direct fuel injection
Direct fuel injection can provide higher output and torque, while
at the same time it also enhances the response for accelerations.
Super air-fuel mixing
Since the independent air-fuel mixing phase is having enough
time for mixing air and fuel under strong swirling and hot situation, the
engine is capable to burn any liquid or gas fuels without modifications.
An ideal air-fuel mixture could delete CO emission. Also, centrifugal
effect came from both strong swirling and rotation of the burner makes
the air-fuel mixture denser near the spark plug, it benefits to cold engine
starting and managing lean-burning, and allowing the engine use of
mass control for output.
The lowest surface to volume ratio
The shape of combustion chamber is paraboloidal. Thus, the lowest
surface-to-volume ratio is obtained, and the engine is having less heat
losses and high combustion efficiency.
Controllable combustion time
Due to the independent combustion phase, compared to the
conventional engine which performances lack of efficient combustion
time resulting in heavy CO emission and low fuel usage rate, the Green
Engine has a sufficient controllable combustion time to match any fuels.
Constant volume combustion
The fuels can generate more energy while the combustion is
occurred on the constant volume. Also, the constant volume combustion
85
technology can allow the engine to have a stable combustion when the
lean-burning is managed so the heat losses and NOx emissions are
decreased.
Multi-power pulses
The Green Engine operates on the multi-power pulses with a small
volume of working chamber, resulting in compact structure and limited
size. Also, a small amount of air-fuel mixtures being ignited on each
power pulse can greatly cut down explosion noise.
High working temperature
Because the burner, which is made by high heat resistance and low
expansion rate material, such as ceramic, operates without cooling, and
relatively high working temperature can eliminate the quenching zone
which is main source of HC emission, and can greatly reduce the heat
losses in the combustion chamber.
High expansion ratio
High expansion ratio can make the burned gases to release much
more power, in other words, the waste gases while they run out the
engine are only bringing much less energy with them, therefore the
engine's thermal efficiency is greatly raised, and at the same time, the
noise and temperature of the exhaust are tremendously dropped.
Self-adapting sealing system
This is another greatly revolutionary innovation applied in the
Green Engine; it can eliminate a number of seal plates or strips to
achieve gapless seal and to provide most efficient and reliable seal
system with less friction.
Vibration free
As major moving parts, vanes, which are counted in little mass and
operated symmetrically, the performance of the engine is very smooth
got away from vibration.
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Text 23. WORKING OF THE GREEN ENGINE
The Green Engine has six phases which occur in the following
sequence.
–– Intake
–– Compression
–– Mixing
–– Combustion
–– Power
–– Exhaust
Intake.
The air is admitted directly inside the compression chamber. The
air does not undergo any treatment before entry. The air filter is directly
connected to the entry of the intake pipe. The amount of the air intake
can be varied as per the fuel used.
Compression.
The air admitted in, then enters into the compression chamber. The
compression chamber has variable area. The central disc having arms
pushes the air in the compression chamber. The compression chamber
is connected to the combustion chamber by a small diameter duct which
is tangent to the combustion chamber. So as arm pushes the air in the
compression chamber the pressurized air is forced to flow through this
duct. As the air flow through it, the air is swirled very fast. The air thus
enters the combustion chamber.
So as arm pushes the air in the compression chamber the pressurized
air is forced to flow through this duct. As the air flow through it, the
air is swirled very fast. The air thus enters the combustion chamber.
Super mixing.
The combustion chamber is also rotating. This centrifugal force
from the rotation along with the strong swirling causes the fuel to mix
with air. The mixing assures the complete burning of the fuel. The super
mixed charge is forced by the arm towards the spark plug.
Combustion.
The charge is ignited by the spark plug. The combustion time can
be varied to burn different grade of fuels. The controlled combustion
87
time gives the complete burning of the charge. The emissions are
greatly reduced.
Power.
The burned products of the combustion are expelled out of the
combustion chamber. The high pressure gases push the arm of the
compression chamber causing work output. The power is obtained in
the form of the power pulses. These pulses reduce the area of the engine.
The power pulses also reduce the explosion noise.
Exhaust.
The burned gases are expelled out. The gases are first expanded
in the expansion zone. The expansion ratio is more which ensures the
maximum work output. Also, the maximum energy is gained from the
gases. The temperature also reduces and hence an optimum utilization
of the burned gases is achieved. The burned gases after expansion are
pushed into the exhaust pipe and released into the atmosphere. Thus,
the six-phase cycle is completed.
