A course in language teaching - Ur

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY
PRES S
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CambridgeUniversityPress
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@ CambridgeUniversity
Press1991
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Firstpublished1996
lTth printing2009
Printedin the United Kingdomat rhe UniversiryPress,Cambridge
A cataloguerecordfor this publicationis auailablefrom the British Library
Library of CongressCataloguingin Publicationdata
Ur, Penny.
A coursein languageteaching:practiceand theory / PennyUr.
p. cm.
Includesbibliographical
refrrences.
ISBN978-0-521
-44994-6paperback
1. Languageand language- Studyand teaching.I. Title
P51.U71995
41.8'.007- dc20
94-35027
CIP
ISBN 978-0-521-44994-6
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Gontents
Units with a ) symbol are componentsof the 'core' course;thosewith a F
symbolare'optional'.
Acknowledgements
ix
Readthisfirst To the (trainee)teacher
To thetrainer
xii
xl
lntroduction
Module
1:Presentations
andexplanations
) Unit One: Effectivepresentation
D Unit Two: Examplesof presentationprocedures
) Unit Three: Explanationsand instructions
LI
1.3
L6
2:Practice
Module
activities
) Unit One: The function of practice
) Unit Two: Characteristicsof a good practiceactiviry
) Unit Three: Practicetechniques
D Unit Four: Sequenceand progressionin practice
19
21,
24
27
Module
3:Tests
'What
are testsfor?
) Unit One:
Unit
Two:
Basic
concepts;
the test experience
)
Unit
Three:
Typ"r
elicitation
of
test
techniques
)
Four:
Designing
Unit
a
test
F
F Unit Five: Testadministration
11
JJ
35
37
41,
42
4:Teaching
Pronunciation
Module
'What
doeste4chingpronunciation involve?
) Unit One:
F Unit Two: Listeningto accents
) Unit Three: Improving learners'pronunciation
F Unit Four: Further topics for discussion
) Unit Five: Pronunciationand spelling
,
47
50
52
54
56
Contents
Mo d u 5
l e:T e a ch ivo
n gca bular y
) Unit One: \fhat is vocabulary and what needsto be taught?
) Unit Two: Presentingnew vocabulary
tr Unit Three: Rememberingvocabulary
) Unit Four: Ideasfor vocabularywork in the classroom
F Unit Five: Testingvocabulary
60
63
64
68
69
Mo d u 6
l e:T e a ch ignra
g mm ar
'Vfhat
is grammar?
) Unit One:
F Unit Two: The place of grammar teaching
tr Unit Three: Grammaticalterms
) Unit Four: Presentingand explaining grammar
) Unit Five: Grammar practiceactivities
Grammaticalmistakes
D Unit Six:
75
76
78
81
83
85
Module
7:Topics,
situations,
notions,
functions
) Unit One: Topics and situations
) Unit Two: What ARE notions and functions?
) Unit Three: Teachingchunks of language:from rext to task
F Unit Four: Teachingchunks of language:from task to text
F Unit Five: Combining different kinds of languagesegments
90
92
93
96
98
Module
8:Teaching
listening
) Unit One: \7hat doesreal-life listeninginvolve?
) Unit Two: Real-lifelisteningin the classroom
tr Unit Three: Learnerproblems
) Unit Four: Typesof activities
F Unit Five: Adapting activities
105
1,07
1.1,1,
1,1,2
115
Mo d u 9
l e:T e a ch isp
n ge a king
) Unit One: Successfuloral fluencypracice
) Unit Two: The functions of topic and task
) Unit Three: Discussionactivities
F Unit Four: Other kinds of spokeninteracrion
F Unit Five: Role play and relatedtechniques
Oral testing
D Unit Six:
120
1.22
1,24
1,29
131.
133
Mo d u l1e0T: e a ch ire
n ga ding
) Unit One: How do we read?
F Unit Two: Beginningreading
) Unit Three: Typesof readingactivities
) Unit Four: Improving readingskills
F Unit Five: Advancedreading
VI
138
1,41
143
147
150
Contents
Module
11:Teaching
writing
F Unit One: Written versus spoken text
) Unit Two: Teachingprocedures
) Unit Three: Tasks that stimulate writing
D Unit Four: The processof composition
) Unit Five: Giving feedback on writing
t59
r62
r64
1.67
170
M o d u l1e2 :T hsyl
e labus
'Sfhat
is a syllabus?
) Unit One:
) Unit Two: Different fypes of language syllabus
) Unit Three: Using the syllabus
176
777
179
M o d u l1e3 :Ma te ri a l s
) Unit One: How necessaryis a coursebook?
) Unit Two: Coursebookassessment
) Unit Three: Using a coursebook
F Unit Four: Supplementarymaterials
worksheetsand workcards
F Unit Five: Teacher-made
183
1,84
1,87
1,89
192
Module
14:Topic
content
) Unit One: Different kinds of content
) Unit Two: Underlying messages
tr Unit Three: Literature (1): should it be included in the course?
) Unit Four: Literature (2): teachingideas
D Unit Five: Literature (3): teachinga specifictext
197
199
200
202
206
M o d u l1e5L: e ssopnl a n n i n g
) Unit One: What doesa lessoninvolve?
D Unit Two: Lessonpreparation
) Unit Three: Varying lessoncomponents
F Unit Four: Evaluatinglessoneffectiveness
) Unit Five: Practicallessonmanagement
2t3
2t5
216
2L9
222
16:Classroom
interaction
Module
) Unit One: Patternsof classroominteraction
) Unit TWo: Questioning
) Unit Three: Group work
) Unit Four: Individualization
D Unit Five: The selection of appropriate activation techniques
227
229
232
233
237
M o d u l1e7Gi
: vi nfe
g e d b a ck
)Unit One:
Different approachesto the nature and function of
feedback
242
vll
Contents
D Unit Two: Assessment
) Unit Three: Correctingmistakesin oral work
) Unit Four: lTritten feedback
D Unit Five: Clarifying personalattitudes
244
246
250
253
: l a ssrodoim
Mo d u l1e8C
scipline
) Unit One: What is discipline?
) Unit Two: What doesa disciplinedclassroomlook like?
D Unit Three: What teacheraction is conduciveto a disciplined
classroom?
) Unit Four: Dealing with disciplineproblems
F Unit Five: Discipline problems:episodes
2s9
260
262
264
267
motivation
Module
19:Learner
andinterest
D Unit One: Motivation: somebackgroundthinking
F Unit Two: The teacher'sresponsibility
) Unit Three: Extrinsic motivation
) Unit Four: Intrinsic motivation and interest
F Unit Five: Fluctuationsin learnerinterest
274
276
277
280
282
Module
20:Younger
andolder
learners
'What
differencedoesagemake to languagelearning?
) Unit One:
D Unit Two: Teachingchildren
D Unit Three: Teachingadolescents:studentpreferences
D Unit Four: Teachingadults: a different relationship
286
288
290
294
Module
21:Large
heterogeneous
classes
) Unit One: Defining terms
) Unit Two: Problemsand advantages
) Unit Three: Teachingstrategies(L): compulsory + optional
) Unit Four: Teachingstrategies(2): open-ending
D Unit Five: Designingyour own activities
302
303
307
309
3L2
Module
22:Andbeyond
vlll
F Unit One: Teacherdevelopment:practice,reflection,sharing
F Unit Two: Teacherappraisal
tr Unit Three: Advancing further (1): intake
F Unit Four: Advancing further (2): output
318
322
324
327
Bibliography
360
In d e x
367
Acknowledgements
I should like to thank all those who have contributed in different ways to this
book:
- To editor Marion'STilliams, who criticised, suggestedand generally
supported me throughout the writing process;
- To Cambridge University Press editors Elizabeth Serocold and Alison Sharpe,
who kept in touch and often contributed helpful criticism;
- To Catherine Walter, who read the typescript at a late stage and made
practical and very useful suggestions for change;
- To my teachers at Oranim, with whom I have over the years developed the
teacher-training methodology on which this book is based;
- And last but not least to my students, the teacher-trainees, in past and present
pre-service and in-service courses, to whom much of this material must be
familiar. To you, above anyone else, this book is dedicated; with the heartfelt
wish that you may find the fulfilment and excitement in teaching that I have;
that you may succeed in your chosen careers, and may continue teaching and
learning all your lives.
The authors and publishersare grateful to the authors,publishersand otherswho have
given their permission for the use of copyright information identified in the text. \7hile
everyendeavourhas beenmade,it has not beenpossibleto identify the sourcesof all
material usedand in suchcasesthe publisherswould welcomeinformation from
copyright sources.
p6 diagram from ExperentialLearning: Experienceas the Sourceof Learning and
Deuelopmenrby David Kolb, published by PrenticeHall, 1984@ David Kolb; p14 from
'Exploiting textbook dialoguesdynamically' by Zokan Drirnyei, PracticalEnglisb
Teacbing,1986,614:1.5-16,and from 'Excuses,excuses'by Alison Coulavin, Practical
English Teaching,1983,412:31@ Mary Glasgow MagazinesLtd, London; p14 from
English Teacher'sJournal, 1986,33; p48 from Pronunciation Tasksby Martin
Hewings, Cambridge University Press,1993;p77 (extracts1 and 2) from 'How nor to
interferewith languagelearning' by L. Newmark and (extract3) from 'Directions in the
teachingof discourse'by H. G. Widdowson in The CommunicatiueApproach to
LanguageLearning bV C.J. Brumfit and K. Johnson (eds.),Oxford University Press,
1979,by permissionof Oxford Univer3ityPress;p77 (extract4) from Awarenessof
Language:An Introdwction by Eric Hawkins, Cambridge University Press,1984;p116
adapted from TeachingListening Comprehensionby PennyUr, Cambridge University
Press,1984;p130 (extract 1) from The LanguageTeachingMatrix by Jack C. Richards,
Cambridge University Press,1990;p1.30(extract2) from Teachingtbe SpokenLanguage
by Gillian Brown and GeorgeYule, Cambridge University Press,1983;p130 (extract3)
from Discussionsthat Work-by PennyUr, Cambridge University Press,1981;pp 130-1
from Ro/e Play by G. Porter-Ladousse,Oxford University Press,1987,by permissionof
Oxford Univsrsity Press,pl51 from Task Reading by EvelyneDavies,Norman
Whitney, Meredith Pike-Blakeyand Laurie Bass,CarnbridgeUniversity Press,1.990,p152
from Points of Departure by Amos Paran,Eric Cohen Books, 1.993;p153 from Effectiue
Reading: Skillsfor AduancedStudentsby Simon Greenall and Michael Swan, Cambridge
IX
Acknowledgements
University Press,1985; Beat the Burglar, Metropolitan Police; p157 (set 3) from A few
short hops to Paradise'by JamesHenderson, The Independenton Sunday,l'1'.12'94,by
permission of The Independent; p160 from Teaching.Written English by Ronald V
'White,Heinemann Educational Books, 1980,by permissionof R. .White;p207'Teevee'
from Catch a little Rhyme by Eve Merriam @ 1966 Eve Merriam. @ renewed 1994 Dee
Michel and Guy Michel. Reprinted by permission of Marian Reiner; p251 from English
Grammar in[Jseby Raymond Murphy, Cambridge University Press,1985;p269 (episode
1 and 3) from ClassManagementand Controlby E. C. Wragg,Macmillan, 1981,
(episode2 and 5) adapted from researchby Sarah Reinhorn-Lurie;p281 (episode4) and
p291 from Classroom Teacbing Skillsby E. C. Wragg, Croom Helm, L984; p323 based
on Classroom Obseruation Tasks by Ruth !(ajnryb, Cambridge University Press,t992.
Drawings by Tony Dover. Artwork by Peter Ducker.
Rea
dthisfirst
This book is a coursein foreign languageteaching,addressedmainly to the
trainee or novice teacher,but some of its material may also be found interesting
by experiencedpractitioners.
If it is your coursebookin a trainer-ledprogramme of study then your trainer
will tell you how to use it. If, however, you are using it on your own for
independent study, I suggestyou glance through the following guidelines before
starting to read.
How to use the book
1. Skim through, get to know the'shape'of the book
Beforestarting any systematicstudy,have a look at the topics as laid out in the
Contents,leaf through the book looking at headings,read one or two of the
tasksor boxes.
The chaptersare called'modules' becauseeachcan be usedindependently;
you do not have to have done an earlier one in order to approach alatet On the
whole, however,they are ordered systematically,with the more basictopics
first.
2. Do not try to read it all!
This book is rather long, treating many topics fairly fully and densely.It is not
intendedto be read cover-to-cover.Someof the units in eachmodule are 'core'
units, marked with a black arrowhead in the margin next to the heading;you
should find that thesegive you adequatebasiccoverageof the topic, and you
can skip the rest. However,glanceat the 'optional' units, and if you find
anything that interestsyou, use it.
3. Using the tasks
The tasks are headedTask, Question,lnquiry, etc., and are printed in bold.
They often refer you to material provided within a rectangular frame labelled
Boxz for example in Module 1, Unit One there is a task in which you are asked
to considera seriesof classroomscenariosin Box 1.1, and discusshow the
teacherpresentsnew material in each.
The objectiveof the tasks is to help you understandthe material and study it
thoughtfully and critically - but they are rather time-consuming.Those that are
clearly meant to be done by a group of teachersworking togetherare obviously
impractical if you are working alone, but othersyou may find quite feasibleand
rewarding to do on your own. Someyou may prefer simply to read through
xl
Readthis first
without trying themyourself.In any case,possiblesolutionsor comments
usuallyfollow immediatelyafter the task itself, or areprovidedin the Notes
sectionat the endof eachmodule.
If vou areinterestedin moredetailedrntormatronabout the materialin this
book and the theory behindit, go on to reaclthe lntroductron on Pages1-9.
To the trainer
This book presentsa systematicprogrammeof studyintendedprimarily for preserviceor noviceteachersof foreignlanguages.
Structure
whichI havecalled'modules',sincetheyare
It is composedof.22chapters
Eachmoduleis dividedinto unitsof study;a unit
intendedto befree-standing.
usuallytakesbetweenoneandtwo hoursto do.
A foundationcourseis providedby the coreunits (labelledwith black
arrowheadsin the marginwheretheyoccurin the book,and in the Contents);
sucha coursewould takeabout50-80 hoursof classtime if you do not
it in anyway.Someof the optionalunitsmay be substitutedfor core
supplement
units whereyou feelit appropriatefor your own context,or simply addedfor
further enrichment.An evenshortercoufsemay be basedon the coreunits of
onlv the first elevenmodules.
courses;a Isingle
for short
snort rn-servrce
rn-servrce
modulesmay
mavbeusedas basestor
Individual
lndrvrdualmodules
module,studiedin its entireryshouldtakeaboutonestudyday (aboutsix
tl
nours,to get tnrougn.
Content
The materialin the modulesincludesinformation, tasksand study basedon
practiceteachingand observation.
The information sectionscan furnish eithera basisfor your own input
checkson
sessions
or readingfor trainees.Thereareoftenbrieftasks(questions,
which may be usedfor shon
within thesesections,
interspersed
understanding)
or homewriting assignments.
discussions
to materiallaid out in the boxes:for
Tasksareusuallybasedon responses
examplea box may displaya shortscenarioof classroominteraction,and the
readeraskedto criticizethe way the teacheris elicitingstudentresponses.
'Where
appropriate,possiblesolutionsor my own ideason the issuesaregiven
immediatelybelowthe task.This closejuxtapositionof questionsand answers
is intendedto savethe readerfrom leafingback and forth looking for the
is that traineesmay be temptedto look
but the disadvantage
answerselsewhere,
first. The
on to the answerswithout engagingproperlywith the task themselves
of fne
the
probablyto maKe
makecopresor
problemls proDably
practicalsolutron
this problem
s olutionto thls
most practlcal
relevantbox (which should be marked@CambridgeUniversityPress)and hand
instructionsyourself,so that trainees
them out separatelygiving any necessary
xll
Readthis first
do not needto open the book at all in order to do the task; they may later be
referredto the possiblesolutionsin the book for comparisonor further
discussion.
How much you usethe tasksinvolving teachingpracticeand observation
depends,of course,on whether your traineesare actually teachingor have easy
and the viewing of
accessto activelanguage-learningclasses.Peer-teaching
video recordingsof lessons(for example,Looking at LanguageClassrooms
(t996) CambridgeUniversity Press)may be substitutedif necessary.
The Trainer'snotesat the end of the book add somesuggestionsfor
variations on the presentationof the different units, and occasionallycomment
on the background,objectivesand possibleresultsof certain tasks.They also
include estimatesof the timing of the units, basedon my experiencewhen doing
them with my own traineeslhowever,this is, of course,only a very rough
approximation, and variesa greatdeal, mainly dependingon the needfelt by
you and the traineesto developor cut down on discussions.
The following Introduction providesmore detailson the content and layout
of the book and its underlying theory and educationalapproach.
xlll
lntroduction
Gontent
The main part of this book is divided into 22 modules,eachdevotedto an
aspectof languageteaching(for example'grammar', or 'the syllabus').At the
end of most modulesis a set of Notes, giving further information or comments
on the tasks.Also attachedto eachmodule is a sectionentitled Further reading,
which is a selectedand annotatedbibliography of books and articlesrelevantto
the topic.
The modulesare grouped into sevenparts, eachfocussingon a cerftralaspect
or themeof foreign languageteaching:Part I, for example,is calledThe
teacbingprocess)and its modulesdeal with the topics of presentation,practice
and testing.Eachpart has a short introduction definingits theme and clarifying
the underlying concepts.
Each module is composedof severalseparateunits: theseagain are freestanding,and may be usedindependentlyof one another.Their content
includes:
l.lnput: background information, both practical and theoretical.Suchinput is
intendedto be treatednot as somekind of objective'truth' to be accepted
and learnedas it stands,but as a summary of ideasthat professionals,
scholarsand researchershave produced and which teachersthereforemay
benefitfrom studying and discussing.Thesesectionsmay simply be read by
teachersindependentlgor mediatedby trainers through lecturesessions.
Input sectionsare usually precededor followed by questionsor tasksthat
allow readersto reflecton and interact with the ideas,checkunderstanding
or discusscritically; in a trainer-ledsessionthey can serveas the basisfor
brief group discussionsor written assignments.The point of this is to ensure
that traineesprocessthe input and make their own senseof it rather than
simply acceptinga body of transmittedinformation.
2. Experiential work: tasks basedon teaching/learningexperience,which may
be one or more of the following:
a) Lessonobservation:focussingon the point under study.
b)Classroom teaching:where the teachertries out different procedureswith
classesof foreign languagelearners.
c) Micro-teaching:the teacherteachessmall groups of learnersor an
individual learnerfor a short period in order to focus on a particular
teachingpoint.
d) Peer-teaching:
one of a group of teacherstries out a procedureby
'teaching'the rest of the group.
lntroduction
e) Experiment: teacherstry out a techniqueor processof learning or
teaching,document resultsand draw conclusions.
f) Inquiry: a limited aspectof classroomteachingis studied through
observation,practice, or limited survey;the resultsof the study may be
written up and made availableto others.
Most experientialwork is followed by critical reflection,usually in the
form of discussionand/or writing. Its aim is to allow teachersto processnew
ideasthoughtfully and to form or test theories.
For teacherswho are not in a position to try out experientialprocedures
themselves,somepossibleresultsand conclusionsare given within the unit
itself or in the Notes at the end of the module.
3. Tasks:learning tasks done by teachersin groups or individually, with or
without a trainer, through discussionor writing. Thesemay involve such
processesas critical analysisof teachingmaterials,comparison of different
techniques,problem-solvingor free debateon controversialissues;their aim
is to provoke careful thinking about the issuesand the formulation of
personaltheories.Brief tasks may be labelled Question, Application or To
checkunderstanding,and usually follow or precedeinformational sections.
As with the experientialtasks,suggestedsolutions,resultsor commentsare
suppliedwhere appropriate: immediately following the task if they are seenas
useful input in themselves;or in the Notes at the end of the module if they are
seenrather as optional, perhapsinteresting,additions (my own personal
experiences,for example,or further illustration).
Different componentsare often combined within a unit: a task may be basedon
a reading text, or on teachingexperience;an idea resulting from input may be
tried out in class.This integration of different learning modesprovides an
expressionin practice of the theory of professionallearning on which this book
is based,and which is discussedin the Rationale below.
Note that although this courseis meant for teachersof any foreign language,
examplesof texts and tasks are given throughout in English (exceptwhen
another languageis neededfor contrast). The main reasonfor this is that the
book itself is in English, and I felt it was important as a courtesyto the reader to
ensurethat all illustrative material be readily comprehensible.Also, of course,
English itself is probably the most widely taught languagein the world today;
but if you are concernedwith the teachingof another language,you may need
to translateor otherwiseadapt texts and tasks.
The collection of topics on which the modules are basedis necessarily
selective:it is basedon those that furnish the basisfor my own (pre-service)
teacher-trainingprogramme, and which seemto me the most important and
useful.The last module of the book includesrecommendationsfor further
studS with suggestedreading.
lntroduction
Rationale
Defining concepts
'Training' and'education'
The terms 'teachertraining' and 'teachereducation' are often usedapparently
interchangeablyin the literature to refer to the samething: the professional
preparation of teachers.Many prefer 'teachereducation', since'training' can
imply unthinking habit formation and an over-emphasison skills and
techniques,while the professionalteacherneedsto developtheories,awareness
of options, and decision-makingabilities- a processwhich seemsbetter defined
by the word 'education' (see,for example,Richardsand Nunan,l'9901. Others
have made a different distinction: that 'education' is a processof learning that
developsmoral, cultural, social and intellectualaspectsof the whole personas
an individual and member of society,whereas'training' (though it may entail
some'educational'components)has a specificgoal: it preparesfor a particular
function or profession(Peters,1,9662Ch.I). Thus we normally refer to 'an
educatedperson', but'a trained scientist/engineer/nurse'.
The secondof the two distinctionsdescribedabove seemsto me the more
useful:this book thereforeusesthe term 'training'throughout to describethe
processof preparation for professionalteaching,including all aspectsof teacher
development,and reserves'education' for the more varied and generallearning
that leadsto the developmentof all aspectsof the individual as a memberof
society.
Practice and theory
Teacherscommonly complain about their training: 'My coursewas too
theoretical,it didn't help me learn to teach at all'; or praisea trainer: 'Sheis so
practical!' Or they say: 'It's fine in theory, but doesn'twork in practice.'It
soundsas if they are sayingthat theory is uselessand practiceis what they
want. And indeedthis is what many teachersfeel.But they are understanding
the two words in a very specificway: 'theory' as abstract generalizationthat has
no obvious connection with teaching reality; 'practice' as tips about classroom
procedure. The two conceptsare understood rather differently in this book.
Practiceis definedhere as (a descriptionof) a real-time localizedevent or set
of such events:particular professionalexperiences.Theory is a hypothesisor
classes
conceptthat generalizes;it may cover a set of practices('heterogeneous
learn better from open-endedtasksthan from closed-endedones');or it can
describephenomenain generalterms ('languageis usedfor communication'); or
it can expressa personalbelief ('languagelearning is of intrinsic value'). (For a
more detaileddiscussionof different types of theory seeStern, 1'983:23-32.)