Text 24. ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF THE
GREEN ENGINE
As obvious from the technical features which include effective
innovations, the advantages of the Green engine over the contemporary
piston engines are many.
Small Size and Light Weight: As Green engine is very compact
with multi-power pulses, the size and weight could be 1/5 to 1/10 of the
conventional piston engines on same output. Its power to weight ratio
could be more than 2 hp per pound without supercharge or turbocharge.
Limited Parts: There are only some dozens of parts easy to be
manufactured in the engine structure.
High Efficiency: Because many great innovations are being
employed in the engine design such as: direct air intake, sequential
variable compression ratio, super mixing process, constant volume
combustion, controllable combustion time, high working temperature
of the burner, high expansion ratio and self adapting sealing system etc.,
the thermal efficiency of the engine could be potentially as high as 65
%, even more if water add-in technology is to be considered.
88
Multi-fuels: Due to six phases of working principle, super air fuel
mixing process and constant volume combustion with controllable time,
the Green engine becomes the only real multi-fuel engine on our planet;
any liquid or gas fuels can be burnt well. Also, it would be ideal to coal
powder if special anti-wearing material is employed.
Smooth Operation: Due to inherence of good dynamic and static
balance the performance of the Green engine is as smooth as an electric
motor.
Quietness and Low Exhaust Temperature: Burst out under small
amount of mixtures, free of vibrations, and high expansion ratio make
the Green engine much quieter. It is really environment-friendly. Green
engine vehicles could transport troops on the battlefield of the future,
and could serve as a vital source of auxiliary power in combat. This is
because these engines are quiet, flexible and operate at low temperature.
Low Cost: Limited parts, small in size, light in weight and depending
upon current mature materials and manufacturing technologies, mean
that it would be done at much lower cost on manufacture, transportation,
installing to other devices, and maintenance
Thus, the Green Engines could be used as the ideal power plants
on a very wide range of applications in transportation, communication,
farm, mine, engineering, military uses, such as automobiles, aircraft,
boats, ships, hovers, tractors, locomotives, generators, snowmobiles,
chainsaws, helicopters, tanks, torpedoes, submarines etc. The
environmental problems can be effectively overcome by the use of
Green engine. It can use almost any type of fuel available. It is superior
to the conventional I.C. engine in terms of smooth operation, efficiency
and cost. Compared to conventional piston engine operated on four
phases, the Green Engine is an actual six-phase internal combustion
engine with much higher expansion ratio. Already it is being used in
some of the application like aircraft, ships and locomotives. Research
is going on for its effective use in wider range of transport vehicles.
89
UNIT VIII
TESTS
ТЕСТЫ
TEST I
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них глагол-сказуемое, определите его видовременную
форму и залог.
1) The ship is provided with oil residue tanks with the total
capacity of 10 cu. m.
2) We have repaired three Russian vessels so far, two from the
North Shipping Company and a research vessel belonging to
the Academy of Sciences.
3) We were repairing the engine the whole morning and could
not leave the port in time.
4) All fuel oil pumps were carefully inspected before bunkering.
2. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните Participle I и
Participle II и установите, является ли оно определением,
обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1) The ordered supplies will be delivered tomorrow.
2) When spare parts received, please inform us.
3) According to the ship's specifications, the working pressure
of the boiler should be 10 kg / sq. cm.
4) All ships should be equipped with technical facilities that make
impossible to discharge water containing oil or oil products
into the sea.
3. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом
из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите на
русский язык.
1) Routine cleaning and overhaul may be carried out at sea.
2) The Chief Engineer can decide which item can run longer
than planned.
3) Discharge valves are to be shut and sealed.
4) Pistons should also be examined for cracks.
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4. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст, обращая внимание на пояснения к тексту.
Fuel System
The fuel piping system comprises the fuel supply lines, highpressure fuel lines and fuel heating pipes, if heavy fuel is used. Fuel
supply lines include the supply lines from the fuel transfer pumps and
preheating arrangement to the fuel filters and fuel pumps on the engine
supply also the fuel supply lines to the installation. High-pressure fuel
lines connect the fuel pumps with the fuel valves and are under very
high intermittent pressure.