Experiencing or hearing about practice is of limited use to the teacher if it is not
made more widely applicableby being incorporatedinto somesort of
theoretical framework constructed and 'owned' by the individual. For example,
you might learn about a brainstorming activity ('How many things can you
think of that ... ?') which can be usedat certain levelsfor practisingcertain
language;but if that is all you learn, then you will only ever be able to useit in
the particular context where you learnt it. However, if you then think out why
lntroduction
the activityis useful,or defineits basicfeaturesand purposesin generalterms,
or relateit to the kind of learningit produces- in otherwords,construct
theoriesto explainit - you are enabledto criticizeand designotherideasand
will know when and why to usethem. Good theoriesgeneratepractice;hence
Kurt Lewin'sfamousdictum:'Thereis nothingsopracticalasa goodtheory.'A
teacherwho hasformed a clearconceptionof the principlesunderlyinga
particularteachingprocedurecanthenusethoseprinciplesto inform and create
furtherpractice;otherwisethe originalprocedurernayremainmerelyan
isolated,inerttechniquewhich canonly be usedin onespecificcontext.In other
words,practiceon its own, paradoxicallgis not verypractical:it is a deadend.
Theory on its own is evenmore useless.
A statementlike 'Languageis
communication',
for example,is meaningfulonly if we canenvisage
its
implementation
in practice.If you reallybelievein the theoreticalconceptcalled
'communicative
languageteaching',andhavemadeit your own, this will
expressitselfin the kindsof practicalcommunicative
you use.If you
techniques
in fact usemostlymechanical
drills in class,your practiceis inconsistent
with
the theory,andclearlyyou do not genuinelybelievein the latter:you havenot
madeit your own, but havemerelgin Argyrisand Schon's(L974)terms,
'espoused'
it. 'Espoused'
theoriesthat areclaimedby an individualto betrue
but haveno clearexpression
in practice- or areevencontradictedby it - arethe
foundationof the kind of meaningless
theorythat traineescomplainabout.
Predictivehypotheses
producedby researchers
or theoristsaresimilarly
dependent
on classroompracticefor their validationand usefulness.
For
example,accordingto audiolingualism,peoplewill learnlanguages
best
throughmimicryandrepetition.Doesthis accordwith your own classroom
experience?
If not, thenthe theoryasit standsis useless
to you; but if you can
processit andreformulateit for yourselfassomethingthat is true in the light of
('Mimicry and repetitionhelpstudentsX to learnY under
your own experience
conditionsZ') thenit becomes
meaningfuland helpful.
This book attemptsto maintaina consistentlink betweenpracticeand theory:
theoreticalideasaretestedthroughand illustratedby practicalexamples,
while
samplesof practicearediscussed
and analysedin orderto studytheir wider
theoreticalimplications.
The integrationof practiceandtheorywithin the processof professional
learningis described
in moredetailin the section'Enrichedreflection'below
Foreignlanguageteaching
Finallg two briefcommentson the term 'foreignlanguageteaching',asit is
understoodin this book.
Learningmay takeplacewithout conscious
teaching;but teaching,asI
understand
it, is intendedto resultin personallearningfor students,and is
worthlessif it doesnot do so.In otherwords,the conceptof teachingis
understoodhereasa processthat is intrinsicallyandinseparably
boundup with
learning.Youwill find, therefore,no separate
of languagelearningin
discussion
this book;instead,both contentand processof the variousmodulesconsistently
requirethe readerto studylearners'problems,needsand strategies
asa
necessary
basisfor the formulation of effectiveteachingpracticeand theory.
Second,it is necessary
to distinguishbetween'teaching'and 'methodology'.
Foreignlanguageteachingmethodologycanbe definedas'the activities,tasks
4
lntroduction
and learning experiencesused by the teacherwithin the [language]teachingand
learningprocess'(Richards,1.990:351.Any particular methodologyusually has
a theoreticalunderpinningthat should causecoherenceand consistencyin the
choiceof teachingprocedures.'Foreign languageteaching',on the other hand,
though it naturally includesmethodologg has further important components
such as lessonplanning, classroomdiscipline,the provision of interest- topics
which are relevantand important to teachersof all subjects.Suchtopics,
therefore,are included in this book as well as the more conventional
methodology-basedonessuchas'teaching reading'.
Models of teacher learning
Various modelsof teacherlearning have beensuggested;the three main ones,as
describedin \Tallace(1,993),are as follows:
1. The craft model
The traineelearnsfrom the exampleof a 'masterteacher',whom he/she
observesand imitates.Professionalaction is seenas a craft, rather like
shoemaking or carpentry, to be learned most effectively through an
apprenticeshipsystemand accumulatedexperience.This is a traditional
method, still usedas a substitutefor postgraduateteachingcoursesin some
countries.
2. The applied sciencemodel
The trainee studiestheoreticalcoursesin applied linguisticsand other allied
subjects,which are then, through the construction of an appropriate
methodology,applied to classroompractice.Many university-and collegebasedteacher-trainingcoursesare based,explicitly or implicitly on this idea of
teacherlearning.
3. The reflective model
The traineeteachesor observeslessons,or recallspast experience;then reflects,
alone or in discussionwith others,in order to work out theoriesabout teaching;
then tries theseout again in practice.Sucha cycleaims for continuous
improvementand the developmentof personaltheoriesof action (Schon,1'983).
This model is usedby teacherdevelopmentgroups and in somerecently
designedtraining courses.
Vhich is likely to be most effective?Or, perhapsa better question:how do
teacherslearn most effectively,and how can this learning be integrated into a
formal courseof study?
I have severaltimes askedgroups of teachersin different countriesfrom
what, or whom, they feel they learnedtheir presentteachingexpertiseand
knowledge.Various possiblesourceswere suggested,such as colleaguesand
'masterteachers',the literature, pre- or in-servicecourses,their own experience
as teachers,their students,their own experienceas learnersland teacherswere
askedto rate eachof thesein importancefor professionallearning.Every time
the majority replied that personalteachingexperiencewas by far the most
important. (Try this yourself with teachersyou know!)
lntroduction
This answermakessenseon an intuitive, personallevel as well. I myself have
done my bestto read, study,discusswith colleagues,attend coursesand
conferencesin order to improve my professionalknowledge.Nevertheless,if
asked,I would make the samereply as the teachersin my survey:I have learnt
most through (thinking about) my own teachingexperience.This doesnot mean
that other sourcesof knowledge and learning processesdo not contribute; but it
doesmean that they are probably lessimportant.
Thus, I have chosento basethis courseprimarily on the 'reflectivemodel' as
defined at the beginning of this section.
My only reservationis that this model can tend to over-emphasizeexperience.
Coursesbasedon it have sometimesusedthe (student-)teachersthemselvesas
almost the sole sourceof knowledge,with a relative neglectof external input lectures,reading,and so on - which help to make senseof the experiencesand
can make a very real contribution to understanding.As I seeit, the function of
teacherreflectionis to ensurethe processingof any input, regardlessof where it
comes from, by the individual teacher,so that the knowledge becomes
personally significant to him or her. Thus a fully effective reflective model
should make room for external as well as personalinput.
Perhapswe might call this model 'enrichedreflection'! It is describedbelow.
'Enrichedreflection'
Kolbt (1984) theory of experientiallearning elaboratesthe idea of 'experience+
reflection'. He definesfour modes of learning: concrete experience,reflective
observation,abstractconceptualizationand activeexperimentation.In order for
optimal learningto take place,the knowledgeacquiredin any one mode needs
to be followed by further processingin the next; and so on, in a recursivecycle.
Thus, concreteexperience('somethinghappenedto me in the classroom'),which
involvesintuitive or'gut' feeling,should be followed by reflectiveobservation
('let me step back and look at what took place'),which involveswatching and
perception;this in its turn is followed by abstractconceptualization('what
principle, or concept,can I formulate which will accountfor this event?'),
involving intellectualthought; then comesactiveexperimentation('let me try to
implementthis idea in practice'),involving real-time action which will entail
further concreteexperience... and so on (seeBox 0.1).
BOX0.1:EXPERIENTIAL
LEARNING
Concrete
con ceptua Ii zation
(basedon D. A. Kolb, Experiential
Learning:Experienceas the
S ourceof Learni ngand
Development,PrenticeHall,
1984, p. 42t-
lntroduction
This model, however, needsto be enriched by external sourcesof input. It is
unrealisticand a wasteof time to expecttraineesto 'reinvent the wheel': this is
like expecting physics students to discover known laws of physics through their
own experimints. There is a lot to be learnt from experiencedteachers(asin the
craft model), from experts,from researchand.from reading (asin the applied
sciencemodel) - provided all this can be integratedinto one'sown reflectionbasedtheories.So at eachstageof Kolb's circle let us add the external sources:
experiencecan be vicarious (i.e. second-hand,such as observation,anecdote,
video, transcripts);descriptionsof other people'sobservationscan add to our
ownl theoreticalconceptscan come from foreign languageresearchersand
thinkers; ideasfor or descriptionsof experimentsfrom writers or other
professionals.And the initial stimulusfor a learning cycleof this kind can occur,
of course,at any of the eight points, not just at the point of experience(seeBox
0.2\.
REFLECTION'
BOX0.2:'ENRICHED
Vicarious
conceptualization
t\ Inputfrom professional
research,theorizing
Thus, sourcesof knowledgemay be either personalexperienceand thought
or input from outside;but in either casethis knowledgeshould, in principle, be
integiated into the trainees' own reflective cycle in order that effective learning
may take place.
To summarize:the,mostimportant basisfor learningis personalprofessional
practice;knowledgeis most usefulwhen it either derivesdirectly from such
practice,or, while deriving originally from other sources,is testedand validated
ihrough it. Hence the subtitle of this book: Practice and Theory, rather than the
more conventionalTheory and Practice.
The role of the trainer
Sucha model of professionallearning has, of course,implications for the role of
the trainer. In the 'craft model', the trainer is the masterteacher,providing an
exampleto be followed. The'applied science'modelalso givesthe trainer an
authoritative role, as the sourceof theory which the teacheris to interpret in
lntroduction
practice.Theconventional'reflecdvemodel',in contrast,caststhe trainerin the
role of 'facilitator'or'developer',givinglittle or no information,but
encouraging
traineesto developtheir own bodyof knowledge.
Accordingto the modelsuggested
here,the functionof the traineris neither
just to 'tell' the traineeswhat theyshouldbe doing,nor - just asbad- ro refuse
to tell themanythingin orderfor themto developall their knowledgeon rheir
own. The functionsof the trainer,I believe,are:
- to encourage
traineesto articulatewhat theyknow andput forward new
ideasof their own;
- to provideinput him- or herselfandto makeavailablefurthersourcesof
relevantinformation;
- and,aboveall, to gettraineesto acquirethe habit of processing
input from
eithersourcethroughusingtheir own experience
andcriticalfaculty,so that
theyeventuallyfeelpersonal'ownership'of the resultingknowledge.
Whatthe traineeshouldget from the course
Teachers,
asmentionedabove,generallyagreethat theylearnedmostfrom their
own experience
andreflectionwhile in professional
practice.Someevenclaim
that theylearnedeverythingfrom experience
andnothingfrom theirpre-service
courseat all- this is especially
true of thosewho took coursesthat were
predominantlytheoretical.
Pre-service
courses,
howevergood,cannotnormallyproducefully competent
practitionerswho canimmediatelyvie with their experienced
colleagues
in
expertise.
This is probablytrue of trainingcoursesin all theprofessions.
On the
otherhand,without an effectivecourseincomingteachers
will merely
perpetuate
the way theyweretaughtor rheway colleagues
reach,with little
opportunityto encounternew ideas,to benefitfrom progressmadein the field
by otherprofessionals,
researchers
andthinkers,or to developpersonaltheories
of actionthroughsystematic
studyandexperiment.The primaiy aim,then,of
sucha courseis to bringtraineesto the point at whichthiy can beginto
functioncompetentlyandthoughtfullgasa basisfor furtherdevelopment
and
improvementin the courseof their own professional
practice.occasionally
coursegraduates
arealreadywell on theirway to excellence,
but mostof us
start(ed)our teachingcareersat a fairlymodestlevelof competence.
Thus,a second,importantaim of the courseis to lay the seedsof further
development.
The courseshouldbe seenasthe beginningof a process,
not a
completeprocessin itself:participantsshouldbeencouraged
to develophabits
of learningthat will carrythroughinto laterpracticeandcontinuefor iheir
entireprofessional
lives(SeeModule22: And beyondl.
Finally,thereis a morelong-termaim: to promotea view of teachers
as
autonomousandcreativeprofessionals,
with responsibility
for the wider
development
of professional
theoryandpractice.This is in clearoppositionto
the 'appliedscience'modelof teacherlearning,which carrieswithli the
implicationthat thereis a hierarchyof prestigeand authority.In sucha
hierarchythe research
experrsand academics
takethehighestplace,and the
classroom
teachers
thelowest(Schon,1,983;
Bolitho,1988).Thejob of the
classroomteachers
is merelyto interpretand implementtheorywhichis handed
down to themfrom the universities.
They(theteachers)
areallowedto take
8
lntroduction
decisions,but only thosewhich affect their own classroompractice.In contrast,
this book supportsa view that teacherscan and should developtheoriesand
practicesthat are useful both within and beyondthe limits of their own
writings in Rudduck and Hopkins, 1985); and that
classrooms(seeStenhouse's
such a messageshould be conveyedthrough pre- and in-servicetraining.
Coursesshould lead traineesto rely on their own judgementand to be confident
enoughto discussand criticize ideasput forward by others,whether local
They should also
colleagues,trainers,lecturers,or universityresearchers.
promote individual researchand innovation, in both practical and theoretical
topics, and encouragethe writing up and publication of original ideasfor
sharingwith other professionals.
References
Argyris, C. and Schon,D. A. (1,974)Theory in Practice:IncreasingProfessional
Effectiueness,SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.
Bolitho, R. (1988) 'Teaching,teachertraining and applied linguistics',TDe
TeacherTrainer,2, 3, 4-7.
Kolb, D. A. (1934) Experiential Learning: Experienceas tbe Sowrceof Learning
and Deuelopment,Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:PrenticeHall.
Peters,R. S. (1966) Ethics and Education,London: GeorgeAllen and Unwin.
Richards,J. (,990) The LanguageTeachingMatrix, Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversiryPress.
Richards,J. and Nunan, D. (1990) SecondLangwageTeacherEducation,
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
Rudduck, J. and Hopkins, D. (1985) Researchas a Basisfor Tehching:
Readingsfrom the uork of LawrenceStenhouse,London:Heinemann
EducationalBooks.
Schon,D. A. (1983) The ReflectiuePractitioner:How ProfessionalsThink in
Action, New York: BasicBooks.
Stern,H. H. (1983) FundamentalConceptsof LangwageTeaching,Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Wallace, M. (1993) Training Foreign Language Teachers:A Reflectiue
Approach, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
process
The processof teaching a foreign languageis a complex one: as with many
other subjects,it has necessarilyto be broken down into components for
purposesof study. Part I presentsthree such components:the teaching acts of
( 1) presentingand explaining new materi aI; (2) providing practice; and (3)
testing. Note that the first two conceptsare understood here rather differently
from the way they are usually usedwithin the conventional'presentationpractice-production' paradigm.
In principle, the teaching processesof presenting,practising and testing
correspond to strategiesused by many good learnerstrying to acquire a foreign
languageon their own. They make sure they perceiveand understand new
language(by paying attention, by constructing meanings,bI formulating rules
or hypothesesthat account for it, and so on); they make consciousefforts to
learn it thoroughly (by mental rehearsalof items, for example, or by finding
opportunities to practise);and they check themselves(get feedbackon
performance, ask to be corrected). (For a thorough discussionof rhe cognitive
processes
and strategiesof languagelearners,seeO'Malley and Chamot, 1990.1
In the classroom,it is the teacher'sjob to promote thesethree learning
processesby the useof appropriateteachingacts.Thus, he or she:presentsand
explainsnew material in order to make it clear,comprehensibleand available
for learning; givespractice to consolidateknowledge; and tests,in order to
checkwhat has beenmasteredand what still needsto be learnedor reviewed.
Theseactsmay not occur in this order,and may sometimesbe combinedwithin
one activity; neverthelessgood teachersare usually aware which is their main
objective at any point in a lesson.
This is not, of course,the only way peoplelearn a languagein the classroom.
They may absorb new material unconsciouslSor semi-consciously,
through
exposure to comprehensibleand personally meaningful speechor writing, and
through their own engagementwith it, without any purposeful teacher
mediation as proposed here. Through such mediation, however,the teachercan
provide a framework for organized,consciouslearning, while simultaneously
being aware of - and providing opportunities for - further, more intuitive
acqulsltron.
Thus, the three topics of presentation,practice and testing are presentedin
the following units not as the exclusivesourceof studentlearning,nor as
representinga rigid linear classroomroutine, but rather as simplified but
comprehensivecategoriesthat enableusefulstudy of basicteachingacts.
Reference
O'MalleS J. M. and Chamot, A. U. (1990) Learning Strategiesin Second
LanguageAcquisition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10
Module
1:Presentations
andexplanations
Unit One: Effective presentation
The necessityfor presentation
It would seemfairly obvious that in order for our students to learn something
new (a texq a new word, how to perform a task) they needto be first able
to perceiveand understandit. One of the teacher'sjobs is to mediatesuch new
material so that it appearsin a form that is most accessiblefor initial
learning.
This kind of mediation may be called 'presentation';the terrn is applied here
not only to the kind of limited and controlled modelling of a target item that we
do when we introduce a new word or grammatical structure, but also to the
initial encounter with comprehensibleinput in the form of spoken or written
texts, as well as various kinds of explanations,instructionsand discussionof
new languageitems or tasks.
Peoplemay, it is true, perceiveand even acquire new languagewithout
'We
consciouspresentation on the part of a teacher.
learn our first language
mostly like this, and there are somewho would argue for teaching a foreign
languagein the sameway - by exposinglearnersto the languagephenomena
without instructional intervention and letting them absorb it intuitively.
However, raw, unmediated new input is often incomprehensibleto learners; it
doesnot function as 'intake', and thereforedoesnot result in learning.In an
immersion situation this doesnot matter: learnershave plenty of time for
repeatedand different exposuresto such input and will eventuallyabsorb it. But
given the limited time and resourcesof conventionalforeign languagecourses,
as much as possibleof this input has to becomealso 'intake' at first encounter.
Hencethe necessityfor presentingit in such a way that it can be perceivedand
understood.
Another contribution of effective teacher presentationsof new material in
formal coursesis that they can help to activateand harnesslearners'attention,
effort, intelligenceand conscious('metacognitive')learning strategiesin order
to enhancelearning- again, somethingthat doesnot necessarilyhappenin an
immersion situation. For instance,you might point out how a new item is
linked to something they aheady know, or contrast a new bit of grammar with
a parallel structurein their own language.
This doesnot necessarilymean that everysinglenew bit of language- every
sound,word, structure,text, and so on - needsto be consciouslyintroduced; or
that everynew unit in the syllabushas to start with a clearly directed
presentation.Moreover, presentationsmay often not occur at the first stageof
learning: they may be given after learners have akeady engagedwith the
LL
1 Presentationsand explanations
languagein question, as when we clarify the meaning of a word during a
discussion,or read aloud a text learnershave previously read to themselves.
The ability to mediate new material or instruct effectivelyis an essential
teaching skill; it enablesthe teacherto facilitate learners'entry into and
understandingof new material, and thus promotes further learning.
Question
If you have learned a foreign langnrage in a course, can ]rou recall a
particular teacher presentation or e:rplanation that facilitated your grasp of
some aspect of this language? Hovv did it help?
What happensin an effectivepresentation?
Attention
The learners are alert, focussing their attention on the teacher and/or the
material to be learnt, and aware that something is coming that they need to take
in. You need to make sure that learnersare in fact attending; it helps if the target
material is perceivedas interestingin itself.
Perception
The learnersseeor hear the target material clearly.This meansnot only making
sure that the material is clearly visible and/or audible in the first place; it also
usually meansrepeating it in order to give added opportunities for, or reinforce,
perception.Finallg it helps to get some kind of responsefrom the learnersin
order to check that they have in fact perceivedthe material accurately:
repetition, for example, or writing.
Understanding
The learnersunderstandthe meaning of the material being introduced, and its
connection with other things they already know (how it fits into their existing
perceptionsof realiry or 'schemata').So you may need to illustrate, make links
with previously learnt material, explain (for further discussionof what is
involved in explaining, seeUnit Three). A responsefrom the learners,again, can
give you valuable feedbackon how well they have understood: a restatementof
concepts in their own words, for example.
Short-term memory
The learnersneed to take the material into short-term memory: to rememberit,
that is, until later in the lesson,when you and they have an opportunity to do
further work to consolidatelearning (seeModule 2: Practiceactiuities).So the
more 'impact' the original presentationhas - for example, if it is colourful,
dramatic, unusual in any way - the better.Note that some learnersremember
better if the material is seen,others if it is heard, yet others if it is associated
with physical movement (visual, aural and kinaestheticinput): theseshould
ideally all be utilized within a good presentation.If a lengthy explanation has
taken place, it helps also to finish with a brief restatementof the main point.
t2
Examples of presentation procedu res
Group task Peer-teaching
One participant chooses a topic or item of information (not necessarily
anything to do with langruage teaching) on which they arrewell informed
and in which they are interested, but which others are likely to be relatively
ignorant about. They prepare a presentation of not more than five minutes,
and then give it.
As many participants as possible give such presentations.
For eachpresentation, pick out and discuss whatwas effective about it,
using where relevant the criteria suggested under What happens in an
effec tive presentation? above.
In Box 1.1 are four accounts,three written by teachersand one by a student,of
four quite different types of presentations.The first describeshow a teacherof
young children in a primary school in New Zealand teachesthem to read and
write their first words; the secondis a recommendationof how to introduce a
short foreign languagedialoguein primary or secondaryschool;the third is an
unusual improvisedpresentationof a particular languagefunction with a class
of adults; and the fourth is the first presentationto a middle-schoolclassof a
play.
soliloquy from a Shakespeare
you
may
help
study the texts; my own commentsfollow.
The task below
Task Griticizing
presentations
For each of the descriptions in Box l.l, consider and/or discuss:
l. lMhat was the aim of the presentation?
2. Hor successful do you think this presentation was' or would be, in
getting students to attend to, perceive, understand and remember the
target material? You may find it helpfitl to refer back to the criteria
described in Unit One.
3. Hovvappropriate and effective wor:ld a similar procednre be for you, in
your teaching situation (or in a teaching situation you are familiar with)?
Comments
This is obviously only a small sampleof the many presentationtechniques
availableto languageteachers.
1. Reading words
The teacherhas basedthis presentationon the students'own choice of
vocabularg derivedfrom their own 'inner worlds'. Sheis thus tapping not only
intellectualbut also personalemotional associationswith the vocabulary;such
associations,it has beenshown by research,have a clear positive effecton
retention, as well as on immediateattention, generalmotivation, and - her main
objective- ability to read the material.
t3
1 Presentationsand explanations
PRESENTATIONS
BOX 1.1: DIFFERENT
Presentation
1:Readingwords
onecanalwaysbeginhimon
... Butif thevocabulary
of a childis stillinaccessible,
commonto anychildin anyrace,a set of wordsbound
the generalKeyVocabulary,
andlateron theircreativewriting,showto be
up with securitythat experiments,
'kiss','frightened',
organically
associated
withthe innerworld:'Mummy','Daddy',
'ghost'.
'Mohi... whatworddoyouwant?'
'Jet
lsmileandwriteit ona stronglittlecardandgiveit to him.
,What is it again?'
'Jet
'Youcanbringit backinthemorning.
Whatdoyouwant,Gay?'
mother.
victimof therespectable
Gayistheclassic
overdisciplined,
bullied
'House,'
shewhispers.