Fuel system fittings are: fuel transfer pump, fuel filter, fuel pressure
-maintenance valve, fuel shut-off valve, fuel non-return valve.
The fuel transfer pump is driven separately by an electric motor.
The fuel filter contains several filter elements which can be switched
over during operation and is designed for steam heating.
The fuel pressure-retaining valve is designed for adjustable back
pressure. The pressure adjusted should be so high that there is no
formation of vapor on the suction side of the pumps. The fuel shut-off
valve opens during operations and is provided with a double cone seat
to prevent leakage, so that the main pipe can be isolated for dismantling
the fuel pumps or preheating.
The non-return valve is situated between the fuel pumps and the
overflow line with single-controlled fuel pumps. During operation
the surplus fuel delivered by the fuel transfer pumps runs off into the
overflow line. When dismantling a fuel pump, the letter is isolated from
the overflow line by the non-return valve.
Each cylinder possesses its own fuel pump, which discharges a
definite quantity of fuel through the discharge line to the fuel valve at
the correct moments and under high pressure, the fuel is then sprayed
into the combustion chamber.
Vocabulary
1. fuel piping system - трубопровод топливной системы
2. fuel heating pipes- трубопровод подогрева топлива
3. intermittent pressure - пульсирующее давление
4. pressure-maintenance (remaining) valve - клапан постоянного
давления
91
5. shut-off valve - отсечной клапан
6. non-return valve - невозвратный клапан
7. to adjust - регулировать
8. discharge line - трубопровод подачи
9. double cone seat - двухконусное седло
10. overflow line - трубопровод перелива
11. dismantling - демонтаж
12. single-controlled - насос основной
TEST II
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом
из них глагол-сказуемое, определите его видовременную форму
и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1) The ship is equipped in accordance with the provisions of
the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships.
2) For generating steam for main engine fire-tube boilers have
been replaced by water-tube boilers.
3) The company has refused to make repairs to the damaged
boiler on the m/v "Maria Ulyanova".
4) The storm began when the ship was approaching the port.
2. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните Participle I и
Participle II и установите, является ли оно определением,
обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1) The ship built in a foreign port is usually repaired at the same
yard.
2) The condensing turbines exhaust their steam to a condenser.
3) The auxiliary pump is used when the turbine is started.
4) When received, pistons are carefully checked and measured
against their original dimensions.
3. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом
из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите на
русский язык.
1) This loss, however, can be minimized by careful design.
92
2) The hose is to be connected and disconnected by the shore
attendant.
3) Hard particles may also be produced by corrosion.
4) Cylinder liners must be examined externally for deposits of
scale.
4. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст, обращая внимание на пояснения к тексту.
Supercharging
Supercharging, or pressure charging, is a means of increasing the
power output of a given engine. It is the process of filling the engine
cylinder with air before the compression stroke starts. The pressure
of this air is above atmospheric in order to get a greater weight
of air into the cylinder. If to start with a higher pressure, the final
compression pressure will be higher. This means that if the engine is
supercharged, the volume of the compression space must be enlarged if
the compression pressure, will be higher. This means that if the engine
is supercharged, the volume of the compression space must be enlarged
if the compression pressure is to be kept the same.
Having a greater weight of air in the cylinder more fuel is burnt.
Although more oil is burnt there is more air present and the ratio of oil
to air is the same as without supercharging.
Exhaust occurs at a higher pressure, but the temperature of the
exhaust is lower than with ordinary operation. The inlet valve opens
before the exhaust valve closes and the inlet air being higher in pressure
than the exhaust gases at the time the inlet valve opens. The air is blown
through the compression space, scavenging out the gases and cooling
them, the piston and cylinder walls. This action completely fills the
cylinder space with fresh air and the net increase in power developed
in the engine may be as much as 50%.
In modern Diesel engines exhaust gas turbocharging is widely used.
The exhaust-driven turbochargers operate on the pulse system or on the
constant-pressure principle, and are independent of the crankshaft. Their
speed changes with the load on the engine. The air compressed by the
turbochargers flows into the scavenging-air receiver and through nonreturn valve into the chambers below each cylinder. Here it is further
93
compressed by the pistons on their downward stoke before flowing into
the combustion space when the pistons uncover the scavenging ports.