SoI writethat,too,andgiveit intohereagerhand.
(fromSylvia
1980,pp.3F6)
Teacher,Yirago,
Ashton-Warner,
2: Learninga dialogue
Presentation
of the
isto achieve
Themainobiective
at thebeginning
a goodworkingknowledge
...
afterwards
inthetextbook,
or elaborated
dialogue
sothatit canbealtered
andaskthe studentsto repeatit
1. Readout the dialogue,
utterance
by utterance,
in differentformations,
actingoutthe rolesin thefollowingways:
a) togetherin chorus;
b) halfof the classtakeoneroleandtheotherhalftaketheotherrole;
c) onestudentto anotherstudent;
d) onestudent
to therestof theclass...
(fromZoltanDdrnyei,'Exploiting
dynamrcally'
English
textbookdialogues
, Practical
1986,6,4, 15-16)
Teaching
Presentation
3:Accusations
- a trafficjam,a lastminutephonecall,a
It canhappen
to anyone
who commutes
car that won't start- andyou realiseyou are goingto be latefor a lesson...
However,attackbeingthe bestformof defence,I recentlyfounda wayto turnmy
latenessto goodaccount.A full ten minutesafterthe startof the lesson,I strode
intothe classroom
andwroteon the boardin hugeletters
YOU'RE
LATE!
ThenI invitedthe students
to yellat me with allthe venomtheycouldmuster
andwe alllaughed.
SoI wrote:
You'relateagain!
and:
You'realwayslatel
Sowe practised
theseforms.Theyseemedto get a realkickout of puttingthe
the pleasure
of righteous
stressin the rightplace... Whenwe had savoured
most
indignation,
I proposed
that everyone
shouldwrite downthe accusations
poured
outsuchas:
levelled
at him(orher).A richandvariedselection
commonly
Youalwayseatmy sweets!
You'velostthe kevsr
Youhaven'tlostthe keysagain!
'Excuses,
(fromAlisonCoulavin,
Teaching,
1983,4, 2, 31)
Practical
excuses',
English
4: Dramaticsoliloquy
Presentation
... I shallneverforgetMissNancyMcCall,
andthe dayshewhippeda ruleroff my
'ls thisa dagger
whichI
desk,andpointing
it towardsheramplebosom,declaimed,
heartsa-thumping,
in electrified
seebeforeme?'Andtherewe sat,eyesa goggle,
sIence.
(aletterfromAnnaSottoin TheEnglishTeachers'
Journal(lsrael)1986,33)
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
1,4
Examplesof presentationprocedures
Certainly the use of items suggestedby the learners themselvescan contribute
to the effectivenessof any kind of presentation; however, this idea may be more
difficult to implement in large classes,or where classroomrelationshipsare
more formal.
2. Learninga dialogue
The aim of this presentation is to get students to learn the dialogue by heart for
further practice.
The writer describesa systematicprocedureinvolving initial clear
presentation of the target text by the teacher,followed by varied and numerous
repetitions. The resulting preliminary rote learning of the words of the dialogue
would probably be satisfactory.
But nothing is done to make sure the dialogue is meaningful and interesting
to the students.As it stands,the method of teachingdoesnot provide for
cognitive or affective 'depth': it fails to engagethe students' intellectual or
emotional faculties in any way. [t is important to emphasizelearners'
understanding of the meaning of the dialogue from the beginning, not iust their
learning by heart of the words, and to find ways of stimulating their interest in
it, through the content of the text itself, the teacher'spresentation of it, visual
illustration, or various other means.
3. Accusations
The first two exampleswere accounts of systematicpresentationsof planned
material. This, in contrast, describesan activity improvised by a resourceful
teacherwith a senseof humour and a friendly relationshipwith the class,who
exploits a specificreal-timeeventto teach a languagefunction (accusation,
reproach),with its typical grammar and intonation pafferns.
The presentation seemslikely to produce good perception and initial
learning:not becauseof any carefully planned process,but becauseof the
heightenedattention and motivation causedby the humour (rooted in the
temporary legitimizing of normally 'taboo'verbal aggression)and by the fact
that many of the actual texts are personally relevant to the learners (compare
with PresentationL above).
4. Dramatic soliloquy
This classroomevent is recalled from the point of view of the student, and it was
obviously successfulin attracting the students' attention, getting them to perceive
the material and imprinting it very quickly on their short-term (indeed,longterm!) memory - all these,probablS beingpart of the teacher'sobjectives.As to
understanding:if the classwas native English-spdakingthen one would assumethat
the teacher'sacting and useof props was probably sufficientto cover this aspect
also;foreign languagelearnerswould presumablyneeda little more clarification.
Not everyone,it must be said, has the dramatic ability of the teacherdescribed;
the applicability of this examplefor many of us may be limited! Howeveq if you can
act, or have video material available,dramatic presentationscan be very effective.
15
1 Presentations
and explanations
Unit Three: Explanationsand instructions
'When
introducingnew materialwe often needalsoto giveexplicit descriptions
or definitionsof concepts
or processes,
andwhetherwe canor cannotexplain
suchnewideasclearlyto our students
maymakea crucialdifference
to the
success
or failureof a lesson.Thereis. moreover.
someindicationin research
that learnersseethe ability to explainthingswell asone of the mosrimportant
qualitiesof a goodteacher(see,for example,ITraggandWood,1984).(The
problemof how to explainnew languagewell is perhapsmosrobviousin the
fieldof grammar;for a detailedconsideration
of grammarexplanation,seeUnit
Four of Module 6,Teachinggrammar.)
Oneparticularkind of explanationthat is veryimportantin teachingis
instruction:the directionsthat aregivento introducea learningtask which
entailssomemeasureof independent
studentactivity.The task belowis based
on the experienceof giving instructions,and the following Guidelineson
effectiveexplainingmay be studiedin the light of this experience.Alternatively,
the Guidelines
may bestudiedon their own and tried out in your own teaching.
Task Giving instructions
Sfage1: Experience
If you are cuJrently teaching, notice carefully how you yourself give
instructionsfor a grroup-or pair-work activity in class,and note do,mr
imrnediately afterwards what you did, while the event is still fresh in your
memory.Better,but not alwaysfeasible:aska colleagueto observeyou
and take notes.
Alternatively,within a group of colleagrues:
eachparticipantchoosesan
activity and preparesinstructionson how to do it. The activity may be: a
gamewhich you knor,rhornrto play but others do not; a process(how to
prepare a certarn
certain dish, howto
how to mend orbuild
or build something); or a classroom
procedure.T\voor tluee volunteerparticipantsthen actuallygive the
instructions,and (if practical)the group goeson to startperforming the
activity.
Stage2: Dkcussion
Read the guidelines on giving effective e:rplanationslaid out below, Think
about or discussthemwith colleagues,relating them to the actual
instructionsgiven in stage l. In what ways did theseinstruction$accord
with or differ from the guidelines? Can you now think of ways in which
theseinsfuctions could have been made more effective?
Guidelineson giving effectiveexplanationsand instructions
1. Prepare
Youmayfeelperfectlyclearin your own mindaboutwhat needsclarifying,and
thereforethink that you canimprovisea clearexplanation.
But experience
showsthat teachers'
explanations
areoftennot asclearto theirstudents
asthey
areto themselves!
It is worth preparing:thinkingfor a while aboutthe words
t6
Explanations and i nstructions
you will use,the illustrationsyou will provide, and so on; possiblyevenwriting
theseout.
2. Make sure you have the class's full attention
In ongoing languagepracticelearners'attentionmay sometimesstray; they can
usually make up what they have lost later. But if you are explaining something
essential,they must attend. This may be the only chancethey have to get some
vital information; if they miss bits, they may find themselvesin difficulties later.
One of the implications of this when giving instructions for a group-work task
is that it is advisableto give the instructionsbefore you divide the classinto
groups or give out materials,not after! Once they are in groups, learners'
attention will be naturally directedto eachother rather than to you; and if they
have written or pictorial material in their hands,the temptation will be to look
at it, which may also distract.
3. Present the information more than once
A repetition or paraphraseof the necessaryinformation may make all the
difference:learners'attention wandersoccasionally,and it is important to give
them more than one chanceto understandwhat they have to do. Also, it helps
to re-presentthe information in a different mode: for example,say it and also
write it up on the board.
4. Be brief
Learners- in fact, all of us - have only a limited attention span;they cannot
listen to you for very long at maximum concentration. Make your explanation
as brief as you can, compatiblewith clarity. This meansthinking fairly carefully
about what you can, or should, omit, as much as about what you should
include! In somesituationsit may also mean using the learners'mother tongue,
as a more accessibleand cost-effectivealternativeto the sometimeslengthy and
difficult target-languageexplanation.
5. lllustrate with examples
Very often a careful theoretical explanation only 'comes together' for an
audiencewhen made real through an example,or preferablyseveral.You may
explain, for instance,the meaningof a word, illustrating your explanationwith
examplesof its usein various contexts,relating theseas far as possibleto the
learners'own lives and experiences.Similarly,when giving instructionsfor an
activity, it often helpsto do a 'dry run': an actual demonstrationof the activity
yourself with the full classor with a volunteer student before inviting learners
to tackle the task on their own.
6. Get feedback
'Vfhen
you have finished explaining, check with your classthat they have
understood.It is not enoughjust to ask 'Do you understand?';learnerswill
sometimessay they did evenif they in fact did not, out of politenessor
unwillingness to lose face, or becausethey think they know what they have to
do, but have in fact completelymisunderstood!It is better to ask them to do
somethingthat will show their understanding:to paraphrasein their own
words, or provide further illustrations of their own.
L7
1 Presentations
andexplanations
Furtherreading
Btown,G. A. andArmstrong,S.(1984)'Explanations
andexplaining'in
Wragg,E. C. (ed.)ClassroomTeacbing
Skills,LondonandSydney:Croom
Helm.
(A practicalanalysisof theskill of explainingin theclassroom,
in various
subiects)
Schmidt,R. If. (1990)'Theroleof consciousness
in secondlanguage
learning',
AppliedLinguistics,ll, 2, 129-58.
(A discussionof the importanceof consciousattentionto input in language
learning)
Reference
'Wragg,
E. C. andWood,E. K. (1984)'Pupilappraisals
of teaching'inVragg,
E. C. (ed.),ClassrootnTeaching
Skills,LondonandSydney:CroomHelm
(ch.4).
a
18
lvlodule
2:Practice
activitie
s
Practicecan be roughly definedas the rehearsalof certain behaviourswith the
objective of consolidating learning and improving performance. Language
learnerscan benefitfrom beingtold, and understanding,facts about the
languageonly up to a point: ultimately,they have to acquirean intuitive,
automatizedknowledgewhich will enableready and fluent comprehensionand
And suchknowledgeis normally brought about through
self-expression.
consolidationof learning through practice.This is true of first language
acquisitionas well as of secondlanguagelearning in either 'immersion' or
formal classroomsituations.Languagelearning has much in common with the
learning of other skills, and it may be helpful at this point to think about what
learning a skill entails.
Learning a skill
The processof learning a skill by meansof a courseof instruction has been
defined as a three-stageprocess:verbalization, automatization and autonomy.
At the first stagethe bit of the skill to be learnedmay be focussedon and
definedin words -'verbalized'- as well as demonstrated.Thus in swimming
the instructor will probably both describeand show correct arm and leg
movements;in language,the teachermay explain the meaningof a word or the
rules about a grammaticalstructureas well as using them in context. Note that
the verbalizationmay be elicitedfrom learnersrather than done by the teacher,
and it may follow trial attemptsat performancewhich serveto pinpoint aspects
of the skill that needlearning.It roughly correspondsto 'presentation',as
discussedin the previousmodule.
The teacher then gets the learners to demonstrate the target behaviour, while
monitoring their performance. At first they may do things wrong and need
correcting in the form of further telling and./ordemonstration; later they may do
it right as long as they are thinking about it. At this point they start practising:
performing the skilful behaviouragain and again, usually in exercisessuggested
by the teacher,until they can get it right without thinking. At this point they
may be said to have 'automatized'the behaviour,and are likely to forget how it
was describedverbally in the first place.
Finally they take the set of behavioursthey have masteredand beginto
improve on their own, through further practice activity. They start to speedup
performance,to perceiveor createnew combinations,to 'do their own thing':
they are 'autonomous'. Somepeoplehave calledthis stage'production', but this
I think is a misnomerfor it involvesreceptionas much as production, and is in
t9
2 Practiceactivities
fact simplya moreadvancedform of pracrice,asdefinedat the beginningof this
unit. Learners
now havelittle needof.ateacherexceptperhapsasa supportive
or challengingcolleagueand areready or nearly ready,toperformasmastersof
theskill- or asteachers
themselves.
Thismodelof skill learningis brieflysummarizidin Box2.1.For further
informationon skill theoryin general,seeAnderson,1985:andon skill theorv
appliedto language
learningJohnson(1,99iit.
BOX2.1: SKILLLEARNING
VERBALIZATION
Teacher
describes
and
demonstrates
theskilled
behaviour
to belearned;
perceive
learners
and
understand.
AUTOMATIZATION
Teacher
suggests
exercises;
learners
practise
skillinorder
to acquire
facility,
automatize;
teacher
AUTONOMY
Learners
continue
to
useskillontheir
own,becomlng
moreproficient
and
creative.
montlors.
Question Can you think of a skill - other than swimrning or language - that you
successfullylearned through being taughtit in somekind of course?(If you
carurot,somepossibilities arc suggestedin the Notes, (l).) And can ]rou
identify the stagesdescribed abovein the processof that learning asyou
recall it?
Much languagepracticefalls within the skill-developmentmodel described
above.But someof it doesnot: evenwhereinformationhasnot been
consciouslyverbalizedor presented,learnersmay absorband acquirelanguage
skills and contentthrough direct interactionwith texts or communicativetasks.
In other words, their learningstartsat the automatizationand autonomystages,
in unstructuredfluencypractice.But this is still practice,and essentialfor
successful
learning.
Summary
Practice,then,is the activitythroughwhich languageskillsand knowledgeare
consolidated
andthoroughlymastered.
As such,it is arguablythemost
importantof all the stagesof learning;hencethe mostimportantclassroom
activityof the teacheris to initiateandmanageactivitiesthat providestudents
with opportunitiesfor effectivepractice.
Question Do you agree with the last statement (which erq)ressesmy orvnbelief) or
would you prefer to qualify it?
20
Characteristics of a good practice activity
activity
'whether
or not you think that organizing languagepractice is the most
important thing the teacherdoesin the classroom,you will, I hope, agreethat it
doescontribute significantlyto successfullanguagelearning,and thereforethat
it is worth devoting some thought to what factors contribute to the effectiveness
of classroompractice.
Practiceis usually carried out through procedurescalled 'exercises'or
'activities'.The latter term usually implies rather more learneractivity and
initiative than the former, but there is a large areaof overlap: many procedures
could be definedby either.Exercisesand activitiesmay, of course,relateto any
aspectof language:their goal may be the consolidationof the learning of a
grammaticalstructure,for example,or the improvementof listening,ipeaking,
reading or writing fluenc5 or the memorization of vocabulary.
Try doing the task below beforereading on.
Task Defining effective language practice activities
StageI : Selectingsamp/es
Think of one or more examples of language practice of any kind which you
have experienced either as teacher or as learner, and which you consider
were effective in helping the learners to remember, ,automatize', or
increase their ease of use. Write down brief descriptions of them. (If you
cannot think of any, use the example given in the Notes, (2).)
Stage 2: futalysis
consider: what were the factors, or characteristics, that in your opinion
made these activities effective? Note down, either on your own or in
collaboration with colleagues, at least two such characteristics - more if
you can.
Sfagre3-'Dlbcusslon
Now compare what you have with my list below. Probably at least some of
your ideas will be similar to mine, though you may have expressed them
differently. If I have suggested ideas that are new to you, d.oyou agree with
them? \Mhat would you include that I have not?
Characteristics of effective lang uage practice
Validity
The activity should activate learnersprimarily in the skill or material it purports
to practise.This is an obvious principle that is surprisinglyoften violated. Many
'speaking'activities,for example,have learnerslisteningto the teachermore
than talking themselves.
Note that 'validity' doesnot necessarilyimply that the languageshould be
usedfor somekind of replication of real-life communication.Pronunciation
21,
2 Practiceactivities
drills and vocabularypractice,for example,mayalsobevalid if thevin fact
serveprimarily to rehearseand improvethe rtemsto Depracflseo.
.i
Pre-learning
The learnersshouldhavea goodpreliminarygraspof the languagethey are
requiredto practise,thoughthey may only be ableto produceor understandit
slowly and after thought.If they arerequiredto do a practiceactivirybasedon
somethingthey havenot yet begunro learn,theywill eithernot be ableto do it
at all, or will produceunsuccessful
responses.
In eithercasethe activitywill
havebeenfairly useless
in providingpractice:its main function,in fact,will
havebeenasa diagnostictest,enablingthe teacherto identifyand (re-)teach
languagethe learnersdo not know. If, however,they can- howeverhesitantlyproducesuccessful
responses,
they havea firm basisfor further effectivepractice
of the targetlanguagematerial.
Volume
Roughlyspeaking,the more languagethe learnersactuallyengagewith during
the activitS the morepracticein it they will get.If the lessontime availablefor
the activity is seenasa container,then this shouldbe filled with asmuch
'volume'of languageaspossible.Timeduringwhich learnersarenot engaging
with the languagebeingpractisedfor whateverreason(because
nothingis being
demandedof themat that moment,or because
they are usingtheir mother
tongue,or because
theyareoccupiedwith classroom
management
or
organizationalprocesses,
or because
of somedistractionor digression)is time
wastedasfar asthe practiceactivity is concerned.
Success-orientation
On the whole,we consolidatelearningby doing thingsright. Continued
inaccurateor unacceptable
performance
resultsonly in 'fossilization'of
mistakesand generaldiscouragement.
It is thereforeimportant to select,design
and administerpracticeactivitiesin sucha way that learnersare likely to
succeed
in doingthetask.Repeated
performance
successful
is likelyto resultin
effectiveautomatizationof whateveris beingperformed,aswell asreinforcing
the learners'self-imageassuccessful
languagelearnersand encouragingthem to
take up further challenges.
Success,
incidentally,doesnot necessarily
meanperfection!A classmay
engagesuccessfully
with languagepracticein groups,wheremistakesdo
occasionallyoccur,but most of the utterancesare acceptable
and alarge
'volume' of practiceis achieved.This is often preferableto teacher-monitored
full-classpractice,which may producefully accurateresponses
- but at the
expenseof 'volume' and opportunitiesfor activeparticipationby most of the
class.
Heterogeneity
A goodpracticeactivitFprovidesopportunitiesfor usefulpracticeto all, or
most,of the differentlevelswithin a class.If you givean activitywhoseirems
invite responseat only onelevelof knowledge,then a largeproportion of your
classwill not benefit.
Considerthe following item in an activity on canlcdn'tz
22
Characteristicsof a good practiceactivity
lenny is a baby.lenny (can/can't) ride a bicycle.
Learners who are not confident that they understand how to vsecctnmay not
do the item at all. Thosewho are more advanced,and could make far more
complex and interesting statementswith the sameitem have no opportunity to
do so, and get no usefulpracticeat a level appropriateto them.
However,supposeyou redesignthe text and task as follows:
Jenny is a baby.Jenny can hold d toy and can smile, bwt she
can't ride a bicycle.'Whatelsecdn, or can't,lenny do?
then the activity becomesheterogeneous.
You have provided weaker learners
with support in the form of sampleresponses,and you havegiven everyonethe
opportunity to answer at a level appropriate to him or her, from the simple
('Jennycan drink milk', for example)to the relativelycomplex and original
(Jenny can't open a bank account').Thus a much larger proportion of the class
is able to participate and benefit.
Teacher assistance
The main function of the teacher,having proposedthe activity and given clear
instructions, is to help the learners do it successfully.If you give an activitg and
then sit back while the learners'flounder'- make random uninformed guesses
or are uncomfortably hesitant- you are not helping; evenassessments
and
correctionsmade later,which give useful feedbackto learnerson their mistakes,
do not in themselvesgive practice,in the senseof contributing to
automatization. If, however, you assistthem, you thereby increasetheir chances
of successand the effectiveness
of the practiceactivify as a whole. Such
assistance
may take the form of allowing plenty of time to think, of making rhe
answerseasierthrough giving hints and guiding questions,of confirming
beginningsof responsesin order to encouragecontinuations,or, in group work,
of moving around the classroommaking yourself availableto answerquestions.
Through such activity you also, incidentally convey a clearmessageabout the
function and attitude of the teacher:I want you to succeedin learning and am
doing my bestto seeyou do so.
Interest
If there is little challengein the languagework itself becauseof its 'successorientation' and if there is a lot of repetition of target forms ('volume'), then
there is certainly a dangerthat the practicemight be boring. And boredom is
not only an unpleasantfeelingin itself; it also leadsto learnerinattention, low
motivation and ultimately lesslearning.
However,if interestis not derivedfrom the challengeof getting-the-answersright, it has to be rooted in other aspectsof the activity: an interestingtopic, the
needto conveymeaningfulinformation, a game-like'fun' task, attentioncatching materials, appealto learners' feelings or a challengeto their intellect. A
simple example:an activify whose aim is to get learnersto practiseasking 'yesno' questionsmay simply demandthat learnersbuild suchquestionsfrom short
cues(by transforming statementsinto questions,for example);but such an
activity will get far more attentive and interestedparticipation if participants
produce their questionsas contributions to somekind of purposefultransfer of
23
2 Practiceactivities
information(suchasguessing
what theteacherhasin a bagor what someone's
profession
is).
In Box 2.2 is a seriesof descriptions
of classroom
scenarlos,
which arefictional
representations
of typesof procedures
that I havewitnessedor administered
myself.They are all intendedto practisesomeaspectof language;and they are
all, in my opinion,lessthan optimallyeffectivein doingso.This may be because
of the designof the activify,its text(s),the way the teacheris behaving- or all of
these.I suggestyou studythesethrough doing the task below beforereadingon
to my comments.
Task .Essessingpracticeactivities
For each scenario,ask yourself:
l. \Mhatis the apparentgoal of the practiceactivitf
2. Hovrrfar is this goal achieved?
3. What are the factors that make it effective or ineffective?
4. If you could redesign the material or offer advice to the teacher,what
urouldyou suggest?
If you have studied the previous rrnit you may find it helpful to apply some
of the criteria suggestedthere.
Commentson the Scenariosin Box2.2
Scenario1: Spelling
The procedureasdescribed
hereis apparentlymeantto practisethe spellingof
the wordiournal. But out of (say)a minutespentby the studentson the total
guessingprocess,they engagewith the actualspellingof the targetword for not
more than a few secondsat the end:the rest of the time is spenton more or less
randomcallingout of letters,or on mistakenguesses.
In otherwords,we have
an activity at leastnine-tenthsof which contributeslittle or nothing to practice
of the targetlanguageform: it lacksvalidity and 'volume'.
This is an interestingexampleof an activity which is superficiallyattractivemotivating and fun for both learnersand teacher,aswell asdemandinglittle
preparation- but which when carefullyexaminedprovesto havevery little
learningvalue.Its usefulness
is pretty well limited, in my opinion, to its function
asa'fun'time-filler.
If we wish to practisethe spellingof a setof words, then it is betterto display
the words from the beginning,and think of a procedurethat will induce
learnersto engagewith their spelling,asin the examplegivenin the Notes,(2).
Scenario
2: Listeningcomprehension
The aim of this exerciseis apparentlylisteningpractice,but it lacksvalidity. For
24
Practice techniques
BOX
PRACTICE
SCENARIOS
Scenario1: Spelling
(Thisis basedon the game 'Hangman'.lf you are not familiarwith it, a full description
can be found in the Notes,(3).)
The teacherwritessevendasheson the board,and invitesthe studentsto guess
what lettersthey represent.Theystartguessingletters:
S t udent1: E .
T eac her : N o . (W ri te sE o n th e b o a rd ,and a base-l i nei ndi cati ng
the foot of a
gallows)
Student2: A.
Teacher: Right.(fillsin A on the second-tolast
dash)
Student3: S.
Teacher: No.(writesup S, drawsin a verticallinein the gallows-drawing)
. . And so on. After a minuteor so of guessing,the classarrivesat the word
'JOURNAL',which is written up in full on the board.lt is then erased.and the
teacher,or a student,thinksof anotherword, marksup the corresponding
numberof
dashes,andthe guessingprocessis repeated.
Scenario 2: Listening comprehension
The classlistento the followingrecordedtext:
possessing
Ozoneis a gas composedof molecules
threeoxygenatomseach(as
dis t inc tfro m o x y g e n ,w h i c h h a s tw o atoms per mol ecul e)l t exi sts i n l arge
quantities
in oneoJthe upperlayersof the atmosphere,
knownas the stratosphere,
between20 and50 kilometresabovethe surfaceof the earth.
The ozonelayerfilters out a largeproportionof the sun's ultra-violetrays and
thusprotectsus Jromthe harmfuleffectsof excessive
exoosure
to suchradiation.
The teacherthen tellsthe studentsto opentheirbooksand answerthe multiplechoicequestionson a certainpage.The multiple-choice
questionsare:
1. Thepassage
is discussing
the topicof
a) radiation. b) oxygen c) ozone. d) molecules.
2 Ozonemoleculesaredifferentfrom oxygenmoleculesin that they
a) havethreeatomsof oxygen.
b) existin largequantities.
c) may haveone or two atoms.
d) haveone atomof oxygen.
3. Thestratosphere
is
a) abovethe atmosphere.
b) belowthe atmosphere.
c) morethan20 kilometresabovethe surfaceof the earth.
d) morethan50 kilometresabovethe surfaceof the earth.
4. Theozonelaver
a) preventssomeharmfulradiation
from reaching
the earth.
b) stopsall ultra-violet
raysfrom reachingthe earth.
c) protectsus from the lightof the sun.
d) involvesexcessiveexposureto ultra-violet
rays.
When the studentshavefinished;the teacherasksvolunteersfor theiranswers.
acceptingor correctingas appropriate.
@ CambridgeUniversity Press 1996
25
2 Practiceactivities
Scenario3: Grammarexercise
Theteacher
writesontheboarda sentence
thatdescribes
a present
situation:
Tomis looking
in allhispockets,
findhiskeys.(lose)
buthe cannot
Sheasksthestudents
to suggest
a sentence
inthepresentperfectthatdescribes
whathashappened
to produce
thissituation,
usingtheverbin brackets
at theend.A
student
volunteers:
Tomhaslosthiskeys.
Theteacher
approves
thisanswer
andwritesupa second,
similar
sentence:
TheBrownslivein thathouseonthe corner,buttheyarenotthereat the moment.
(goaway)
Another
student
volunteers
theanswer;
thistimeit iswrong,andtheteacher
asks
someone
else,whoproduces
a correctanswer.
Theteacher
continues
thesameprocess
withanother
foursimilar
sentences.
Scenario4: Vocabulary
(Puzzled
Teacher: Who knowsthe meaningof the word disappointment?
looks;
putsup hishand)Yes?
studenthesitantly
Student1: Writea ooint?
Teacher: No... anyone
else?(silence)
Comeon,thinkeverybody,
!
try again
Student Losea point?
Teacher: No,it hasnothingto dowith points.Tryagain.lt hassomething
to dowith
feelings.
(Afteranother
few guesses,
thelastof which,afterbroadhintsfromtheteacher,
givesthecorrect
comesfairlynear,theteacher
finally
definition.)
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
onething,thereis morereadingthanlistening:the readingtext (thequestions)
is
longerthan the listening,and moretime is spentdealingwith it duringthe
procedure
asa whole.For another,it reliesheavilyon memoryratherthanon
ongoingcomprehension:
learnersneedto recallaccuratelya setof facts
presentedverydenselyand quickly,which may beextremelydifficult for those
who did not know thembefore,sincethis is a specialistareaof knowledge
whichmaybeunfamiliarto them.If, on the otherhand,theydid know them,
thentheywill probablybeableto answerthe questions
withoutlisteningat all.
The activityalsoscoreslow on 'volume'(thelisteningtext is very short)and on
(thereareno opportunitiesfor givingresponses
'heterogeneity'
at different
levels).
A bettertask might beto askthe learnersto take noteson the text asthey
hearit, and thencomparewith eachother or with a replayof the originaltext.
Alternatively,brief questionsmight begivenin advance,so that learnerscan
listenout for the answersand notethemdown asthey hearthem.And the text
itself of coursewould be improvedif it presentedthe informationin the form of
an explanationimprovisedfrom notes.
For a moredetaileddiscussionof effectiveclassroomlisteningpracticesee
Module 8: Teachinglistening.
Scenario3: Grammar
This exercisepractisesthe presentperfecttenseand aspect.
Again,the targetlanguageis not very efficientlypractised.For onething,
26
Practicetechniques
more than half the time and energyof teacherand classis spenton writing and
readingsentences
which do not usethe presentperfect at all, but only the
present(in other words, it lacks validity). For another,the whole exercise
producesonly six instancesof the target structure:not very much (lack of
'volume'). Moreover, the exerciseis not very interesting,and lacks 'heterogeneify':
the questionsare closed-ended,allowing for little or no variety of response.
'Cue' items in grammar exercisesof this kind, particularly if they consistof
entire sentences,
are bestpresentedto the classeither orally or through prepared
texts (overheadtransparencies,worksheets,textbooks):writing them out on the
board is very time-consuming.But it is in generalbestto keep such cue items
fairly short and have the learnersusemost of their time in responsesthat
involve the structure. For the presentperfect, for example, you might suggesta
seriesof exclamations(Oh !, Thank you!, Congratulations!,etc.) and invite the
classto suggestwhat has happenedto provoke them. Or presentpicturesof
situationsand ask what has, or has not happened.Suchexercisesare also more
interestingthan the closed-endedexamplegiven here,sincethey invite learners
to usetheir imagination and originality in thinking of answers,as well as
allowing for both simpler and more advanceduseof language.
Even the original items can be made more productive,interestingand
heterogeneoussimply by omitting the verb in bracketsat the end of the cue
sentence,and inviting learnersto basetheir responseson their own ideas.
Scenario4: Vocabulary
This may look like a caricattre of vocabulary teaching; but I have seenir
happen.The studentsdo not know the target word - a fact which should have
beenobvious to the teacherimmediately- and his or her responseshould have
beento presentits meaningas quickly and clearly as possible,and then usethe
remainingtime for further illustration and practice.Instead,the studentshave
beenallowed 'flounder' unsuccessfullyfor a wastedminute or two, adding
nothing to their knowledgeof the word, and contributing only to their feelings
of frustration, failure and inferiority. The activity is 'failure-oriented'and fails
to give much real practicein the target item, mainly becauseof the lack of
assistance
- indeed,of teachingitself, as I understandthe term - provided by the
teacher.
If learnersdo not know (or remember)the words to be practised,these
should be (re-)taught,and then practisedthrough contextualizationin sentences
or situationswhich induce repeateduseof the words. For example,the classis
given a cue which is the start of a sentencesuch as 'I felt very disappointed
when ...'and suggestdifferent completedversions.
The individual practiceprocedureshould ideally be integratedinto a seriesof
activitiesthat help the learnerprogressfrom strongly teacher-supported
controlled practiceat the beginningto later automatic and eventually
autonomousreceptionand production of the language.This unit dealswith the
27
2 Practiceactivities
designof sucha series,andis basedon a taskasdescribed
below.
The sampleactivitiesshownin Box 2.3 dealwith cardinalnumbers,from one
to twenfv. I hese are rtems that have to be mastered farrlv earlv on rn the
learningof anylanguage,
andareat oncea set,with an obviousprogressive
order,and separatemeaningfulitems.The mostimportant problemI have
foundin the teachingof numbersis rootedin thislastfeature:learnersseemto
learnthe seies(one,two, three,four ...) by heartquiteeasily,but thenhave
considerable
difficulty identifying,say,eightascorrespondingimmediatelyto
the particularnumericalvalueit represents.
Oftentheyhaveto countup
throughall the lower numbers,usingtheir fingers,until they reachit and can
identify it by its mother-tongueequivalent.
The activitiesshownin Box 2.3 aredesignedfor learnerswho havepreviously
beentaughtthe numbersand can recitethemfrom memory,thoughthey may
still hesitateandmakeoccasional
mistakes.
Task Thinking about the sequencing of practice activities
Sfage1: Ordering
Rearrangethe activitiesin Box2.3 in the order in which you would do them
in a lessonor seriesof lessons.
Stage2: Improving
Suggestany alterationsor additionsyou might make to any of the activities
inthe list to improve their effectiveness.Youmay of course,decide that
there is one (or more) that you would not use at all.
Next, note any aspectsof the languagetopic that you think are
inadequatelycoveredor not correredat all during the practice series.
Createor selectfrom textbookssomefirrther activitieswhich would cover
the inadequaciesyou havenoted and/or enhancelearning of the target
languagein any way.Decide at what stageyou would insert them.
My solution,with comments,follors.
Possiblesolutionto the task
The orderin whichI would do theseactivitiesis:3,4, 1.,2.
Activity 3 demandsnothingfrom most of the studentsbeyondthe
memorization
of theirown number;othernumberstheydo not needto respond
to. The 'caller'needsto know someothernumbers,but not all. Essentiallg
the
numbersareusedhereonly asnames,participantsdo not needto relateto their
meanlng.
In Activiry 4 theyneedto be ableto recognizethe correspondence
between
numericalvalue(asexpressed
in thefigures)andforeignlanguage
numbernamps;in Activity 1 they actuallyneedto producethe samenamesthemselves.
Finallg in Activity 2they needto both recognizeandproducea whole seriesof
numbersat once.
28
Sequence and progression in practice
P RA CT I CE
A CT I V I T I E S
BOX 2.3: S E OUE NCING
Activity 1
The teacherhaswrittenon the boarda selectionof randomnumbers,in figures.He
or she pointsto a number;the studentscallout its name.
Activity 2
The teacherhas prepareda duplicatedlist of telephonenumbers;the list hasat least
as manynumbersas thereare studentsin the class.On eachpapera different
numberhasbeen markedwith a cross;this indicatesto the studentwho gets the
paperwhi c hi s ' h i s /h e r'n u m b e r.
A student'dials'a numberby callingit out, andthe studentwhose numberhasbeen
'dialled'answers,repeatsthe numberand identifieshim-or herself. Otherstudents
numberon their lists.The
canthen fill in the nameoppositethe appropriate
identifiedstudentthen 'dials'someoneelse.and so on.
Activity 3
Pairsof studentsare allottednumbersfrom one to twenty, so that any one number
is sharedbVtwo students.Theythen mix, and sit in a circle.One studentin the
centreof the circlecallsout a number,andthe two studentswho own that number
try to changeplaces.As soonas one of them gets up, the studentin the centretries
to sit in the vacatedplacebeforeit can be filled.lf successful,he or she takesover
the numberof the displacedplayerwho then becomesthe caller.
Activity 4
The studentswrite down,as figures,a seriesof randomnumbersdictatedby the
teacher.The answersarethen checked.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Comments
If I were to omit one, it would be Activity 3. It is a lively game,but contributes
only to the learners'familiarity with the soundsof the words, not to their
knowledgeof their meaning.Note also that it is not very appropriatefor older
learners.
Activities t and 4 are as simpleto do as they are easyto describe,and provide
very usefulpractice.Activity 2 is rather more elaborateand lengthy,and might
get tediouswith a big class;perhapsone would needto haverelatively short
telephonenumbers,or activateonly someof the learners.
An overall criticism is that there is no activiry which involvesactual counting.
I would thereforeadd one which includesit - evensomethingas simple as a
count of how many doors/windows/lights/chairs/tables/studentsthere are in the
room - as one of the earliestnumber-practicetasksthey do.
Other useful contextsfor getting learnersto engagewith numbersare:
simulatedbuying and sellingof priced commodities(or picturesof them); doing
simple sumsaloud; surveys,suchas working out the averageagesor heightsof
relativesor number of siblingsof the students;estimatingquantitiesor weights
of displayedfoods and then checking;discussionof sports results,or athletic
achievements;planning an itinerary with estimateddistancesand times. Also, of
course,learnersshould be encouragedto usethe foreign languagein lessons
29
2 Practiceactivities
whensummingup resultsof otheractivities.For example:how manyitemsdid
you find in a brainstorming
task?How manyquestionsin this exercise
did you
getright?
The mostadvanced
activityis that wherelearnersarequicklyand
the
automaticallyproducingthe foreignlanguage
numberin orderto represent
appropriatenumericalvalue,andcanalsomanipulatethe numberseasilyin
simplearithmetic.This is, of course,within a situationwherea learneris
with others:it is unrealisticand,in my opinion,pointlessto
communicating
expectlearnersto stopcountingto themselves
or doing mentalarithmeticin
theirmothertongue!
The practiceactivitiesshownin this and the previousunit are only a tiny sample
For more,see
availableto thelanguageteacher.
of thewide varietyof techniques
language
handbooks(somesuggestions
aregivenunder
textbooks,or teacher's
Further readingbelow).
Notes
(1)Skills
Someskillsthat peoplecommonlylearnthroughinstructionare:drivinga car,
dancing,cooking,usinga computer,playinga musicalinstrument,workinga
pieceof electricalequipmentor machinery.
(2)An exampleof an effectivepracticeactivity
Spelling
The teacherwroteup a setof tenwordswith problematicspelling,scaffered
overthe board.The studentsweregivena minuteor soto look at themand
reviewtheir spellings.
Theteacherthenannounced
that shewasgoingto erase
oneof them,andthestudentswould haveto write down its spellingfrom memory.
A brief'wander'overthe boardwith the eraserendedwith dueeliminationof
oneof thewords,andthe studentswrote it down. (Onestudentsaidhecould
not remember
what it was;theteacherrepeatedit orally.)The process
was
repeateduntil the boardwasempty.Studentsthencomparedtheir resultswith
eachothe.r,helpingeachotherto correctwherevernecessary.
At the endof the
activitythe teacherrewrotethe original words on the boardfor a final check.
The studentsremarkedafterwardsthat the activity had helpedto fix the
spellingsin their minds;and the teachernoticedthat this wasborneout by their
performancein freewriting.
subsequent
(Variationson this activity:theteachererases
all the wordsandasksstudents
in pairsor smallgroupsto try to recallasmanyof themastheycan;or theyare
askedto find similaritiesbetweenthe spellingof two or morewords in the
group - for example,that thesetwo words endwith the sameletter,or those
two havea doubleconsonantin themiddle.)
30
Further reading
(3) 'Hangman'
The gameis played as follows. One player thinks of a word and writes down a
seriesof dashes,which representthe seriesof lettersthat make up the word. The
other playersthen guesswhat the letters are.If they guessa letter right, the first
player has to fill itin on the relevantdash(es).If they guesswrong, he or she
may draw one (more) componentof a drawing of a man hanging on a gallows.
The guessescontinue until either the whole word has beenguessed,or the
hangman drawing has beenfinished.The completeddrawing looks something
like this:
If the first player completesthe drawing beforethe othershave guessedthe
word, he or shewins, and may chooseanother word to be guessed.If the word
is guessedfirst, then the player to fill in the last letter(s)of the word may choose
the next.
Further reading
BACKGROUND
Anderson,J. R. (1985) CognitiuePsychologyand its lmplications, New York:
Freeman,Chapter 8, pp.222-54.
(The processof learning a cognitive skill clearly presented,with evidence
from research)
Gatbonton, E. and Segalowitz,N. (1988) 'Creative automatization:principles
for promoting fluencywithin a communicativeframework', TESOL
Quarterly, 22, 3, 47 3-92.
(Interesting article on effective practice and automatization in spoken
language,with practical suggestions)
Johnson,K. (1995) LanguageTeacbingand Skill Learning, Oxford: Basil
Blackwell.
(A more detaileddiscussionof the model of languagelearning suggestedin
Unit One)
TEACHER ' S HANDBO O KS
Gairns,R. and Redman,S. (1986) 'Worhingwith.Words,Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversity Press.
Ur, P. (1,9881Grammar PracticeActiuities, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.
(Two books with a wide range of practiceactivitiesin vocabulary and
grammar respectively.They are basedon English;but most of the techniques
are easilytransferableto other languages)
3l
2 Pradiceactivities
Theseare only samplesof a wide rangeof handbooksavailable;seealsobooks
in the following series:
C,ambridge
Handbooksfor LanguageTeachers,
editedby Michael Swan:
CambridgeUniversityPress.
In Action series:PrenticeHall International.
ResourceBooksforTeachers,editedby Alan Maley: Oxford UniversityPress.
32
\4odule
3:Tests
Note: This module coversissuesof purpose,designand administration of tests
in languageteachingin general.Testsof somespecifictopics are discussedin
other modules:seeparticularly Unit Five of Module 5: Teachinguocabulary and
Unit Six of Module 9: Teachingspeaking.
Some preli mi nary defin itions
A test may be definedas an activity whose main purposeis to conyey (usuallyto
the tester)how well the testeeknows or can do something.This is in contrast to
practice,whose main purpose is sheerlearning.Learning may of course,result
from a test, just as feedbackon knowledge may be one of the spin-offs of a
practiceactivity: the distinction is in the main goal.
It is often conventionallyassumedthat testsare mostly usedfor assessment:
the test givesa scorewhich is assumedto definethe level of knowledge of the
testee.This may be in order to decidewhether he or sheis suitablefor a certain
job or admissionto an institution, has passeda course,can enter a certain class.
But in fact testing and assessment
overlap only partially: there are other ways of
assessing
students(an overview of assignmentsover a long period, for example,
or the teacher'sopinion, or self-evaluation)and there are certainly other reasons
for testing (seebelow, Box 3.1). This unit concentrateson testingas a teaching
can be found in Unit Two of
act; somediscussionof aspectsof assessment
Module 1.72Giuing feedback,or for more thorough coverageseeBrindley
(1e8e).
Inquiry
Reasons for testing
Stagel: Inquiry
Think about andwrite dovrrnthe mainreasonswhyyou (would) test inthe
language classroom. Ask one or two e:rperienced teachers what their main
reasons are; and then ask some learners if they think being tested is he1pful
or important, anrdif so why. Note dovwt the answers.
Stage 2: Critical reflection
Look at the list given in Box 3.1. These arrethe main reasons why I test in the
classroom - not necessarily in order of importance. Consider, or discuss,
the follorrsing guestions about them.
33
3 Tests
l. Hoiv do the ideasin Box3.1 comparewith the resultsof your orn ingtriry
and/oryour ovtmideas?
2. Are there any ideas suggestedby your respondentsor yourselfthat are
not mentionedhere?
3. A.rethere any ideas here that you did not find or think of before?
4. Would you reject any of them asnot significant,or irrelevant to your
situation?
Sfage3: Reservations
As a by-product of your investigation and thinking up to no,nr,you have
probably come acrosssomeconvincingreasonsfoxnot testing:the tension
and negativefeelings testscauselealners, for example,or the fact that they
are very time-consuming.Note do,nrnall suchreasonsyou can think of
before moving on to the sunmary suggestedin the next stage.
B O X3 .1 : R EA SON S
F ORT E ST IN G
Testsmaybeusedasa meansto:
1. givetheteacher
to help
information
aboutwherethestudents
areatthemoment,
decidewhatto teachnext;
2. givethestudents
information
aboutwhattheyknow,sothattheyalsohavean
awareness
of whattheyneedto learnor review;
(afinalgradeforthecourse,
3. assess
forsomepurpose
external
to current
teaching
selection);
4. motivate
students
to learnor reviewspecific
material;
5. geta noisyclassto keepquietandconcentrate;
a clearindication
6. provide
thattheclasshasreached
a 'station'
in learning,
suchas
theendof a unit,thuscontributing
to a senseof structure
inthecourse
asa
whole;
7. getstudents
to makeaneffort(indoingthetestitself),
whichis likelyto leadto
betterresults
anda feeingof satisfaction;
provide
8. givestudents
taskswhichthemselves
mayactually
usefulreviewor
practice,
aswellastesting;
9. provide
students
witha senseof achievement
andprogress
in theirlearning.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Stage4: Summary
\ltlhichof your list of reasonsfor testing are, or would be, the most
important for you personally?And how far are theseoffsetby the
disadvantagesof testinglfou havejust listed?
Summarizeforyourself the answersto thesequestions,perhaps in
discussionwith colleagues.If you do discuss,note that it may not be
appropriate here to try to reacha group consensusr,
evenif you all sharea
similar teaching situation,asyour reasonsmay depend to someextent on
your oJrrnbeliefs and teachingstyle, and may vary accordingto different
situationsor stagesin the course.But try to come to somegeneral
conclusionsas to when, or if, you yourselfwould in principle give tests,and
why.
34
Basicconcepts;the test experience
This unit reviews some basic conceptsto do with test design through asking you
to prepareand do a test yourself, and then goeson to discussthe test experience
as such.
Taking a test
-perimenf
The test presented here is of the conventional type inwhich you answer a
paper of given questions in writing within a limited time, in silence, in the
classroom. The material you will be tested on consists of concepts
associated with testing itself.
Stage I: Preparation
Prepare for the test by learning the material you will be tested on. This
consists of the folloring.
I . The theoretical concepts: validity, reliability, baclanrash(or washback).
2. The distinction between the following pairs of concepts:
- achievement v. proficiency tests
- diagnostic v. prognostic tests
- discrete-point v. integrative tests
- subjective v- objective tests.
3. The form of the folloring types of test items:
- multiple-choice (including the concepts of 'stem', 'options',
distractors')
cloze.
The necessaryinformationcanbe foundlaidout as short sample answers
in the Notes, or more ftrlly in Heaton (1990), and in other sources listed in
Further reading.
Stage 2: Doing the test
\Mhen you are ready, try doing the test in Box 3.2. You have twenty minutes.
Your results will be e:rpressed as a percentage; each of Questions I-10 is
worth ten marks. Question I I is optional.
Stage 3: Checking
Check your answers against those given in your sources in the literature, or
using the brief sample answers in the Notes. Give yourself a mark out of
r00.
Stage 4: Reflection and drscussion
Reflecting on the test e:cperience you have just had, and perhaps on other
test experiences, think about and,/or discuss the follo,ving questions.
I . (If you did optional Question I I , look at your answer.) Hovudid you feel
about being tested? You may have felt: irritated, unpleasantly stressed,
acceptably or even pleasantly tense, indifferent. Any other reactions or
comments?
35
3 Tests
B O X3.2 : T E STON T E ST IN G
1. Whatisa 'vaid'test?
2. Whatisa 'reiable'test?
3. Whatis 'backwash'?
4. Whatis thedifference
between
an'achievement'
testanda 'proficiency'
test?
5. Whatis thedifference
between
a 'diagnostic'
testanda 'prognostic'
test?
6. Canyougiveanexample
of a 'discrete-point'test?