When the turbocharger is out of action, the ship can run at 75%
of her normal speed.
Vocabulary
1. supercharging - наддув
2. weight-вес
3. pulse system - импульсная система
4. net increase - чистое увеличение
5. gas turbocharging - газотурбонаддув
6. downward - вниз
7. turbocharger - турбокомпрессор
8. inlet valve - выпускной клапан
9. exhaust valve - выхлопной клапан
10. to occur - происходить
11. scavenging-air receiver - ресивер продувочного воздуха
TEST III
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них глагол-сказуемое, определите его видовременную
форму и залог.
1) The Chief Mate is showing the life-boats to the inspector now.
2) The ice-breaker has already conducted the cargo ship"
Gotland" to the port.
3) A lot of oil has been spilled near the coast.
4) When pistons are received by us they are carefully checked
and measured against their original dimensions.
2. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните Participle I и
Participle II и установите, является ли оно определением,
обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1) The Convention MARPOL 73/78 was primarily aimed at
pollution resulting from routine tanker operation.
94
2) MARPOL 73/78 requires unscheduled inspection or mandatory
annual surveys of ships.
3) The lubricant employed should be of good quality.
4) A centrifugal pump on the turbine shaft is often used to supply
oil.
3. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом
из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите на
русский язык.
1) Water contamination of lubricating oil on board a ship can
seriously damage engine bearings and cause engine failure.
2) The equipment is to be delivered within 12 months.
3) All carbon deposits should be removed from cylinder ports.
4) In turbine design the amount of condenser vacuum must be
given due attention.
4. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст, обращая внимание на пояснения к тексту.
Turbocharging
In the four-stroke naturally aspirated engine, the air for combustion
is drawn in from atmosphere the suction stroke. In the turbocharged
engine, the air is supplied pre-compressed and, in some cases, cooled.
A greater weight of air for combustion is thus available in the cylinder
and due to the valve overlap the cylinder is scavenged of the exhaust
gases. The effect of turbocharging is:
1) to increase the weight of air available for combustion;
2) to scavenge the residual gases;
3) to cool all parts in the combustion chamber.
With the greater air weight, a greater quantity of fuel can be burned
and an increase of power obtained without increasing the temperature
and the heat stresses in the engine.
The turbocharger comprises a single stage axial flow exhaust gas
driven turbine, driving a centrifugal air compressor which draws air from
the atmosphere and delivers it under pressure to the air inlet manifold,
then through the air inlet valves to the cylinders the gas turbine wheel
and air impeller are mounted on a common rotor shaft carried in bearings
mounted at each end of the shaft.
95
The impulse energy of the gases from the various cylinders is used
to drive the turbocharger and there is no loss of engine power. To ensure
efficient scavenging it is necessary to have a large overlap of the air
and exhaust valves. With this overlap on multi-cylinder engines it is
essential to avoid interference in the exhaust pipes between the exhaust
impulses from successive cylinders, as this would interfere with efficient
scavenging. To eliminate this, two, three or four exhaust pipes are used
depending on the number of cylinders.
Vocabulary
1. naturally aspirated engine - обычный двигатель, без наддува
2. residual exhaust gas- остаточный выхлопной газ
3. throttling - дросселирование
4. valve overlap - перекрытие клапанов
5. exhaust gas driven turbine- турбина, приводимая в движение
выхлопными газами
6. multi-cylinder engine - многоцилиндровый двигатель
7. to avoid interference - избегать помехи
8. wheel - рабочее колесо, диск
9. weight - вес, объем
10. turbocharger - турбокомпрессор
11. to scavenge - продувать
12. loss - потеря
96
СПИСОК СОКРАЩЕНИЙ, ВСТРЕЧАЮЩИХСЯ В
ТЕКСТАХ СУДОМЕХАНИЧЕСКОЙ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ
1. m - meter - метр
2. ft - foot (30,5 см) - фуг
3. in - inch. (2,5 см) - дюйм
4. mm - millimeter - миллиметр
5. cu.m. - cubic meter - кубический метр
6. yd - yard (91.44 см) - ярд
7. m.l.d - moulded - проектный, расчетный
8. F. - Fahrenheit - температурная шкала Фаренгейта
9. С. - Centigrade - температурная шкала Цельсия
10. dwt. (d.w.) - deadweight - полная грузоподъемность судна,
дедвейт
11. Ltd. - limited - (о компании) - с ограниченной ответственностью
12. Nо - number - номер, число
13. о.а. - overall — полный, общий
14. b. p. - between perpendiculars - межу перпендикулярами
15. lb. - libra - pound - фунт
16. atm. - atmosphere - атмосфера
17. eff. - efficiency - производительность, к.п.д.