7. Canyougiveanexample
of an'integrative'test?
8. AreOuestions
1-7aboveexamples
of 'objective'
items?
or'subjective'test
whv?
9. Giveexamples
of:
a)a multiole-choice
item
b)anextractfroma clozetest.
10.Withinthemultiple.choice
itemyouhavegiven,canyouidentify:
a)thestem?
b)theoptions?
c) thedistractors?
'l1. (Optional)
Howhaveyoufeltaboutdoingthistest?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
2. Did the fact that you knew you were going to be tested make any
difference to hourwell you learned the material in advance?
3. Would you havepreferted not to sum up your overall result (so much out
of 100)?Or do you feel it important to get somekind of (numerical?)
assessmentafter a test?
4. Wonldyou havepreferred someoneelse to checkyour answers?
Stage5: Implicationsfor teaching
Youhavejust e:rperienceda testfrom the point of view of a testee,and
discussedthat e:rperience.Returningnow to the role of teacher,go through
your answersto each of the questions above and think about houvthey
might affect the way youwould, or should, test in the classroom.
Somecomrnentsof my own follow.
Commentson the questions
L. Peoplevary verywidelyin their reactionsto tests.Somelike the senseof
challenge;
othersfind it unpleasant.
Someperformat their bestundertest
conditions,othersperform badly.
Thus,it would bea mistaketo comeout with sweepingstatements
like:
'Peoplegetverystressed
whentheyaretested',or 'Testsareunpopular'.The
amountof unpleasantstressassociated
with a testdependson variousfactors,
at leastsomeof which may be underthe controlof the teacher:how well the
learnersarepreparedfor it and how confidenttheyfeelof success;
what
rewardsand penaltiesareassociated
with success
or failure(how important
the resultsareperceived
to be);how clearthe testitemsare;how easythe test
is asa whole;how oftensuchtestsaregiven;and so on. (Someideason what
the teachercando to reducetestanxierymay be found in Unit Five.)
36
Typesof test elicitationtechniques
2.Here one can generalize:for most peoplethe foreknowledgethat there is
going to be a test producesmore conscientiouslearning of the material.
'Whether
this is a morally or educationallydesirableway of getting peopleto
learn is another question.My own opinion is that testingis one acceptable
way of raising short-termmotivation to learn specificmaterial, but that if it is
usedas suchvery often, and as the main sourceof pressureto learn, then
there may be long-term negativeresults.Both teacherand learnersmay cease
to seekand find enjoymentor satisfactionin the learning itself, or to seethe
goal of knowing the languageas intrinsically valuable:the whole
teaching-learningprocessis in dangerof being devalued,of being seen
merely as a meansto get good grades.
3. Most learnerslike to know how well they did on a test, and the assessment
is
perhapsmost convenientlyexpressedas a number.Even peoplewho do not
like beingtestedmay feel cheatedand disappointedif they are not told their
score.They often do not, however,wish other peopleto know: so it may not
be a good idea to publish resultsby name.
4. People'sresponsesto this questiondependto a very large extent on what they
are usedto in their own learningexperience.Perhapsmost tend to prefer their
work to be checkedby someonethey perceiveas authoritative; but evenmore
important is their relianceon that person'sfair and unbiasedevaluation.
Formal and informal testing
Testsin the classroommay be of the conventionaltype exemplifiedin the
previousunit, where the testeesare told in advancewhat they needto know,
what the criteria are for success,and so on. But they may also be informal: a
homework assignmentmay in fact function as a test if the teacher'smain aim in
giving it is to find out whether the learnershave learnedsomelanguagepoint or
not; questionsaskedduring the routine give-and-takeof classroominteraction
may servethe samepurpose,as may sometextbook exercises.
Ana lysi ng eIicitati o n techn iq ues
Tests,whether formal or informal, utilize one or more of alarge number of
elicitation techniques.Someof the more common of theseare listed in Box
3.3; more comprehensivetaxonomiescan be found in, for example,Hughes,
1989.
Which you will chooseto usefor a certain testingpurposewill probably
dependmainly on the following considerations:
1. \fhat will it tell me about the testee'sknowledge?In other words, for what
type of knowledgemight it be a valid test?
2. How easyis it to compose?
3. How easyis it to administer?
4. How easyis it to mark?
37
3 lesfs
B OX 3.3: E LICITA TION
T E CHNI O UE S
1. Ouestionsand answers.Simplequestions,very oftenfollowingreading,or as
partof an interview;may requireshortor longanswers:
Whatis the (family)
relationship
betweenDavidCopperfield
andMr Murdstone?
2. True/false.A statementis givenwhich is to be markedtrue or false.This may
alsobe givenas a question,in which casethe answer is yesor no.
AddisAbabais the capitalof Egypt
ls AddisAbabathe capitalof Egypt?
3. Multiple-choice.The questionconsistsof a stem anda numberof options
(usuallyfour),from which the testeehasto selectthe rightone.
A personwho writesbooksis called
a)a booker
b) an editor.
c) an author.
d) a oublisher.
4. Gap-fillingand completion. The testeehasto completea sentenceby fillinga
gap or addingsomething.A gap may or may not be signalledby a blankor dash;
the word to be insertedmay or may not be givenor hintedat.
They(go)to Australia
in 1980.
Or
They
to Australia
in 1980.(go)
Or
A
is someonewho writesbooks,
UT
l'veseenthatfilm.(never)
5. Matching. The testeeis facedwith two groupsof words,phrasesor sentences;
eachitem in the first grouphasto be linkedto a differentitem in the second.
larna
unhappy
a lot
little
small
many
ot9
sad
6. Dietation.The testerdictatesa passageor set of words;the testeewritesthem
oown.
7. Cloze,Words are omitted from a passageat regularintervals(for example,every
seventhword).Usuallythe first two or three linesare givenwith no gaps.
The familyare all fine,thoughLeo hada bad bout of flu lastweek. He spent
mostof it lyingon the sofawatching
whenhewasn'tsleeping!
Hisexams
in two weeks,so he is
aboutmissinq
quitea lot in spite
school,but has managedto
fe e l i n gi l l .
8. Transformation.A sentenceis given;the testee hasto changeit accordingto
some giveninstruction.
Putrntothe oasttense:
I go to schoolby bus.
9. Rewriting. A sentenceis given;the testeerewritesit, incorporating
a given
changeof expression,but preservingthe basicmeaning.
He cameto the meetingin spiteof hisillness.
Al th o u g h ...
10. Translation.The testee is askedto translateexoressions,
sentencesor enrtre
passagesto or from the targetlanguage.
38
Types of test elicitation techniques
11. Essay.The testeeis givena topic,suchas 'Childhoodmemories',andaskedto
write an essayof a specificlength.
12. Monologue.The testeeis givena topicor questionand askedto speakaboutit
for a minuteor two.
UniversityPress1996
@Cambridge
Task Gritical study of elicitation techniques
Try applying the above considerations to the set of elicitation techniques
shovtmin Box 3.3.
My own comments follow.
Comments
1. Ouestionsand answers
Thesecan be usedto test almost anything.The more 'closed'the questionis (that
is, the fewer the possibleoptions for correct answers),the easierthe item will be
to mark. It is fairly easyto composeand gradeclosed-endedquestions;more
open, thought-provoking ones are more difficult, but may actually test better.
2. True/false
This doesnot directly test writing or speakingabilities:only listeningor
reading.It may be usedto test aspectsof languagesuch as vocabular5 grammar'
content of a reading or listeningpassage.It is fairly easyto design;it is also easy
to administer,whether orally or in writing, and to mark.
3. Multiple-choice
This may be usedfor the sametestingpurposesas true/falseitems; it doestest
rather more thoroughly sinceit offers more optional answersand is obviously
very easyto mark. It is administeredmore convenientlythrough writing; but
note that sincethe reading of the question-and-optionsis fairly time-consuming,
the processoJ comprehensionof the actual questionitems may take more time
andeffort than the point ostensiblytested,which raisesproblems of validity.
Another important problem is that good multiple-choicequestionsare
surprisinglydifficult to design:they often come out ambiguous,or with no clear
right answer,or with their solutionsover-obvious.They are to be approached
with caution!
4. Gap-fillingand completion
This usually testsgrammar or vocabularS as in the examples.It is tediousto
compose,though not so difficult as multiple-choice;it is more easily
administeredin writing than in speech;the marking is usually simple.You may
needto be aware that there is more than one possibleright answer.
39
3lesfs
5. Matching
Thisusuallytestsvocabularyandis ratherawkwardto administerorally:thus
it is bestpresented
writtenon the boardor on paper,thoughresponses
maybe
eitheroral or in writing. Itemscan betime-consuming
and difficult to compose,
andagain,theremaybealternative'right' answers
to anyparticularitem.
Answersarefairlv easilvchecked.
6. Distation
This mainlytestsspelling,perhapspunctuation,and,perhapssurprisinglyon
peoplecan only usuallywrite words
the faceof it, listeningcomprehension:
down accuratelyfrom dictationif theyunderstandthem.It doesnot, however,
testother writing skills or speech,and involvesvery little reading.It may supply
passiveknowledgeof pronunciation,grammarand
someinformationon testees'
vocabulary.It is very easyto prepareand administer;it is relativelyeasyto
mark, though theremay be a problemdecidinghow muchweight to attribute to
differentmistakes.
T.Cloze
This tests(intensive)
reading,spelling,and to someextentknowledgeof
vocabularyandgrammar.It canbe adaptedto 'target'specificlanguage
items,
by for example,omitting all the verbs(in which caseit is not, strictly speaking,
'cloze',but rather'gap-filling').It is fairly easyto prepareand administer.
Marking canbetricky: you may find it difficult sometimes
to decideif a specific
itemis 'acceptable'
or not.
8. Transformation
This item is relativelyeasyto design,administerand mark, but its validitymay
be suspect.It teststhe ability of the testeeto transformgrammaticalstructures,
which is not the sameastestinggrammar:a testeemay perform well on
transformationitemswithout knowing the meaningof the targetsrructureor
how to useit in context.Marking is fairly straightforward.
9. Rewriting
This teststhe samesort of thing astransformation,but is likely to reflectmore
thorough knowledgeof the targetitems,sinceit involvesparaphrasingthe entire
meaningof a sentence
ratherthan transforminga particularitem.It is, however,
moredifficultto compose,and the markingmay be moresubjective.
It is, asits
namesuggests,
usuallydonein writing.
10.Translation
A techniquewhich, at the time of writing, is for variousreasonsrather
unpopular,but in my opinionundeservedly
so.In a monolingualclasswhose
teacheralsospeaksthe learners'mothertongue,the translationof a 'bit' of
languageto or from the targetlanguagecangivevery quick and reliable
information on what the testeedoesor doesnot know, particularly when it
involvesentireunits of meaning(phrases,sentences)
within a known context.
Translationitemsarealsorelativelyeasyto compose- evenimprovise,in an
informal test- and administeqin eitherspeechor writing. Marking may
sometimes
bemoredifficult,but not prohibitivelyso.
40
Designinga test
11.Essay
This is a good test of generalwriting abilities.It is relatively easyto provide a
topic and tell the classto write an essayabout it but marking is extremely
difficult and time-consuming.It must be clear in advance,both to you and to
the students,how much emphasisyou are going to lay on languageforms, such
as spelling,grammar,punctuation, and how much on aspectsof content, such
as interest and originality of ideas, effectivenessof expression, organization (see
Module 1l: Teachinguriting).
12. Monologue
This testsoral fluencyin 'long turns'- somethingnot everyonecan do in their
mother tongue! It also testsoverall knowledgeof pronunciation, grammar and
vocabulary.To choosea topic and allot it is not so difficult; to assessis very
difficult indeed,demandingconcentrationand a very clear set of criteria and
weighting system(seethe Unit Six of Module 9: Teachingspeaking).
In this unit you are askedto designyour own test. This should be for a learner
population you know: a classyou teachor have taught, or the kind of classyou
have in the past beena member of yourself.Ideally,of course,the test should be
one that can be integratedinto your own teachingprogrammewith your own
class,and that you will have a chanceto administerin practice.
The material to be testedshould, similarly be part of a syllabusand teaching
programmeyou are familiar with: perhapsa sectionof a coursebook,or certain
elementsof a set curriculum.
Task Designing a test
Stagel: Preparation
Prepare your test. It is a good idea to list in writing all the material that you
want your test to cover: you can then refer back to the list during and after
the test-writing to see if you have included all you intended.
You may find it helpful at this stage to refer to the guidelines listed in Box
3.4.
Stage 2: Pertormance
If possible, administer your test to a class of learners; if not, ask colleagues
to try doingit themselves.
Stage 3: Feedback
Irook at how your test was done, and ask the testees hovrrthey felt about it.
You might find it helpful to base your questions on the criteria in the
guidelines in Box 3.4.
41,
3 Tests
B OX3. 4 : GUI D E L INEF
SORT E S TP R EPAR AT I O N
Validity.Checkthatyouritemsreallydotestwhattheyaremeantto!
Glarity.Makesurethe instructions
for eachitemareclear.Theyshouldusually
include
a sample
itemandsolution.
'Do-ability'.
Thetestshouldbequitedo-able:
nottoodifficult.
withnotrick
questions.
Aska colleague
to readthroughit andanswerthequestions
before
finalizing.
Marking.Decide
howyouwillassess
exactly
eachsection
of thetest,andhow
(percentage
youwillgiveit. Makethe marking
muchweighting
of thetotalgrade)
systemassimpleasyoucan,andinformthetesteeswhatit is:writeinthe
numberof pointsalottedaftertheinstructions
foreachouestion.
Interest.Tryto gofor interesting
contentandtasks,in orderto makethetestmore
motivating
forthelearners.
Heterogeneity.
Thetestshouldbe suchthatlower-level
students
canfeelthatthey
partof thetest,whilethe higher-level
areableto do a substantial
oneshavea
chance
to showwhattheyknow.Soinclude
botheasyanddifficultitems,and
(SeeModule21:Large
makeoneor moreof thedifficultonesoptional.
heterogeneous
c/asses
for morediscussion
of materials
for heterogeneous
classes.)
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Unit Five: Test administration
The actualdesignof a test,whetheroral or written,formal or informalis, of
course,important,but it is not the endof the story.How the testis actually
administered
andreturnedcanmakea hugedifferenceto motivationand
performance;
in particular,sensitive
presentation
of a testcansignificantly
reducelearneranxiety.
Task Thinking about test administration
tet us assumethat you are going to administer and mark a formal written
test (whetheror not you havewritten it yourself)in the courseof your
teachingprogramme.Howwill you prepare for, present and give feedback
on it? Havein mind a teaching situationyou are familiar with - your own
class,if you are teaching,or the kind of classyou expect to be teachingin
due course- and a particular kind of test (preferably a specific one you
have administeredor takenyourself).
Youmay find it convenientto use the questionsin Box3.5 as a basis for
thinking or discussion.Somesuggestedanswersfollorrv,based on my o\,rrn
teaching e:rperience.
Somepossibleanswersto the questionsin Box3.5
In answeringthesequestionsI havein mind theperiodic(once-a-month
or so)
+:
Testadministration
B O X 3. 5: OU ES T IO N S ON T ES T A D MIN IS TR A TION
Before the test
- How far in advancedo you announcethe test?
- How much do you tell the classaboutwhat is goingto be in it, and aboutthe
criteriafor marking?
- How much informationdo you needto givethem aboutthe time, place,any
limitationsor rules?
- Do you give them any 'tips' about how best to cope with the test format?
- Do you expectthem to prepareat home,or do you givethem some classtime for
preparation?
Giving the test
- How importantis it for you yourselfto administerthe test?
- Assumingthat you do, what do you say beforegivingout the test papers?
- Do you add anythingwhen the papershavebeendistributedbut studentshave
not yet startedwork?
- Duringthe test, are you absolutelypassiveor are you interactingwith the
studentsin anyway?
After the test
- How longdoes it takeyou to markand returnthe papers?
- Do you then go throughthem in class?
- Do you demandany follow-upwork on the part of the students?
UniversityPress1996
@Cambridge
testsI give to summarizethe end of a teachingunit. My classis composed
of adolescentslearning English as a foreign language in a state secondary
school.
Before the test
I use the period leading up to the test in order to do all I can to ensurethat my
students will succeedin it. Thus the tests are announced at least a week in
advance in order to give them plenty of time to prepare and details are given of
when, where and how long the test will be. The classis also told as preciselyas
possiblewhat material is to be tested,what sort of items will be used,and how
I sometimesgive them 'test-tips'- for example,how
answerswill be assessed.
best to allot time, or what to do first - particularly if they are coming near to the
stateschool-leavingexam, for which my courseis to someextent a preparation.
I usually allow at leastsomeclasstime for revision,in order to encourageand
help with pre-testlearning.
Giving the test
It is quite important for me to administer the test myself, and more pleasant for
my students.Thus, I will be able, if I wish, to remind them about the test
content, format and marking systembeforegiving out the papers;and
sometimesrun through the instructions with them after doing so in order to
make sure that everythingis clear - as well as wishing them good luck!
During the test, I may help students who still have difficulty with instructions;
I do not normally help with the content itself.
43
3 Tests
After the test
Thetestsaremarkedandreturnedasquicklyaspossible(withina week)sorhar
we candiscussspecificpointswhilethetestis still freshin the students'minds.
UsuallyI will go throughthe answersin class,but fairly briskly;pointsthat
seemto producespecialproblemsI note for moreleisurelyre-presentation
and
furtherpracticein thefuture.I do not usuallyaskstudentsto copyout correcrec
answers:
thisis,I think, moretediousthanhelpfulfor them.It is betterand
moreinteresting
to providethepracticein thesamelanguage
pointsin other
activities,usingnewcontentandtasks.
Notes
Teston testing:Preparation,or sampleanswers
1. A 'valid' testis onewhichactuallytestswhat it is designed
or intendedto.
2. A 'reliable'testis onethat producesconsistentresultswhenadministered
on differentoccasions.
3. 'Backwash'is theeffect,positiveor negative,thata testhason theteaching
andlearningthat precede
it.
4. An 'achievement'
testmeasures
how muchof the materialtaughtin a given
course,or part of one,hasin fact beenlearned;a 'proficiency'test
measuresthe overalllanguageproficiencyof testees,without referenceto a
particularcourse.
5. A 'diagnostic'testrevealsthe strongandweakpointsof a learner's
knowledge;a 'prognostic'testpredictshow well he or sheis likely to do in
a languagecourse,
6. 'Discrete-point'testsconsistof separateitems.For example,the following
setof itemstestingvocabulary:
Anotherutordfor'sea' is
Theoppositeof 'proud'is
Apples,pearsand bananasare
7. An'integrative'testinvolveswholepiecesof discourseand testsa relatively
broadcommandof the language:
writing an essayfor example,or doinga
clozetest.
8. Questions1.-7aboveare,strictlyspeaking,'subjective'testitems:the exact
way you expressyour answersmay vary,and.thereforethereis an element
judgementin theway the testerwill assess
of subjective
their correctness.
9. (a)An exampleof a multiple-choice
item:
Manypeoplethesedays
(1.)doesn't (2) isn't (3) don't
(b)An extractfrom a clozetest:
A coldfront is approaching
from
thereforeexpectlower
44
haueenougbto eat.
(4) aren't
westand u)ecan
tornorrou throughout the
Further reading
to be some rain in the morning,
country. There is
it will becomebrighter later in the
'lfithin
10.
the multiple-choiceitem above,the stem is 'Many peoplethesedays
have enoughto eat'; the options are 'doesn't', 'isn't', 'don't' and 'aren't';
the distractors(incorrectoptions) are 'doesn't', 'isn't', 'aren't'.
Further reading
Alderson,C., Clapham, C. and'Wall, D. (1,995)'LanguageTest Construction
and Eualuation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(Detailedand thorough guidancefor peopleinvolved in composingforeignlanguagetestsfor assessment)
Achieuementin the Learner-CentredCurcicwlum,
Brindley,G. (1989) Assessing
Macquarie Universitg Sydney:National Centrefor English Language
Teachingand Research.
in language
(A comprehensiveand readableoverview of ways of assessment
learning)
Heaton, J. B. (1990) ClassroomTesting,London:Longman.
(A simple,readableguide for the languageteacheron test designand
assessment)
Hughes,A. (1989) Testingfor LanguageTeachers,Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press.
(Longer and more detailedguidelinesfor teacherson testing;types of
different skills; criteria for assessment)
techniquesfor assessing
(1987)
Testing
SpokenLangwage,Cambridge:Cambridge
Underhill, N.
University Press.
(Readable,interesting;particularly good on elicitation techniques)
'Weir, (1,990)
C.
CommunicatiueLangwageTesting,Hemel Hempstead:Prentice
Hall International.
(Overview of researchand theories,followed by critical analysisof test-types
(Ch. a); examplesof various standardtestsquoted in full)
'Weir, (1,993)(Jnderstandingand Deueloping Language Tesfs,Hemel
C.
Hempstead:PrenticeHall International.
(A practical handbook: regular illustrative exerciseswith following comments
promote readerunderstandingand interest)
45
for
Justasteachingactivitiesneedto be brokendown into components
convenientstudy,so doeslanguageitself.In a natural'immersion'situation
learnersmay be exposedto stretchesof naturally-occurringunsimplified
languagedata,andgraduallylearnthe languagethis way.But in sucha situation
theymay be ableto usemostof their wakinghoursengagingwith the language.
- luxurieswhich
andthe ratio of 'teachers'to learnersis oftenone-to-one
studentson foreign-language
coursesusuallydo not have.In anycase,evenin
that peoplespeakingto foreigners
'immersion'situationsthereis someevidence
slow down their speech,
simplifyandexplainmore,sothat perhapsevenhere
thereis a rudimentaryselectionandgradingof languageitemsto be taughtand
learnt.
In the classroomit is simplymoreefficientto selectandgradethe language
to
be learntso that learnerswastea minimumof time on frustrating
incomprehension
andhaveplentyof opportunitiesto practisewhat theyknow
But such
and useit asa jump-offpoint for the learningof new language.
selectionand gradingdemandfirst somekind of segmenting
of languageinto
'bits' to be organizedinto a systematic
syllabus(seeModule 1.2:Thesyllabws).
Conventionallplinguistshavebrokenlanguagedown into threemain
components:
the phonology,or soundsystemof the language;
the lexis,or the
wordsor phraseswhichexpressconcepts;
the structure,or the way wordsor
bitsof wordsarestrungtogetherto makeacceptable
sentences
or phrases.
Languageteachersdefinethesemore convenientlyaspronunciation,vocabulary
andgrammar,andit is the teachingof thesethreethat formsthe subjectof the
first threemodulesof Part II.
The fourth moduledescribes
a differenttypeof language'segment',but one
which is alsoimportantandcomplements
the first three.This typeof segment
may becalled'holistic':languageusedin a certaincontextto communicate
meanings.
Suchsegments
may includethe languageusedto expressa certain
topic,or within a certainsituation;or that usedto expressa concept(notion)or
performa communicative
act (function).
A languagecoursemay be basedon pronunciation,vocabularyandgrammar,
ocommunicative'
or on the more
categories
of topic,situation,notion and
function.ProbablShowever,the mosteffectiveteachingandlearningresult
from a combinationof them all, in a systematicbut flexibleprogrammein
which,for example,topicsand situationsprovidea contextfor the teachingof
new words,and structuresarelearnedin orderto expressnotionsor functions.
46
pronunciation
',1
4:Teaching
odule
Unit One: What does teaching pronunciation
involve?
(Much of the content of this unit is specificto English;teachersof other
languagesmay find the generalguidelinesuseful,but should refer to books on
their target languagesfor specificinformation on their pronunciation.)
The conceptof 'pronunciation' may be said to include:
- the soundsofthe language,or phonology
- stressand rhythm
- intonation.
The first of theseis perhapsthe most obvious and clearly definedof the three.
However,this doesnot mean that the other aspectsshould be neglected:a
learnermay enunciatethe soundsperfectlyand still sound foreign becauseof
unacceptablestressand intonation; in Oriental 'tone' languagesintonation
often makesa differenceto meaning.
Sounds
It is usefulto be able to list and definethe sounds,or phonemes,of the language
by writing them down using phonetic' representations.Different books vary as
to exactly which, and how many, symbolsare used;for teachersof (British)
English,the simplified,phonemic alphabetshown in Box 4.1 may be helpful.
According to this, the soundsof, for example,the sentence'Peter,come here!'
would be representedby /pilte k,rm hie/.
To check
understanding
Take a dictionary that includes phonetic transcriptions, and check through
its phonetic alphabet, some of whose symbols may be different from those
suggested in Box 4.1. Look at a few words and their corresponding
phonetic representations: make srue you can follow and understand the
transcriptions. Now choose ten words at random out of a book, and try
transcribing them into phonetic script. If you have used your dictionary's
phonetic alpha"bet, look up the word in the dictionary to check. If you have
used the alphabet suggested above, then compare your version with that of
a colleague's.
1 The term 'phonetic'is usedto referto transcriptionsof the soundsof all human
in a
which makedistinctionsbetweensoundsthat may not be distinguished
languages
given.language
system.'Phonemic'is usedto referto transcriptionsof a particular
soundsystem
47
4 Teaching p ronunciation
B O X4. 1 : T H EP H ON EMIC
A L PH AB ET
Vowels
Symbol
lstl
lEl
latl
laul
le/
lerl
/eel
Examples
am palt
apple black
eves drjve
glt
now
end pen
eightdpy
at! wear
ltl
it
til./
@t
lrcl
lol
/eu/
lc,J
lctl
lul
ht'^l
luel
/sll
lal
sif
s€€
eaI nea!
gltposite stgp
gpen phgne
plways more
boy jsin
would stopd
Y9! chggse
sule tOJJrist
eaIIy bLd
up lack
doctor
Consonants
Symbol
Examples
tbt
bed about
tdl
do side
tfl
fill sale
good big
t9l
thl
hat behind
yes you
tit
M
eat weeK
IU
lose atlow
lml
lnl
lpl
hl
lsl
me lamp
no anY
put stop
Un a[ound
lvl
soon u€
talk . IasI
very live
lwl
wtn swtm
lzl
zoo loves
ship push
measure usual
si2g hoping
cheap cateh
Itl
/il
lsl
lnl
ttll
t0l
t6/
t4t
Ihin nalh
then olher
June age
(based
on MartinHewings,
Pronunciation
Tasks,
Press,1993,p. vi)
Cambridge
University
Note that this is quite difficult to do the frrsttime - it takesa good deal of
practice and learning to be able to transcribe guickly and accurately.
Rhythmand stress
Englishspeechrhythm is characterizedbytone-units:a word or group of words
which carriesonecentralstressed
syllable(othersyllables,
if thereareany)are
lightened).The sentence:
'Peter,comehere,please!',for example,would divide
into two tone-units:'Peter'and'comehere,please',with thetwo main stresses
on the first syllableof 'Peter',andthe word 'here'. r
Stresscanalsobeindicatedin writing:probablythe simplestway to do so is
to write the stressed
syllablein capitalletters:for example,'PEter,
comeHERE,
please!'.(Anotherconvention,normallyusedin phonemictranscriptions,
is to
put a shortverticallineaboveand beforethe stressed
syllable:/'pirtek,rm'hiei.)
To check In pairs: one participant dictatesa short sentence,both participantswrite it
under- down, capitali -ing the stressedsyllables.Thenagain,with the other
standing participantdictating.And again,two or threetimes.Compareyour results.
48
What does teaching pronunciation involve?
Intonation
Intonation, the risesand falls in tone that make the 'tune' of an utterance,is an
important aspectof the pronunciation of English,often making a differenceto
meaningor implication. Stress,for example,is most commonly indicatednot by
increasedvolume but by a slight rise in intonation (BraziI,Coulthard and Johns,
1980). A native speakerusually has little difficulty in hearingintonation
changesin his or her own language;others,however,may not find it so easy.
The different kinds of intonation are most simply shown by the symbols :
/ over the relevant syllable or word in order to show falling and rising
to show fall-rise and rise-fall.An
intonations; and the symbols v
appropriatestressand intonation representationfor a rather bossyexpression
of our previous sentenceexamplemight b"r P),t.r, .o-. HiRn, pli"r..
The rhythm of Englishis, then, mainly a function of its stresspatterns;these
may also affect such aspectsas speedof delivery,volume and the useof pause.
'lb check Iristen to a brief recording - one lasting not more than a minute or so - of a
under- speaker of the languagte you teach (from a listening-comprehension
standing cassette, for example). Write dovnr a sentence from the recording, using
conventional spelling, and put in indications of rising and falling intonation
and stress. If you are working in a group, compare results with each other.
Flow of speech
It is important also to be aware of the way different sounds,stressesand
intonations may affect one another within the flow of speech.For example:
- The way a sound is articulatedis influencedby what other soundsare next to
it: the ed suffix of the past tensein English,for example,may be pronounced
ldl,ltl or ltdldependingon what cameimmediatelybefore.
- Intonation affectshow we hear stress.In fact, stressis not, as mentioned
above,usually expressedby sayingthe stressedsyllablelouder: it is more
often a matter of a raisedor lowered tone level,with a slight slowing-down.
- A changein the stresspattern of a word will changeits soundsas well: the
word subiecf,for example,has the stresson the first syllablewhen it is a
noun, on the secondwhen it is a verb: and this makesa noticeabledifference
to the sound of the vowels:/'srrbd3ftt/, as comparedto /seb'd3ekt/.
Thus, it is usefulto be aware of the way sounds,stressesand intonations
interact within entire utterancesto produce easilycomprehensible
pronunciation. Having said this, however,it is true that many perhapsmost,
words have a 'stable' sound, stressand intonation pattern that can be
confidentlytaught in isolation.
Question Can you think of examples in other langruages you know of sounds affecting
one another in the stream of speech, or of stress and intonation actually
changing the way sounds are articulated?
49
4 Teaching pronunciation
Unit Two: Listening to accents
The purposeof this exerciseis to find out the specificpronunciationproblemsot
learnersby actuallylisteningto examplesand havingto analyseand define
them,and to think abouthow theseproblemsmight be explainedto the learners
and corrected.
Inquiry Identifying elements of foreign pronunciation
Sfagel: Preparingmaterials
Using audio cassettes,prepare recordings, two to tluee minutesin length,
of foreigmaccents;this can be done individually or in pairs or groups. The
recordings should consistof short interviews with speakerswho are not
very proficient in the target language.In a cor:ntry where the target
langruageis not locally spoken,it makessenseto use as interviewees
nativesof this country,but other accentsmay be used in addition.
It is, of conrse,much easierjust to ask people to read aloud in order to
make the recording, but resist the temptation!There are various reasonsfor
this: someonereading aloud has time to think consciouslyabout hor they
are speaking,and we are looking for 'intuitive' pronunciation;the reading
passagemay include word.sthe interviewee does not knovr;and perception
of spelling affectspronunciation.Improvised speechproduces much better
samples,which may later, incidentally, be used to examine lexical and
grammaticalerrors. If you fud it difficult to think of questionsfor an
interview, the interviewee caulbe asked to describe a picture, or retell a
well-knovsnstory.
If you have not made suchrecordings before, make a brief trial recording
of a few secondsand play it back in order to check that you have the
distance,volume, microphone and so onproperly adjusted.Begin the
actual interview only when you arc srue you are getting a clear recording.
Sfagre2: Analysis
Listen to the recordings and try to analysewhat it is about the accentswhich
makesthem 'foreigrn'.This is quite difficult; you will find you need to listen
to the recording more than once. It is easier if you note the words and
pluases which sound generally foreign while listening the first time, and
then during later listenings try to define what prreciselyis wrong with them.
If you know the phonetic alphabet and symbols of intonation and stress,this
can help, but a rough description of what is wrong in 'lay' languagecan be
guite adeguate. You may find it helpful to use the worksheet shovtmin Box
4.2.
Slage 3: Pooling andcomparing
If severalsuch recordings have been made by a grroupof teachersstudying
togrether,then the next stageis to sharefindings. In small groups, each
recording is listened to, and participants try to identify the errors and hovrr
and why they think these occur.
50
Listening to accents
BOX 4.2: WORK S HE E T:
RE CO RDI NGO
SF F O RE I G N
P RONUNCIA TION
Speaker'smothertongue
Words/phra ses m isp rono unced
Define or describe the mistake
@ CambridgeUniversity Press 1996
Stage 4: Drawing conclusions
Discuss your frndings, and draw conclusions. Questions that can usefully be
investigated here are the following (some possible answers regarding
English appear in the Notes).
L (If only one type of accent was recorded) l/Vhat seem to be the most
common errors?
2. (If there were different accents) Were there foreigm-sounding
pronunciations that were common to most or all of the speakers, and can
you make some generalizations about the kinds of errors?
3. \Mtrich errors do you think are the most important to try to correct?
4. Are there any you would not bother to try to correct? \iVhy not?
5. With regard to the errors ]rou want to correct: how would you explain
these to the learner?
6. \Mhat further ideas do you have for getting learners to improrre their
pronunciation of the itemsyouhave found? (Some suggestions maybe
found in Box 4.3 belour.)
51
4 Teachi
ng pronunciation
The objective
It needsto be said at the outsetthat the aim of pronunciation improvementis
not to achievea perfectimitation of a native accent,but simply to get the
learnerto pronounceaccuratelyenoughto be easilyand comfortably
comprehensible
to other(competent)
'Perfect'accents
speakers.
aredifficultif
not impossible
for mostof usto achieve
in a foreignlanguage
anyway,andmar
not evenbedesirable.
Many people- evenif oftensubconsciously
- feelthey
wishto maintaina slightmother-tongue
accentasan assertion
of personalor
ethnicidentity.This feelingshould,surely,berespected.
Inquiry Ask a group of learners whether theywant to achievea'perfect' native
accent or not. If they say no, find out whether this is only because they think
it is impossible,or becausethey genuinely do not see it as a desirable
objective.
Whydo learnersmakepronunciationerrors?
Learners-errorsot pronunclatronderlvetrom varloussources:
1..
1. A particularsoundmay not existin the mothertongue,sothat the learneris
not usedto forming it and thereforetendsto substitutethe nearestequivalenr
he or sheknows (thesubstitutionofldl or lzlfor the Englishth 16lasinthat
is a typicalexample).
2. A sounddoesexistin the mothertongue,but not asa separate
phoneme:tha:
is to say,the learnerdoesnot perceiveit asa distinct soundthat makesa
differenceto meaning.In Hebrew,for example,both theltl and li:l
(shiplsheep)
soundsoccur,but which is useddependsonly on wherethe
soundcomesin the word or phrase,not what the word means;and if oneis
substitutedfor the other,no differencein meaningresults.Thesearecalled
'allophonicvariations'of a phoneme,or'allophones'.The resultis that the
Hebrew-speaking
learneris not naturally awareof the differencein English,
anclmav not evenhear rt.
(On the whole,the secondof the two problemsis the more difficult. A
totally new soundis often easilyperceivedasalien,and onceyou canheara
soundyou arewell on the way to beingableto pronounceit. But if you
cannothearit thenyou cannotevenattemptto pronounceit, andtheproblen
of perceptionneedsto be overcomebeforeany progresscanbemade.)
Question Considersomeforeign languagelearnerswith whomyou are familiar-
preferably your oivn students- whosemother tongrueyou also knorr. Can
you identify instancesof mistakesin soundformation and why they make
them (for example, the sound does not exist in their orrtrn
language, or exists
only as an allophone)?
3. The learnershavethe actualsoundsright, but havenot learntthe stress
patternsof the word or group of words, or they are usingan intonation from
52
Improving learne rs' p ronunciation
their mother tongue which is inappropriateto the target language.The result
is a foreign-soundingaccent,and possiblymisunderstanding.
Question tisten to some not-very-advanced learners speaking the foreign language
- or if you did the previous unit, Iisten again to a recording. Can you
identify three or four instances of inappropriate stress or intonation?
Getting learners to perceive
The first thing that needsto be done is to checkthat the learnercan hear and
identify the soundsyou want to teach.The samegoesfor intonation, rhythm
and stress:can the learnerhear the differencebetweenhow a competent,or
native, speakerof the languagesaysa word, phraseor sentenceand how a
foreign learner saysit?
This can be done by requestingimitation; or seeingif learnerscan distinguish
betweenminimal pairs (suchas ship/sbeep,man/men,thick/tick; seeGimson,
1,978);or by contrastingacceptablewith unacceptablepronunciation through
recordingsor live demonstration.
Note that you can checkperceptionof soundsusing singlewords or even
syllables,but work on stressand intonation nearly alwaysneedsto be basedon
longer units.
Question Choose an error that seems to you particularly widespread and persistent.
How might you test learners to find out if they really perceive the difference
between their version and the correct one?
Telling learners what to do
The next stagefor somelearnersmay be somekind of explicit exhortation: this
is what it ought to be, this is what you are doing wrong. For sound formation it
may help actually to use a sketchof the mouth (seeBox 4.3), and to describethe
pronunciation of a sound in terms of lips, tongue,teeth,etc. But for other
aspectsof pronunciation a brief explanationis sufficient,followed by
demonstrationand an invitation to imitate and practise.
BOX 4.3: P A RTSOF THEMOU T H
53
4 Teaching pronu nciation
Question Again, choosea tytrricallearner error you are familiar with. Hourwould you
e:cplainto the learner what he or sheis doing wrong and hor to put it right?
BOX4.4: IDEASFORIMPROVING
LEARNERS'PRONUNCIATION
- imitation
of teacher
or recorded
modelof sounds.
wordsandsentences
- recording
of learner
speech,
contrasted
withnativemodel
(including
- systematic
explanation
andinstruction
detailsof thestructure
and
movementof partsof the mouth)
iondrills:repetition
- imitat
of sounds.
wordsandsentences
- choralreoeti
tionof drills
- variedrepetition
of drills(varied
speed,volume,
mood)
(aswithdrills,usingchoralwork,andvaried
- learning
andperforming
dialogues
speed,volume,
mood)
jingles
earning
by heartof sentences,
rhymes,
- jazzchants(seeGraham,
1978)
- tongue
twrsters
- self-correction
through
listening
to recordings
of ownspeech
@CambridgeUniversityPress1995
Practising correctpronunciation
Finally- whenwe aresatisfied
that thepronunciationpoint hasbeen
perceived
satisfactorily
andlearnerscan,if theytakecare,producean
acceptable
version- we comeon to the stageof practice:consolidating
and
establishing
thehabitsof acceptable
pronunciationthroughexercises
that
providerepetitionandreinforcement.
some activities of your orvnin your target language that you feel
ive usefirlpractice,perhapsusing someof the ideas shovynin Box
4.4 as a basis. If you find it difficult to thinJ<up ideas on your own, you might
find somepractical suggestionsin the books listed under Furti er reading.
Then pool ideas with colleagues;together you should be able to amassa
useful'battery'of activities.
If you havetime, try someof them out with students.
Unit Four: Further topics for discussion
This unit looksat somecontroversialissuesconnectedwith the teachingof
pronunciationand invitesyou in the tasksto examineand stateyour own
positionon them.My own opinionsfollow the tasks.
Task Group discussion
Look at the guestionssugrgestedin Box 4.5, and discussthemwith
colleagrues.The aim shouldbe to arrive at general agEeementon
acceptablearu;wers,thoughthis may not alwaysbe possible.In any case,it
54
Furthertopics for discussion
is important to clarify exactlywhat the issues are, and, if there is
disagreement, to understand the arguments of all sides.
BOX 4 .5: OUE S TIONS
FORDIS CUS S I O N
O N T HET E A CHI NGO F
P RONUNCIA TION
1. Doespronunciation
needto be deliberately
taught?Won't it just be 'pickedup'? lf
it does needto be deliberately
taught,then shouldthis be in the shapeof specific
pronunciation
exercises,or casually,in the courseof otheroralactivities?
2. What accentof the targetlanguageshouldseryeas a model?(ForEnglish,for
example,shouldyou use British?American?Other?Localaccent?)ls it
permissibleto presentmixedaccents(e.9.a teacherwho hasa 'mid-Atlantic'
i.e.
a mixedBritishandAmericanaccent)?
3. Can/Should
the non-native
teacherserveas a modelfor targetlanguage
oronunciation?
4. What differencedoesthe learner'sage makein learningpronunciation?
5. How importantis it to teachintonation,rhythmand stress?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Before beginning to work on the questions, decide:
- Are there anyyouwish to omit?
- Are there any others you wish to add?
- Do you wish to change the order?
Decide on and perhaps note dovwr your .rnswers before looking at my orn
answers as expressed below.
Somepossibleanswersto the questionsin Box 4.5
1. The experienceof many learnersis that pronunciation can be, and often is,
acquired adequatelyby intuitive imitation. Many teachersnever teach pronunciation, and their students'command of it seemsneverthelessquite satisfactory.
Howeveq there is also evidencethat deliberatecorrection and training does
improve pronunciation and if this is so it seemsa pity to neglectit.
Probably the deliberateteachingof pronunciation is lessessentialthan, say,
the teachingof grammar or vocabulary but this doesnot mean it should not
be done at all. I would recommendoccasionalshort sessionsdirectinglearners'
attention to and giving practice in aspectsof pronunciation that are clearly
problematic for them, aswell ascasualcorrection in the courseof other activities.
2. In general,it doesnot matter very much, provided that the model chosenis a
standardaccentthat is easilyunderstoodby other speakersof the language.
In parts of the world where learners are more likely to have to deal with one
particular accentit makes senseto useit, so that for teachingEnglish in
Europe the British accent may be preferred, in Japan the American. But even
this distinction is becominglessimportant as time goeson. In any case,even
assumingthat you are teachingone 'standard' variety as a model, it is a good
idea to give learnersat leastsomeexposureto others,through the useof 'live'
speakersor recordings,in order to raise awarenessof other possibleaccentsand, of course,for listeningpractice.
55
4 Teachi ng pronunciation
in manysituationsthe non-nativeteache
3. This questionis arguablyacademic:
hasto be the modelwhetherhe or shelikesit or not! However,I would say
that in any casesucha teacheris a perfectlyadequatemodel,providedhe or
sheis, of course,a competentspeakerof the language- which onewould
hopea teacheris anyway!A targetlanguagespokenwith a slight foreign
accentcanserveasa modelfrom which learnersmay acquireperfectly
pronunciation.In any case,it is desirablefor learnersto be
acceptable
exposedto a numberof nativeand other acceptableaccentsthrough the use
of recordings,and this is true whateverthe mothertongueof the teacher.
4. Childrenseemto pick up accentsveryquickly;and the ability to do so seems
reasons(a needtc
to diminishwith age;thoughthis may be for psychological
preserveone'sidentityasexpressed
in the way onespeaks)ratherthan
physicalor physiological
capability.However,this diminishedability is
ability to understand
for to someextentby adults'increased
compensated
and apply instructions.One
difficult explanations,disciplinethemselves
pronunciationtrainingis likelyto be
conclusionmight be that conscious
morehelpfulwith classes
of olderlearners.
it directly
hasto be taughtbecause
5. Intonationin Oriental'tone' languages
affectsthe meaningof words. In other languagesit may affectthe
implicationsconveyedby speech,but is very difficult to teachbecauseof the
sheervarietyand subtletyof the possiblepatterns.The teachercan,I think,
of
do little morein practicethan draw learners'attentionto the existence
thesepafferns,teachavety few commonones,and thenrely on exposureanc
experienceto providethe basisfor further learning(but seeBrazil,Coultharc
andJohns,
1980).
'S(/e
can,to someextent,teachstressand rhythm patternswhen teaching
vocabularyand grammar;beyondthis,what hasbeensaidaboveabout
intonationappliesherealso.
betweensoundsand
In most languagesthereis a fairly clearcorrespondence
symbols:certainlettersor combinationsof lettersarepronouncedin certain
rules:when,
ways,and if therearevariations,thesearegovernedby consistent
for examplethe letter c in Englishis pronouncedlH or /s/; when theletter lam
of the definitearticlein Arabic is not pronounced.There are,of course,
languageswherethereare many exceptionsto suchrules,manywords whose
pronunciationcould not be logicallypredictedfrom their spelling,and vice
versa- Englishbeingan example.
Thealphabet'
The basicsound-symbolcorrespondence
is learnedat the stageof learningthe
alphabet.If the alphabetis a totally new one,thenthereis a lot to learn,but it i,
' I am usingthe termalphabethereratherlooselyto includethe written symbolsof language
like Chinese,which arenot strictlyspeakinglettersbut ideograms.
56
Pronunciation and spelIi ng
clear that every new symbol needsto be taught with its pronunciation. If,
however,the learner is actually using more or lessthe samealphabet but the
lettersrepresentslightly - or very - different sounds (asin the caseof Englishspeakinglearnersof Spanish,for example)you may have a more subtle teaching
problem.
Question (Both questions below apply only if all your students have the same mother
tongue.) Either:
alphallet as the mother tongue of
l. If your target language uses the
"ams
your students, which are the letters
which will be pronounced very
differently from their native versions? Wtrichwill be pronounced only
slightly differently? Are there any which are exactly the same? Or:
2. If your target language uses a different alphabet, canyou divide it into
Ietterswhose sounds have close parallel symbols in the learners'mother
tongrue (for example, Greek de/fa and English d) and those which do
not?
RuIes of p ron unciatio n-speIIi ng corresp on dence
Once learnershave masteredthe basicsound-symbol correspondencethey may
in some languagesbe immediately able to decode and pronounce correctly any
written text - or, conversely,write down a spoken one. In others, it may not be
so simple.They may need a whole set of extra sound-symbol rules: for
example, that -tion at the end of a word in English is usually pronounced{en/,
or that the letter s in German is pronounced ff/ when it occurs before ltl or lpl.
Some of these- the more common and urgent for successfulreading and
writing - you will needto teachconsciouslyand early; others the learnersmay
pick up 'by the way' later on.
'Words
or setsof words with unusual pronunciation or spellingyou may need
to teach and practiseon their own - someideasfollow at the end of the unit.
Question Can you suggest four or five rules about letter-combinations and their
pronunciation in the langtrage you teach that you think it would be
important for learners to master in the early stages of learning to speak
and read?
Pronunciationand spelli ng activities
Someideasthat practisepronunciation-spellingcorrespondences
may be found
in pronunciation books, such as those listed under Further reading; books on
spellingusually just give rules, lists of words and then suggestpractising
through dictation and spellingtests.Dictation is of courseone excellent
technique (seeDavis and Rinvolucri, 1988, for someimaginative variations);
and spellingtestscan help, but there are many more possibilities.A number of
ideasare listed in Box 4.6; note that someof thesemay not be appropriate if
your studentsdo not sharea common mother tongue.
57
4 Teaching pronunciation
Task Planning and using activities
Choosethree activitiesfor teaching,raising awarenessor practising
pronunciation-spellingcorrespondencein the targetlanguage:thesecan
be from Box4.6,or from other sources,or original ideas of your ovrn.Plan
actualtexts (words,sentences,passages)which you might use in these
activities.