18. fig. - figure - рисунок
19. etc. - et cetera - и так далее
20. deg. - degree - градус
21. i.e. - that is - то есть
22. е.g. - example- например
23. В.Н.Р. - bhp - brake horse power - мощность
24. I.H.P. - i. h. p - indicated hor­se power - индикаторная мощность
25. E.H.P. - e. h. p. - effective hor­se power - полезная мощность
26. S.H.P. - s. h. p. - shaft horse power - мощность на валу
27. av. eff. - average efficiency - средняя производительность
28. cap. - capacity - мощность
29. pres. - pressure - давление
30. vol. - v. - volume - объем, сила звука
31. v.v. - vice versa - наоборот
32. F.O. - O.F. - fuel oil - жидкое топливо
33. I.P. - intermediate pressure - среднее давление
97
34. p. s. i. - psi - pounds per square inch - фунты на кв.дюйм
35. Lb. per sq. in. - pounds per square inch - фунты на кв.дюйм
36. g.p. - gauge pressure - давление по манометру
37. m.p.h. - miles per hour - мили в час
38. r. p. m. - rev./min - revolutions per minute - обороты в минуту
39. kg/hr - kilograms per hour - кг в час
40. gr/hr/h - grams per horse power per hour - граммы на л.с. в час
41. t/day - tons per day - тонны в день
42. N.C.R. - nominal continuous rating - ном. длительная мощность
43. М.С.Н. - maximum continuous rating - макс. длительная мощность
44. V-type - V-образный
45. c/s - cst – centistokes- сантистокс (ед. вязкости топлива)
46. BDC - bottom dead center - нижняя мертвая точка
47. ТDC - top dead centre - верхняя мертвая точка
48. L.P. - low pressure - низкое давление
49. Н.Р. - high pressure - высокое давление
50. m. e. p. - mean effective pressure - среднее эффективное давление
51. m. i. p. - mean indicated pressure - среднее индикаторное давление
52. L.W.L. - load waterline - грузовая ватерлиния
53. m./v. - motor vessel - теплоход
54. s/s - steamship - пароход
55. naut. - nautical - морской
56. vis., visc. - viscosity - вязкость
57. wt. - weight - вес
58. C.M.R. - continuous maximum rating – продолжительная макс.
нагрузка
59. 1/h - 1/hr - liters per hour - литры в час
60. d. c. - direct current - постоянный ток
61. а. с. - alternating current - переменный ток
62. p.c. - percent-процент
63. P (pound) - фунт стерлингов
64. h. p. - horse power - мощность, л.с.
65. lub. - lubrication - смазка
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66. NTDE - new technology diesel engines - дизели нового поколения
67. TDE - traditional technology diesel engines - традиционные
дизели
68. RR - relative risk - относительный риск
69. PM - particulate matter - твердые частицы
70. NG - new technology gasoline - бензин новой технологии
71. LEV - low emission vehicle - автотранспортное средство с пониженным уровнем выбросов
72. IPCS - International Program on Chemical Safety - международная программа по химической безопасности
73. EPA - Environmental Protection Agency - агентство по охране
окружающей среды
Сокращения, используемые в инструкциях и
современных справочниках по диагностике
и ремонту дизельных двигателей
The list below includes definitions of common acronyms that you
may come across; acronyms are alphabetized for your convenience.
AAT - Ambient air temperature
B5 - Common biodiesel blend; 5% biodiesel, 95% petroleum diesel
B10 - Method of approximating diesel engine service life
B20 - Common biodiesel blend; 20% biodiesel, 80% petroleum diesel
B50 - Method of approximating diesel engine service life
CAC - Charge-air-cooler, synonymous with intercooler or after-cooler
CEL - Check engine light
CDR - Crankcase depression regulator
CKP - Crankshaft position sensor
CPS - Camshaft position sensor
CR - Common rail
CTD - Cummins turbo diesel
DEF - Diesel exhaust fluid
DI - Direct injection
DIT - Direct injection turbocharged
DOC - Diesel oxidation catalyst
DPF - Diesel particulate filter
DTC - Diagnostic trouble code
99
EBP - Exhaust back pressure, alternatively EP (exhaust pressure)
ECM - Engine control module
ECT - Engine coolant temperature
ECU - engine control unit
EGR - Exhaust gas recirculation
EGT - Exhaust gas temperature, typically measured before the turbine
inlet of the turbocharger.