If feasible,try using themwith a learner in a one-to-onelesson.
B O X4.6 : P R ON U N C IA T IO N -SP ELLIN
G R E S P ON D E N C E :
C OR
SOMETEAGHING
IDEAS
problems,
listsof words,of wordsthathavesimilar
- Distation:of random
spelling
of complete
sentences,
of half-sentences
to becompleted.
- Readingaloud:of syllables,
words,phrases,
sentences.
(11:prepare
- Discrimination
pairs'-pairsof wordswhichdiffer
a setof 'minimal
(suchasdip4eepin English).
fromeachotherin onesound-letter
combination
Eitherasklearners
to readthemaloud,takingcareto discriminate,
or readthem
aloudyourself,
andaskstudents
to writethemdown.
(2):provide
- Discrimination
a listof wordsthatarespeltthesameinthelearners'
mothertongueandinthetargetlanguage:
readaloud,or asklearners
to,and
(andmeaning!).
discuss
thedifferences
in pronunciation
- Predistion(11:providea setof lettercombinations,
whicharepartsof wordsthe
learners
know.Howwouldthe learners
expectthemto bepronounced?
Then
reveal
thefullword.
(2):dictatea setof wordsin thetargetlanguage
- Prediction
whichthelearners
do
notknowyet,butwhosespelling
withrules.Cantheyspellthem?(Then
accords
revealmeanings.)
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Notes
Pronunciation
errorsand theircorrection
Somepronunciationerrorscommonto thespeech
of manyspeakers
of English
asa foreignlanguage
are:
- difficultyin pronouncingthetl soundsl0l and16l;
- difficultyin pronouncingtheneutral'schwa'vowel(thefirst syllableof.awa.
for example);
- a tendencyto giveuniformstressto syllables
that shouldbelighteror heavi.'
- a tendencyto shortendiphthongsandmaketheminto monothongs:
for
examplethesoundleil asin uay tendsto bepronounced
morelike a French.
Youmaywell find more,or others,that areproducedby your learners.
Theerrorswhicharemostimportantto correctarethosewhichmayeasily
leadto lack of comprehension,
or whichmakethe speech
to
'uncomfortable'
listento; by the sameprinciple,errorswhichproduceno comprehension
problemsbut simplymakethe speech
slightlyforeign-sounding
maynot need
correctmg.
58
Further reading
Further reading
BACKGROUND
BrazTl,D., Coulthard, M. and Johns,C. (1980) DiscourseIntonation and
Language Teaching, London: Longman.
(Comprehensivediscussionof various aspectsof intonation and how to teach
it)
Roach, P. (1991) English Phoneticsand Phonology:A Practical Course(2nd
edn.) Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
(Discussionof theoreticalbackground for teacherand learner,some
suggestionsfor exercises)
Swan,M. and Smith, B. (L987) Learner English, Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press.
(A set of articleson common interferencemistakesproducedin English by
speakersof different languages)
TEACHER'S HANDBO O KS
Bowen, T. and Marks, I. 0,992) The PronunciationBooh, London: PilgrimsLongman.
(A collection of imaginativeawareness-raising
and pronunciation training
activities;basedon British English but most ideaseasilyadaptablefor usein
other languages)
Davis, P.and Rinvolucri, M. (1988) Dictation: New Metbods, New
Possibilities,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
(A resourcebook of varied and imaginativeactivitiesbasedon dictation)
Gimson, A.C. (1978) A Practical Courseof English Pronunciation,London;
Edward Arnold.
(A slim volume: systematicpronunciation training through drills)
Graham, C. (19781lazz Chants,New York: Oxford University Press.
(Practicein stressand intonation patternsthrough reciting dialoguesin
rhythm)
Haycraft,B. (1971) The Teachingof Pronunciation:A ClassroomGuide,
London: Longman.
(Advice on how to teachpronunciation: a readablesummary of the issuesand
practical ideas)
Hewings, M. (1993l Pronunciation Tasks,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.
(Actually a coursein Englishpronunciation; but also an excellentcollection
of varied and interestingpronunciation tasksthat can be adaptedfor usewith
other languages)
Kenworthy, J. 19 87 | Teaching E ngl i sh Pr onun ciat i on, London: Longman.
(Very readableguidancefor teachers:background,ideasfor raising learners'
awareness,different types of exercises)
59
Module
5:Teacl
be taught?
Whatis vocabulary?
Vocabularycan be defined,roughlS asthe words we teachin the foreign
language.
However,a new item of vocabularymay be morethan a singleword:
for example, post office andmother-in-laut,which are madeup of two or three
wordsbut expressa singleidea.Therearealsomulti-wordidioms suchascall t:
a day,wherethe meaningof the phrasecannotbe deducedfrom an analysisof
the componentwords.A usefulconventionis to coverall suchcasesby talking
aboutvocabulary'items'ratherthan 'words'.
Question Can you think of five or six further examplesof vocabulary items, in any
languageyou knovrr,that consistof more than one word?
Whatneedsto be taught?
1.Form:pronunciation
andspelling
The learnerhasto know what a word soundslike (itspronunciation)andwhat
it looks like (its spelling).Thesearefairly obviouscharacteristics,
and one or
the other will beperceivedby the learnerwhen encounteringthe item for the
first time.In teaching,we needto makesurethat both theseaspects
are
accuratelypresented
and learned.
2. Grammar
The grammarof a newitem will needto be taughtif this is not obviously
coveredby generalgrammaticalrules.An item may havean unpredictable
changeof form in certaingrammaticalcontextsor may havesomeidiosyncratic
way of connectingwith otherwordsin sentences;
it is importantto provide
learnerswith this informationat the sametime aswe teachthe baseform.
IThenteachinga newverb,for example,we might givealsoits pastform, if this
is irregular(think,thought),andwe might noteif it is transitiveor intransitive.
Similarlg when teachinga noun, we may wish to presentits plural form, if
irregular (rnouse,mice),or draw learners'attentionto the fact that it hasno
plural at all (aduice,information).Vemay presentverbssuchasuant and
enioy togetherwith the verb form that follows themQuantto, enioy-ing), or
adjectives
or verbstogetherwith their followingprepositions(responsible
for,
remindsomeone
ofl.
60
Whatis vocabularyand what needsto be taught?
) Lestion Can you think of five or six examples of items in the languagte you teach
whose grammatical characteristics are not obviously covered by a regular
grammatical rule, and which you would therefore need to teach when you
teach the item?
3. Collocation
The collocationstypical of particular items are another factor that makesa
particularcombinationsound'right'or'wrong'in a givencontext.So this is
another pieceof information about a new item which it may be worth teaching.
'When
introducing words like decisionand conclusion,for example'we may
note that you take or make the one, but usually cometo the other; similarlS
you throut a ballbut tossa coinl you may talk about someone6eing dead tired
but it sounds odd to say " dead fatigued.
Collocationsare also often noted in dictionaries,either by providing the
whole collocation under one of the head-words,or by a note in parenthesis.
) Lestion Think of three or four typical collocations in the langruage you teach, and
try translating them into another langUage. Do the collocations translate
exactly? If not, what kinds of learning/teaching problems might this lead to,
and what might you do about it?
4. Aspects of meaning (1):denotation, connotation, appropriateness
The meaningof a word is primarily what it refersto in the real world, its
denotation;this is often the sort of definition that is given in a dictionary.For
example,dog denotesa kind of animal; more specifically,a common' domestic
carnivorousmammal; and both dank andmoist meanslightly wet.
A lessobvious componentof the meaningof an item is its connotation: the
associations,or positive or negativefeelingsit evokes,which may or may not be
indicatedin a dictionary definition. The word dog, for example,as understood
by most British people,has positive connotationsof friendship and loyalty;
in Arab
whereasthe equivalentin Arabic, as understoodby most people
'ufithin
the English
inferiority.
counrrieshas negativeassociationsof dirt and
so
unfavourable;
dankhas
language,moisthas favourableconnotationswhile
dank'
'pleasantly
moist'
where
that you could describesomethingas 'pleasantly
would soundabsurd.
A more subtle aspectof meaningthat often needsto be taught is whether a
particular item is the appropriate one to usein a certain context or not. Thus it
is usefulfor a learnerto know that a certain word is very common, or relatively
rare, or 'taboo' in polite conversation,or tendsto be usedin writing but not in
speech,or is more suitablefor formal than informal discourse,or belongsto a
certain dialect.For example,you may know that ueep is virtually synonymous
in denotationwith cry,but it is more formal, tendsto be usedin writing more
than in speech,and is in generalmuch lesscommon.
)uestion
Howwouldyoupresent the meanings of thewords swim, fame, childkh,
political, impertinence, kid, guy and bastard? For which would you mention
their connotations? And their appropriate contexts? (Some possible
answers may be found in the Notes, (l).)
6T
5 Teachingvocabulary
5. Aspectsof meaning(2):meaningrelationships
How themeaningof oneitemrelatesto themeaningof otherscanalsobeuseful
in teaching.Therearevarioussuchrelationships:herearesomeof the main ones.
itemsthat meanthe same,or nearlythe same;for example,bright.
- Synonyms:
cleuer,smartmay serveassynonymsof intelligent.
- Antonyms:itemsthat meanthe opposite;rich is an antonymof poor.
- Hyponyms:itemsthat serveasspecificexamplesof a generalconcept;dog,
Iion,mousearehyponymsof animal.
- Co-hyponyms
or co-ordinates:
otheritemsthat arethe 'samekind of thing';
red, blue,greenandbrown areco-ordinates.
generalconcepts
- Superordinates:
that 'cover'specificitems;animalis the
superordinate
of dog,lion, mouse.
in the learners'mothertonguethat are
- Translation:wordsor expressions
(moreor less)equivalentin meaningto the item beingtaLrght.
Besides
these,thereareother,perhapslooser,waysof associating
meaningthat
areusefulin teaching.You can,for instance,
relatepartsto a whole(the
relationshipbetweenarm andbody);or associate
itemsthat arepart of the same
real-worldcontext(tractor,farmer,milking andirrigateareall associated
with
agriculture).
All thesecan beexploitedin teachingto clarify the meaningof a new item, or
for practiceor testmaterials.
Question In any languageyou knor, frnd at leastone (more) examplefor eachof the
main categoriesof mearringrelationshipslisted above.
6. Wordformation
Vocabularyitems,whetherone-wordor multi-word,canoftenbe brokendown
into theircomponent'bits'. Exactlyhow thesebitsareput rogetheris another
pieceof usefulinformation- perhapsmainlyfor moreadvanced
learners.
You may wish to teachthe commonprefixesand suffixes:for example,if
learnersknow the meaningof sub-,un- and-able,thiswill helpthemguessthe
meaningsof words hke substandard,ungratefulanduntranslatable.They
should,however,bewarnedthat in manycommonwordsthe affixesno longer
haveanyobviousconnectionwith their root meaning(for example,subiect,
comfortable).
New combinations
usingprefixesarenot unusual,andthereader
or hearerwould beexpected
to gathertheir meaningfrom an understanding
of
their components(ultra-modern, super-her ol.
Anotherway vocabularyitemsare built is by combiningtwo words (two
nouns,or a gerundanda noun,or a noun anda verb)to makeoneitem:a single
compoundword, or two separate,
sometimes
hyphenated
words(boohcase,
swimmingpool).Again,newcoinages
usingthis kind of
follow-up,
t.
comDrnatron
arevervcommon.
Questions What prefixesand suffi:<esin the languageyou teachwould you considerit
useful for learners to know? (Somesuggestionsin English are provided in
theNotes,(2).)
Houydoes a langruageyou kno,nrother than English combine words to
make longrervocabularyitems?Can you give examples?
62
Presenting new vocab uIary
A good modern dictionary should supply much of the information listed in
this unit when you look up a specific item. English teachersmight find it useful
to look at the Cambridge International Dictionary of English (L995) or the
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (7995).
This unit looks at the varied ways a new word can be presentedto learners.If
you prefer not to do the task, study Box 5.L and then go straight on to the
discussionquestionsin Box 5.2. Somepossibleanswersto the latter are given
later in the unit.
Task Exploring different ways of presenting new vocabulary
Stage1: Ideasfor presentingspecificitems
Select an item from the vocabulary taught in a foreign language textbook
you know. Think how the meaning of this item would best be presented to
learners who are encountering it for the first time, and note dovtmsome ideas.
If you are working in a group, three or four participants then get together,
share ideas and contribute new ones to each other.
BOX 5.1: WA Y S OF P RE S E NT I NG
T HE ME A NI NGO F NE W I T E MS
-
concisedefinition(asin a dictionary;often a superordinate
with qualifications:
for
ex amp l ea, c a t i s a n a n i ma w
l h i c h ...)
qualities...)
detaileddescription(of appearance,
examples(hyponyms)
illustration(picture,object)
demonstration(acting,mime)
context(storyor sentencein which the item occurs)
synonyms
opposite(s)(antonyms)
translation
associatedideas.collocations
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Stage2: Studying further techniques
Putting your practical suqgestionsaside for the moment, study a list of
different techniques of presenting the meaning of new vocabulary. In a
grroup,this list may be compiled by a brainstorm among participants, or
derived from Box 5.1; or a combination of the two.
Stage 3: Application and comparison
Identify which one or more of the technigues were used in your own idea(s)
for presentation. If you are in a gnoup:were there any techniques which
63
5 Teachingvocabulary
tended to be more 'popular', otherswhich were barely used?On second
thoughts:would youlcould you have used other techniquesto supplement
your original idea for presentation?
Sfage4: Discussion
On the basisof the informationgatheredin Stage3, or your ovrmreflection,
discussordly or in writing generalizationsthat can be made about the
usefidnessof the different techniques.Specificquestionsto consider
appear in Box 5.2; of these,somepossible answersto Questionsl-3 are
presented belor.
BOX 5.2: OUESTIONS
FORDISCUSSION:
VOCABULARY
PRESENTATION
TECHNIOUES
1. Sometechniques
aremorepopular
thanothers.
Whatarethey,andcanyou
fortheirpopularity?
account
2. Aretheretechniques
thatareparticularly
appropriate
forthepresentation
of
certaintypesof words?
3. Aretheretechniques
whicharelikelyto bemore,or less,appropriate
forparticular
(young/adult,
populations
learner
beginner/advanced,
different
background
cultures)?
4. Doyou,asanindividual,
findthatyouprefersomekindsof techniques
andtendto
avoidothers?
Which?
Andwhv?
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Commentson the questionsin Box 5.2
1. Answersto this will vary; on thewhole,definition,synonymand description
tendto be the mostpopular,perhapsbecause
theyarethe mostobviousand
conventional.
The useof the othersdemandsmoreawareness
and originality,
but can bemorerewardingin termsof effectiveteachingand interest.
2. Yes.A concreteobject,for example,is moreeasilyillustratedvisuallyan
action can be mimed.Conceptsthat are very difficult to explain in the target
languagebecausethe learnersare not yet sufficientlyproficientto understand
the explanationmay be moreconveniently
presented
throughmother,tongue
translationor explanation.You canprobablythink of furtherexamples.
3. Yes.For example,youngerlearnersreactwell to concreteillustration,older
onescancopebetterwith moreabstractexplanationor definition.
Unit Three: Rememberingvocabulary
Therearevariousreasonswhy we remembersomewordsbetterthan others:the
natureof the wordsthemselves,
underwhat circumstances
theyarelearnt,the
methodof teachingand so on. The followingis an interestingway to examine
someof thesefactors.It is actuallya memoryexperiment,involving the recall of
asmanyitemsaspossibleon a learnedlist. Obviously,we do not usuallydo this
64
Presenting new vocabuIary
in the classroom,but its resultshave clear relevancefor conventional
vocabulary learning and teaching.If you have time, and are working in a group,
it is worthwhile trying it yourself: work according to the Stageslaid out below,
and only read the Commentssectionafterwardsto compareyour own results
and conclusionswith mine. If you are not able to do the experimentyourself,
read through the instructionsand go straight on to the Comments.
The experimenttakes about an hour, including instructionsand discussion.
There should be at leasteight participants,and may be as many as 30. If there is
no trainer, one participant should be preparedto take on the role of timekeeper,
telling peoplewhen to start and finish the different rounds.
Task Group experfunent: Memofizing
Stage1: Preparation
words
Prepare: one copy of the lists in Box 5.3 for each participant; a results sheet,
as in Box 5.4; and have ready a pocket calculator.
Stage 2: Process
First round: half the pairs in the class work on List A, half on List B; partners
help each other learn by heart the items on their list. After three minutes
BOX 5.3: W ORD-LE A RNING
E XP E RI ME NT
A
B
WHO
ARM
DOT
LEG
ASH
PEG
LAR
PIG
SEX
TON
ocr
FOX
FOR
DOG
AWE
CAT
roN
MAN
CAN
BOY
OWN
SON
DIG
MUM
oBl
DAD
HUT
BAD
THE
SAD
@ CambridgeUniversity Press 1996
65
5 Teachingvocabulary
they conceal the lists and try to write dovtrnas marryitems as they can
remember.Their results(the nurnberof words they remembered)are
recorded on a sheetor OHPfilm (Box5.4).
Secondround: eachpair does the sarnething againwith the list they did
not work on the first time; but this time they work for a minute and stop for a
minute,work for a minute and stop for a minute,work for a minute;then
write dovunwhat they remember,The 'stopping' minutesshouldbe filled
with an activity that takestheir minds off the lists: countingbackwardsfrom
100,for example.The resultsare recorded asbefore.
Sfage 3; Resu/ts
Work out the averageresults for:
- Eachlist (in the bottom row of the table): was there a difference?Can you
accountfor it?
- Eachround (in the extreme right-hand column of the table): was there any
differencebetween'massed'learning (doing all the learning in one block
of time) and 'distributed' (havingbreaksbetweenlearning sessions)?
.Sfage4: Conclusions
The averagreresultsprobably showsomesignificantdifferences,Discuss
what the implicationsmight be for teaching.
Sfage5: Further discussion
After looking at the numericalresults,consider or discussthe folloring
questions:
l. Werethere arryparticular words that mostpeople seemedto remem.ber
better? Can you accountfor this?
2. What strategiesdidpeople use or invent to help themselvesremember?
3. Wasthere any significancein the placing of an item in a list? Werewords
from the beginning - or end - more easilyremembered?
B O X5. 4: R ES U L T S
S H E ET
ROUNDS
LISTA
FIRST
SECOND
AVERAGE
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
66
LISTB
AVERAGE
Rememberingvocabulary
Comments
Results
List B often producesnear-perfectscores;List A noticeablyless.This difference
can be attributed to two main factors: the uniform (fairly low) level of difficulty
of the items in List B, as opposed to the very mixed level of List A; and the fact
that the words in List B are grouped accordingto meaning-or sound-association,
whereas in List A there is no such grouping. The results would indicate not only
that we learn words better when we can easilyassignmeaningto them, but also
that it is much easierto learn words in groups,where one can be associatedwith,
or 'hung onto' another.It is interestingthat an associationthrough rhyme
(sad-badl can be just as effectiveas an aid to memory as one through meaning
(mum-dad), though of course this varies from learner to learner.
A comparison betweenmassedand distributed learning usually shows a
differencein favour of the distributed.
lmplications for teaching
There are various interestingpractical conclusionsto be drawn.
1. You will get better resultsif the words you teachhave clear,easily
comprehensiblemeanings.
2. You will get better resultsif items can be linked with each other, or with ones
alreadyknown, through meaning-or sound-association.
3. It is better to teachvocabulary in separated,spacedsessionsthan to teach it
all at once. In other words, words will be learnt better if, for example,they
are taught briefly at the beginningof a lesson,reviewedlater in the same
lesson,and again in the next than if the sametotal amount of time is usedfor
learning the words all at once.This needscareful lesson-planning,but will
repay the effort.
Further questions
Somepossibleanswersto the questionsaskedat Stage5 above are:
1. Particular words that were remembered:people tend to rememberwords that
havepersonalor emotive significance(mum, dad, sex).
2. Strategies:peoplecommonly attempt to link items together in senseunits, or
find somereasonto associatethem, or look for personalsignificance.All
thesecan be harnessedin teaching.
Another point worth thinking about here is the wide variety of strategies
usedby different learners.A strategyfound useful by one learner may be
quite uselessto another.
'$7ecannot, of course,teacha whole classin a way that will fit every
student'slearning strategies!- but we can encourageindividual studentsto
find what 'works' for them and to approach a learning task in an appropriate
way.
3. The placing of words in a list: words at the beginningof a list tend to be
rememberedbetter,all things being equal. This may affect your planning:
teachyour more important new words first, or at the beginning of a lesson.
SeeStevick(1976\ for further discussionof similar issues.
57
5 Teachingvocabulary
classroom
Unit One dealtwith waysof presentingspecificindividualitems;this onelooks
at procedures
that involveinteractionwith a whole setof items,in order both t,
consolidatelearningof onesthe learnershavepreviouslyencountered,
and to
providea contextfor the introductionof new ones.
Group task Sharing ideas
StageI: Preparation
Eachparticipantpreparesa vocabularyactivitywhich they think is
effective.Teacherswith someexperience may bring activities they have
used;othersmay recall ideasfuomtheir orn language-learninge:rperience
or that they have observed, or find suggestionsin books (see Further
readingat the end of this module); or simply createnew ones.
Stage2: Presentation
The activities are presented to the group. This is best done by actually
performing them, the presenter role-playing the teacher and the others the
students;in this way you get the 'feel' of the procedr:.reand rememberit well.
Butdoing it this way is very time-consumingr,
so in a large group somepeople
may haveto simply describe their activities,or presentthem in written form.
Sfage3: Discussion
A discussionshould follow eachpresentation,on questionssuch as:\iVhat
wasthe main objectiveof the activity (awareness-raising/presentation
of
new vocabulary/reviewand practice)?\Mtratparticular aspectsof
vocabulary did the activity focuson?How effectivewas it, and why? Hor
interesting/enjoyablewas it? Forwhat sort of class,or situation,is it
appropriate?Werethere any unusualor original aspectsof it which you
wouldlike to discuss?
T\ro activities of my own are described below.
ldeasfor vocabularyactivities
1. Brainstorming
roundan idea
'Write
a singleword in the cenrreof the board,and askstudentsto brainstorm
all the wordstheycanthink of thar areconnectedwith it. Everyitem that is
suggested
is written up on the board with a line connectingit to the original
word, so that the endresultis a 'sun-ray'effect.For example, the word tree
might producesomethinglike the sketchbelow.
This activity is mainly for revisingwords the classaheadyknows, but new
onesmay be introduced,by the teacheror by students.Althoughthereareno
sentences
or paragraphs,
the circleof associated
itemsis in itselfa meaningful
contextfor the learningof new vocabulary.The focusis on the meaningof
isolateditems.
68
Testing vocabulary
green
bird
forest
climb
branch
\
TREE
family
high
flowers
trunk
roots
This kind of associationexerciseis usefulwhen introducing a poem or other
literature: a key conceptcan be placedin the centre,and the brainstorm usedas
a 'warm-up' to the theme,as well as a framework for the introduction of some
of the new vocabulary.
You may of course,useother sorts of stimulus-wordsor connections:put a
prefix (saysub-) in the centreand invite the classto think of words that begin
with it; or a transitive verb (hke push) and think of objectsto go with it; or any
verb, and think of possibleadverbs;or a noun, and think of adjectiveslor vice
versa.You can probably think of further possibilities:the basictechniqueis very
versatile.