EOT - Engine oil temperature
EP or EBP- Exhaust pressure, exhaust back pressure
FSD - Fuel system driver
IAT - Intake air temperature, typically used in reference to a sensor in
the air intake system
IC - Intercooler, synonymous with charge-air-cooler or after-cooler
ICP - Injector control pressure, often used in reference to the ICP sensor
found on 7.3L and 6.0L Power Stroke diesel engines. The sensor
reads the pressure in the high pressure oil circuit
IDI - Indirect injection
IDM - injector driver module
IDS - Integrated diagnostic system
IP - Injection pump or injector pump
HEUI - Hydraulic electronic unit injector
HPOP - High pressure oil pump, referring to the heart of the high
pressure oil circuit on 7.3L and 6.0L Power Stroke diesels
KOEO - Key on engine off
KOER - Key on engine running
LP - Lift pump, referring to the low pressure fuel pump on a diesel
engine.
LSD - Low sulfur diesel
MAP - Manifold absolute pressure, the absolute pressure as measured
in the intake manifold. Not to be confused with gauge pressure,
absolute pressure reads ~14.7 psi at sea level
MGP - Manifold gauge pressure, the gauge pressure as measured in
the intake manifold. This is synonymous with turbocharger boost
pressure.
MIL - Malfunction indicator lamp
100
NOx - Nitrous oxides; used as shorthand for the compounds nitric oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), both of which are an important
part of diesel emission regulations. Not to be confused with nitrous
oxide. May be used in reference to a NOx sensor, an integral part
of SCR emissions systems
N-m - Newton meters, a metric measurement of torque (convertible
to ft-lbs/lb-ft)
OBD - On-board diagnostic system
PMD - Pump mounted driver
RPM - Revolutions per minute; engine speed
SCR - Selective catalytic reduction
TFT - Transmission fluid temperature
TPS - Throttle position sensor (APPS is more common in diesel
applications as there is technically not a traditional "throttle" in
most applications)
TSB - Technical service bulletin
ULSD - Ultra low sulfur diesel
VGT - Variable geometry turbocharger
WOT - Wide open throttle
101
ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЕ ТАБЛИЦЫ
Active (действительный залог)
Future
Past
Present
Indefinite
Continuous
Perfect
am
+ Ving
are
have
+ Ved, V3
has
Perfect
Continuous
have
+ been + Ving
has
I have been
writing.
V, Vs
is
I write.
I am writing.
Я пишу
(часто).
написал (уже, Я пишу (уже час,
Я пишу (сейчас). Я только
что)
с двух)
Ved, V2
was
+ Ving
were
had + Ved, V3
had + been +
Ving
I wrote.
I was writing.
I had written.
писал (вчера,
Я написал Я
в 3 часа, когда
(вчера).
он вошёл).
Я написал (вчера, к 3 часам, до
того как...)
I had been writing.
I have written.
will + V
will + be +
Ving
will + have +
Ved, V3
I'll write.
I'll be writing. I'll have written.
Я напишу
(завтра).
Я буду писать
(завтра, в 3
часа).
Я напишу (завтра, к 3 часам,
до того как он
придёт).
102
Я писал (уже 2
часа, когда он
пришёл).
will + have +
been + Ving
I'll have been
writing.
Я буду писать
(завтра, к тому
времени, когда
он придёт).
Present
Passive (страдательный залог)
Indefinite
am
is + V3
are
Usually houses are built 8
months.
Continuous
am
is + being + V3
are
Perfect
have
+ been + V3
has
This house is being
built now.
This house has been
already built.
Обычно дома
Этот дом строится
строят 8 месяцев.
сейчас.
Этот дом уже построен.
Past
was
+ V3
were
This house was
built last year.
Этот дом был построен в прошлом
году.
was
+ being + V3
were
When I came last
year this house was
being built.
Когда я в прошлом
году приехал, этот
дом строился.
Future
will + be + V3
This house will be
built next year
X
Этот дом будет
построен в следующем году.
had + been + V3
This house had been
built before I came.
Этот дом был построен до того, как я
приехал.
will + have + been
+ V3
This house will have
been already built by
January.
Этот дом уже будет
построен к Январю.
PARTICIPLE
Participle I
(Present Participle)
using
Active
(использующий)
being used
Passive
(использующийся)
Participle II
(Past Participle)
used
(использованный)
103
Perfect
Participle
having used
(использовав)
having been used
(после того, как
использовали)
БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ануфриева Л.Н., English for Engine - Room Matters (Английский для машинной команды судна)/ Л.Н. Ануфриева, А.Ю.
Стрелков. - Владивосток: Учебное пособие "Владивосток",
2004. - 148 с.
Колыбенко О.С. Пособие по английскому языку по теме
"Engines" для студентов 1-го курса факультета механизации
сельского хозяйства/ О.С. Колыбенко. - Горки: БГСХА, 2013.
Сидорова И.А., Учебное пособие "Diesel Engine"/ И.А. Сидорова, Е.В. Жигалкина. - Новосибирск: Новосибирская
Государственная Академия Водного Транспорта, 2004. - 96 с.
Хабина Н. Развитие навыков чтения литературы по специальности для студентов АТ факультета (Английский язык): учебное пособие / Н.К. Хабина, Т.И. Белик. - Челябинск : Изд-во
ЮУрГУ, 2004. - 41 с.
Электронные источники:
Marine Diesels.co.UK.: сайт. - URL: http://www.marinediesels.
info/Basics/lubrication_system.htm (дата обращения: 30.09.2019).
- Текст: электронный
MechStuff: сайт. - URL: http://mechstuff.com/differencesadvantages-disadvantages-of-4-stroke-2-stroke-engine/ (дата
обращения: 05.10.2019). - Текст: электронный
Quora, a place to share knowledge and better understand the world:
сайт. - URL: https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-differencebetween-a-2-stroke-engine-and-a-4-stroke-engine-3 (дата обращения: 22.11.2019). - Текст: электронный
Woodford C. Diesel engines / Chris Woodford - Текст: электронный // ExplainThatStuff!: Интернет-портал. - URL: https://
www.explainthatstuff.com/diesel-engines.html (дата обращения:
17.10.2019)
104
Содержание
UNIT I TYPES OF MARINE ENGINES
ТИПЫ МОРСКИХ ДВИГАТЕЛЕЙ.............................................3
UNIT II DIESEL ENGINE OPERATION AND MAIN
COMPONENTS
РАБОТА ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГАТЕЛЯ И ЕГО ЧАСТИ............8
UNIT III TYPES OF MARINE DIESELS
ТИПЫ ДИЗЕЛЬНЫХ ДВИГАТЕЛЕЙ.......................................17
UNIT IV DIESEL ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM
СИСТЕМА ОХЛАЖДЕНИЯ ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГАТЕЛЯ...31
UNIT V DIESEL ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM
СМАЗОЧНАЯ СИСТЕМА ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГАТЕЛЯ......36
UNIT VI CONVERSATIONAL TOPICS
РАЗГОВОРНЫЕ ТЕМЫ.............................................................41
UNIT VII TEXTS FOR READING, TRANSLATING AND
RENDERING
ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ,ПЕРЕВОДА И АННОТИРОВАНИЯ
И РЕФЕРИРОВАНИЯ................................................................52
UNIT VIII TESTS
ТЕСТЫ.........................................................................................90
СПИСОК СОКРАЩЕНИЙ, ВСТРЕЧАЮЩИХСЯ В ТЕКСТАХ
СУДОМЕХАНИЧЕСКОЙ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ......................97
Сокращения, используемые в инструкциях и
современных справочниках по диагностике и
ремонту дизельных двигателей...............................99
ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЕ ТАБЛИЦЫ................................................102
БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ..........................................................................104
105
Учебное издание
Сидорова Ирина Анатольевна
Иностранный язык
DIESEL ENGINE
Дизельный двигатель
Учебное пособие
Компьютерная верстка: Шулика И.В.
Подписано в печать 17.05.2014 с оригинал-макета
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