2. ldentifying words we know
As an introduction to the vocabulary of a new reading passage:the studentsare
given the new text, and askedto underline,or mark with fluorescentpens' all
the words they know. They then get togetherin pairs or threesto compare:a
studentwho knows somethingnot known to their friend(s)teachesit to them,
so that they can mark it in on their texts. They then try to guessthe meaningof
the remaining unmarked items.
Finally the teacherbrings the classtogetherto hear results,checkingSuesses
and teachingnew items where necessary.
what the students
This activity tendsto be morale-boosting,in that it stresses
know rather than what they do not; it encouragesstudentcooperationand peerteaching;it also entailsrepeatedexposureto the text and vocabulary items,
through individual, group and teacher-ledstages.
Unit Five: Testing vocabulary
There are many different types of vocabulary-testingtechniques,selected
examplesof which are shown in Box 5.5. Someare written out as they would
be presentedto the learner;others are described.If you do not wish to do the
task, study Box 5.5 and then go on to read the following Comments'
Task Irooking at vocabulary-testing
techniques
For each example, define for yourself what aspects of the item(s) are being
tested, and - just as important - what is not being tested! You may wish to
69
5 Teachingvocabulary
B O X5 .5 : V O C AB U L A R Y -T ES T IN
T EGC H N IOU E S
Example1
Choose
the letterof the itemwhichis the nearest
in meaning
to thewordin italics:
Hewas reluctanttoanswer.
a)unprepared b)unwilling c)refusing d)slow
Example2
Choose
theletterof thedefinition
whichcomesclosestin meaning
to theword
elated.
a) readyandwi ling
c) tending
to ta k a lot
b) tenseandexcited
d) in highspirits
Example3
Drawlinesconnecting
thepairsof opposites.
A
brave
female
cheap
asleep
fail
B
AWAKE
expensive
succeed
cowardly
mate
Example4
Whichof theorefixes
in Column
A cancombine
withwhichof thewordsin Column
B?Writeoutthecomolete
words.
over
trans
super
dis
inter
B
human
national
flow
form
infect
Example5
Underline
theoddoneout:goat,horse,cow,spider,sheep,dog,cat.
Example6
Foreachof thefollowing
words,writea sentence
thatmakesitsmeaning
clear.
1,wealth
2. lauohter 3. decision
4. brilliant
Example7
(Theteacherdictates
thewordsfromExample
6, thestudents
writethemdown.)
Example
8
(Theteacher
dictates
themother-tongue
equivalents
of thewordsin Example
6,the
students
writedownthetarget-language
versions.)
70
Testingvocabulary
Example9
Fillin the gaps:
Spanishshipssailed
In the seventeenth
. Americato fetch goldfor the Spanish
often attackedby
to Centraland
. The shipswere
,who infestedthe 'SpanishMain' (thesea
north-eastof Centraland SouthAmerica).
Adapted from The CambridgeEnglishCourse2 Student's BookMichael Swan and
CatherineWalter.1985
E x amp l e1 0
Completethe passageusingthe words from the list:
area,century,pirates,government,regularly,
South
In the seventeenth
Spanishshipssailed
to Centraland
. The shipswere
Americato fetch goldfor the Spanish
'Spanish
Main' (thesea
oftenattackedby
, who infestedthe
north-east
of Centraland SouthAmerica).
Example 11
(Studentsare givensentencesin the mothertongueto translateintothe target
language;
or viceversa.)
Example 12
Finishthe followingsentences:
1. I feel deoressedwhen.. .
2. I neverhavean apoetitewhen...
3. lt w a s a g re a tre l i e fw h e n ...
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
refer back to Unit One for a srunmary of various aspects of vocabulary
items that need to be taught and therefore, in the present context, tested.
Add any further remarks you wish on the advantages or disadvantages of
the technigue, and hovrr,or whether, you would use it.
After discussion of these examples, you maywish to suggest further
useful techniques which have not been shor'rn here.
Teachers learning in a group might like to come together later to
compare notes; and/or refer to my own comments belor.
Comments
Examples 1 and 2: Multiple-choice
Note that only denotativemeaningis tested,the testeedoesnot needto know
the words' connotations,spelling,pronunciation, grammar,or how they would
be usedin context. Multiple-choice questionsare tricky and time-consumingto
compose,but, if the answersare clear,very quick and easyto mark. Note that a
7l
5 Teachingvocabulary
testeewho doesnot know the answerhasa 25 per centchanceof beingright by
guessing!
The secondexampleallowsfor morecarefulandsubtledistinctionsin meaning.
Example3: Matching
As in thepreviousexamples,
only meaningis tested;andis knowledgeof an
oppositea proof that the testeeknowsthe meaningof the originalword?
Matchingitemsarequickerandeasierto composethanmultiple-choice;
but
notethat the lastoption- if the learnerhasall the othersright - becomes
obvious.Thisproblemcanbecorrectedby theprovisionof moreitemsin
ColumnB thanin A.
Example4: Matching
Herethe only thing that is beingtestedis whetherthe testeeis awareof the
existence
of the (combined)
word! \7hich probablymeanstheyalsoknow its
meaning,but this fact is not actuallybeingtested.Seealsothelastcommenton
matchingexercises
above.
Example5: Oddoneout
Again,only meaningis beingtested,andyou haveno way of beingsurethat all
theitemsareknown.But this is at leastmoreinteresting
to do, andusuallyeasy
to mark.
Example6: Writingsentences
Spellingandpronunciationof theitemsarenot tested,but mostotheraspects
are.Thisis a bit boringto do, anddifficultto mark objectivelSbut doescheck
thetestee's
knowledgefairly well.
Example7: Dictation
Dictationtestsauralrecognitionandspellingonly.However,if learnerscan
recognize
andspellan itemcorrectlytheyprobablyalsoknow what it means:it
is extremelydifficultto perceive,
let alonespell,wordsyou do not know.A
relativelyeasytestto administerandcheck.
Example8: Dictation-translation
Thischecksif studentsknow meaningandspellingonly.Thereis theproblem
that the mother-tongue
translationmay beinexactor misleading;
but if it is a
reasonable
equivalent,
thenthis is a veryquick,easyandconvenient
testto
administerandcheck.
Example9: Gap-filling
This testsmeaning,spelling,to someextentgrammarand collocation.But
testees
may write down possiblyacceptable
itemsthat arenot in fact the
originals,or what you intended;will you acceptthem?
Example10:Gap-filling
with a'pool'of answers
Meaningis testedhere,alsoto someextentgrammarandcollocation.This
versionis easierto do andmark thanExample9.
72
Nofes
Example 11: Translation
Translationcan test all aspectsof an item, but there is the usual difficulty of
finding exact equivalentsacrosslanguages,and it may be tricky to mark.
Example 12: Sentence completion
This tests(denotative)meaningonly; but is 'personalized'and interestingto do
and read!
Notes
M eani ng : denotation, connotation, app rop riateness
Swirn meansthe action of propelling oneself through the water by moving the
body; fame meansthe state of being well known to the public, with
connotationsof favour and populariq,; chlldish meanslike a child, usually
applied to an adult, or an adult's behaviour,with negativeconnotationsl
political meansto do with public or national affairs, often connoting cynical
power-play;impertinenceis impoliteness,usually usedof an inferior behaving
with lack of respectto a superior.Kid meansthe sameas 'child', andguy means
'man', but both are usedalmost exclusivelyin informal, spoken speech;note
that guy in the singular usually refers to a male, but the plural commonly
includesboth malesand females. Bastard is a child of parentswho are not
married; usually usedas an insult or an expressionof contempt in informal
spoken language (the word illegitimate would be substituted if no offence is
intended).
Word formation
Somecommon, usefulprefixesin English are:
a-/ab-, dnte-, anti-, duto-, co-/con-/com-, cira,ffn-, dis-, e-/ex-, inter-, mis-, non-,
per-, pre-, re-, sub-, super-, trdns-;
and suffixesz-able, -er/-or, -ic, -tfu, -ism, -ist, -ise/-ize,-ment, -ness,-tion.
Further reading
BACKGROUND
Carter,R. and McCarthy M. (1988) Vocabularyand LanguageTeaching,
London: Longman.
(A collection of articleson applied-linguisticsaspectsof the topic; see
particularly the Introduction, and articles by Nattinger and by Sinclair and
Renouf)
Hurford, J. R. (1983) Semantics:A Coursebook,Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press.
(Easyto follow and comprehensive,with self-checkingexercisesand tests;an
excellentway to teachyourself the subject)
73
5 Teachingvocabulary
Leech,G. (1,974)Semantics,
Harmondsworth:Penguin.
(A compactaccountof the subject;moreadvanced
anddetailedthanthe
Hurford andHeasley)
McCarthy M. (1990)Vocabulary,
Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.
(Comprehensive
andreadablediscussion
of theoreticaland practicalissuesin
teachingvocabulary)
Nation,I. S.P.(1990)Teachingand LearningVocabulary,
New York: Newbury
House.
(Comprehensive
coverage
of backgroundtheoryandresearch,
aswell as
practicalteachingtechniques)
Richards,I. C. (1976)'Therole of vocabularyteaching',TESOLQwarterly,
lo, r,77-gg.
(\7hat it meansto 'know' a word, and implicationsfor teaching)
Stevick,E. (1976)Memory,Meaning,Method,RowleSMass.:NewburyHouse.
(SeeChapters2 and 3 on how we rememberwords)
T E A C H E R ' SH A NDBOOKS
Allen,V. F.(1983)Techniques
in Teaching
Vocabulary,
New York:Oxford
UniversitvPress.
(A sensible
and simplywrittentreatmentof practicalvocabularyteaching,
with examples
andtasks)
Gairns,R. andRedman,S.(1985)'Workingwith'V{ords,Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress.
(Summaryof theoreticalbackground,
thenpracticalguidelines
on how to
teachvocabulary;plentyof examplesof activities)
Morgan,J. and Rinvolucri,M. (1985)Vocabulary,
Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
(A collectionof livelyandimaginativeactivitiesfor learningandpractising
tt
vocaDulafyl
74
grammar
Module
6:Teaching
Grammarin general
Grammar is sometimesdefinedas 'the way words are put together to make
correct sentences'.This is, as we shall seepresentlg an over-simplification,but it
is a good starting-point (and an easyway to explain the term to young learners).
Thus in English I am a teacheris grammatical, nI a teacher,and oI are a teacher
are not.
'Wecan, however, apply the term'grammatical'to units smaller than sentences.
A brief phrasesaid or written on its own can be grammatically acceptableor
unacceptablein its own right: a tall woman sounds right; " a u)oman tall does
not. The samemay be true of singlewords: compareutent with " goed.
Further: the minimal componentsto be combined may not be whole words;
for example,the -ed suffix indicating the past tenseof a regular verb in English,
or the -s plural of nouns. And sometimesit is not even a question of putting
'bits' before or after other 'bits'; words may actually changetheir spellingand
pronunciation in certain grammaticalcontexts:irregular forms of the past
tense,for example,in English, and many common plural forms in Arabic.
Question
Can you formulate a more precise defrnition of 'grammar', in the light of the
aborre discussion? Compare your definition with a dictionary's, or with that
suggested in the Notes, (l).
Gram m aticaI structures
A specificinstanceof grammar is usually called a 'structure'. Examplesof
structureswould be the past tense,noun plurals, the comparison of adjectives,
and so on. Not all languages,of course,have the samestructures:the English
verb has'aspects'(suchas the progressive:she is going for example)which
many other languagesdo not; German ascribesmasculine,feminine or neuter
genderto its nouns, which English doesnot. It is largely such discrepancies
which causeproblems to the foreign languagelearnerl though quite how
difficult theseproblems will be it is often hard to predict, evenif you are
familiar with the learner'smother tongue. Occasionallyforeign structuresthat
look strangemay be surprisingly easyto master,and vice versa.
Question
Think of two languages you know. Can you suggest an example of a
structure that exists in one but not in the other? Hor difficult is the structtrre
to learn for the speaker of the other langruage?
75
6 Teaching grammar
Grammatical meaning
Grammar doesnot only affect how units of languageare combined in order to
'look right'; it also affectstheir meaning.The teachingof grammaticalmeaning
tends,unfortunatelS to be neglectedin many textbooks in favour of an
emphasison accuracyof form; but it is no good knowing how to perceiveor
construct a new tenseof a verb if you do not know exactly what differenceit
makesto meaningwhen it is used.It is very often the meaningsof the structures
which createthe difficultiesfor foreign learnersmentionedabove.
The meaningof a grammaticalstructuremay be quite difficult to teach.It is
fairly simpleto explain that the addition of a plural -s to the noun in English
and Frenchindicatesthat you are talking about more than one item, and there
are parallelsin other languages.But how would you explain to the foreigner
when to usethe presentperfect (l hauegone, for example)in English,and when
the past simple (I wentl? If you are a grammarian or an experiencedEnglish
languageteacher,you may have the answerat your fingertips;but most English
speakerswho have not previouslystudiedthis questionwill have to stop and
think, and may find it difficult ro answer.
Question
Choose a structure in your oum native language. Hor would you explain its
meaning to learners? Hovuwould you get them to understand when this
particular structure would be used rather than others with slightly different
meanings?
The place of grammar in the teachingof foreign languagesis controversial.
Most peopleagreethat knowledgeof a languagemeans,among other things,
knowing its grammar; but this knowledgemay be intuitive (asit is in our native
language),and it is not necessarilytrue that grammaticalstructuresneedto be
taught as such, or that formal rules needto be learned.Or is it?
In Box 6.L aresomeextractsfrom the literature relating to the teachingof
grammar,which expressa variety of opinions on this question.They are
necessarilydecontextualized and over-simplified versions of their writers'
opinions: nevertheless
the issuesthey raise are basicand interesting.
Task Critical reading
Read the extracts in Box 6.1, and, if you are working in a group, discuss your
reactions. If you are on your own, you may find it helpful to observe the
following sequence for each extract:
l. Sumrnarize in your own words what the writer is saying.
2. State whether you agree or disagree in principle.
3. In the light of your own e:rperience as teacher or learner, add further
criticisms, positive or negrative, of the writer's point of view. \Mhere you
76
The place of grammar teaching
BOX 6.1: OPINIONS ABOUT THE TEACHING OF GRAMMAR
Extrast 1
pointis thatthe studyof grammar
nor
Theimportant
as suchis neithernecessary
forlearning
to usea language.
sufficient
( fr o m L Ne wm a r k' Ho wn o tto in te r fe r e wi thl anguagel earni ng'i nB rumfiJ.and
t,C
Johnson, K (eds.) Ihe CommunicativeApproach to LanguageTeaching,Oxford
UniversityPress,1979,p 165)
Extrast2
forexplicit
Thestudent's
craving
formulization
of generalizations
canusually
bemet
in
betterbytextbooks
andgrammars
thathereadsoutsideclassthanbydiscussion
crass.
,
(ibid.l
Extract 3
The language
teacher'sview of what constitutesknowledgeof a languageis...a
knowledgeof the syntacticstructureof sentences...The assumptionthat the
languageteacherappearsto make is that once this basisis provided,then the
learnerwill haveno difficultyin dealingwith the actualuseof language...
Thereis a gooddealof evidenceto suggestthat this assumptionis of very doubtful
validityindeed.
( fr o m H G.Wid d o wso n ,' Dir e ctio n sin theteachi ngof
di scourse'i nB rumfi t,CJ and
Johnson, K. (eds.) Ihe CommunicativeApproach to LanguageTeaching,Oxford
UniversityPress,1979,pp 49-60)
Extrast 4
use
Theevidenceseemsto showbeyonddoubtthatthoughit is by communicative
in real'speechacts'that the new language'sticks'in the learner'smind,insight
teachers
intopatternis an equalpartnerwith communicative
use in what language
now see as the dual processof acquisition/learning.
Grammar,approached
as a
voyageof discoveryinto the patternsof languageratherthan the learningof
prescriptive
rules,is no longera bogeyword.
(from Eric Hawkins,Awareness of Language:An lntroduction,CambridgeUniversity
Pr e ss,1 9 8 4p, p .1 5 0 - 1 )
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
carn,cluote evidence from your olrvnor others' e:cperience to back up
yourpoint of view.
My omr comments follovrr.
Comments:Theplaceof grammarteaching
Extrast 1
The writer is saying that you do not need to learn grammar, as such, in order to
learn a language.This statement is probably true: one learns one's mother
tongue without studying grammar. But it is, perhaps, a little misleading, and
missesthe point. The important question is not whether teachingand learning
grammar is necessaryandlor sufficient for language learning, but whether it
helps or not. And my own opinion is that yes,it doeshelp, provided it is taught
77
6 Teachinggrammar
not asan end in
asa meansto improvingmasteryof the language,
consistently
itself.
Extract2
It is better,saysthe writer,for the learnerto studygrammarindividuallyand
independently
than asa part of the classroomlesson.The interestingthing
aboutthis quotation(whichoccursin the sameparagraphasExtract1, but a
that the learnerdoeswant to studyrules
few linesearlier)is that it presupposes
('Thestudent'scraving...').The writer givesno reasonsto supporthis claimthat
grammaris betterstudiedoutsideclass;and if learnersseethe studyof grammar
asdesirableasa part of their learning,I would think this is surelysufficient
justificationfor the teacherto helpthemby providinginformationand practice
in the classroom.
Extract3
The writer'sclaimis that teachinglearnershow to constructgrammatical
The implicationis
sentences
doesnot enablethemto producereal-lifediscourse.
that the learnersneedto learnhow to makemeaningswithin realcontexts,and
This is fair enough,
how to createlongerunitsof languagethan singlesentences.
but we shouldnot, I think, concludethat the writer thinksgrammarteachingis
useless:
the point is that grammaticalaccuracyon its own is a deadend,unless
usedto receiveand produceinterestingandpurposefulmeaningswithin the
contextof real-lifelanguageuse.
Extrast4
of grammarfor effectivelanguage
Here,the writer is affirmingthe usefulness
learning.He alsoimpliesthat grammarcanbe interesting('a voyageof
rulediscovery')in itself:apparentlya reactionagainsttraditionalprescriptive
asa 'bogey'.I agreewith him in principle,though
teaching,which he describes
am not surethat all studentscanfind an intrinsicinterestin grammarassuch.
The mainpoint is an affirmationof its valueasa meansto helplanguage
learning.
Unit Three: Grammaticalterms
If you do decideto do any formal,consciousteachingof grammar,it is usefulto
haveat your fingertipsthe variouscommontermsthat areusedin explanations
If you arenot familiarwith themalreadSyou may
of grammaticalstructures.
find the followingdefinitionsuseful.
(Note,howeverthat thesedefinitionsare basedon Englishgrammar,and may
theyare,
in someotherlanguages;
not be accuraterepresentations
of categories
Fullerand more
moreover,only brief summaries,
and not comprehensive.
precisedescriptions
canbe found in the grammarbooksreferredto under
Further reading.)
-8
Grammatical terms
Units of language
Linguists usually definethe largestunit of languageas 'discourse'or 'text'; but
for most practical teachingpurposes,the sentenceis probably the most
convenient'base'unit. Smallerunits are the clause,the phrase,the word, the
morpheme.
The sentenceis a set of words standingon their own as a senseunit, its
conclusionmarked by a full stop or equivalent(questionmark, exclamation
mark). In many languagessentencesbegin with a capital letter,and include a
verb.
The clauseis a kind of mini-sentence:a set of words which make a senseunit,
but may not be concludedby a full stop. A sentencemay have two or more
clauses(Sheleft becauseit was late and she uas tired.) or only one (sheutas
tired.).
The phraseis a shorter unit within the clause,of one or more words, but
fulfilling the samesort of function as a single word. A verb phrase, for
example,functions the sameway as a single-wordverb, a noun phraselike a
one-word noun or pronoun: uas going, a long table.
The word is the minimum normally separableform: in writing, it appearsas a
stretch of letters with a spaceeither side.
The morpheme is a bit of a word which can be perceived as a distinct
component:within the word passed,for example,are the two morphemes
pass, and -ed. A word may consistof a singlemorpheme (book).
)uestion
Look at the first sentence of this unit ('If you do decide...') and try to find
two or more examples of each of the abone sentence components. You
might then like to check with the Notes, (2).
Alternatively, analyse another sentence similarly, possibly in another
langnrage.
Partsof the sentence
lWemay also analysethe sentenceaccordingto the relationshipsbetweenits
componentphrases:theseare calledparts of the sentence.The most common
parts of the sentenceare subiect,verb and obiect, which may be combined into
a basic pattern llke I saw the manzI being the subject, sdw the verb and tbe man
the object. The object may be direct or indirect; thus in I sent him a letter, him
is the indirect object, a letter the direct.
The complement looks like an object, except that it refers to the samething as
the subject;so that it would come after verbs like be, become,seem;inthe
sentenceSheis a good doctor., the phrasea good doctor is the complement.
Finally there is the adverbial:another word or phrasewhich adds further
information: words or phraseslike yesterday,at home, on his outn.
-)uestion
Using the frrst sentence of this section ('We may also analys€...'), find at
least one of each of the categories described above: subject, verb, object,
complement and adverbial (Notes, (3)). Again, you may prefer to use a
different sentence in another langruage.
79
6 Teaching grammar
Parts of speech
Different parts of the sentencemay be realizedby various kinds of words (or
phrases):theseare called parts of speech.
Nouns are traditionally characterizedas naming a 'person,place or thing'; bui
in fact they may refer to activitiesor events(conuersation,battle), abstracts
(beauty,theory) and various other kinds of things. They usually function, a.
do pronouns, as the subject,object or complementof a verb, or follow
prepositions.They may be precededby determiners(the, some)for example
or by adjectives,and may take the plural -s.
.i,Tf
:;;il:21,!?,i?(
"y;;:;",;:;ffi:?1,il:i:"kr:{'^T;::trf
are written in English with a capital letter.Another useful distinction is
between'countable'nouns (itemswhich can be counted and may appearin
the plural: horse,cup, for example)and'non-countable' or'mass' nouns
(certainuncountablesubstancesor abstracts:coffee,dust, utisdom).
Verbs are often called words of 'doing' (sutim,sir), but they may also indicate .r
stateof 'being', 'feeling', 'being in relationship to' (remain,regret,precede).
Verbscan be usedin different tenses,and in active and passivevoices.
It is useful to distinguishbetweentransitive verbs (thosethat take a direct
object: hit, feed) and intransitive ones (those that do not: Iaugh, falll, thougl
many verbscan be either,dependingon context (fiSht,relax).
Adjectivesnormally describethe things referredto by nouns or pronouns
(black, serious);they may function as complementsor be attachedto a noun
Adverbs describethe conceptsdefined by verbs (quickly, alone), adjectivesor
other adverbs(extremely,quite) or an entire sentenceor situation
(unfortunately,p erhaps).
Pronouns usually function as substitutesfor nouns or noun phrases(he, him,
utho, those)and like them may function as subject,object, complementor
follow a preposition.
Auxiliary verbs may be attachedto main verbsin a verb phrase: is, for example.
in is going.
Modal verbs (suchas can, must, may) are a particular fype of auxiliary verb;
they expressideassuch as possibilitS abiliry compulsion, probabilitS
willingness.
Determinersare (usuallyshort) items that introduce a noun or a noun phrase
(the, a, all, some,many).
Prepositionsdefinetime, spaceand more abstractrelationships,and precede
nouns or pronouns (in, before, of, according to, despite).
Question
80
Open a newspaper. Can you frnd and underline examples of some or all of
the aborre categories?
Presenting and explaining grammar
It is surprisingly difficult to presentand explain a foreign-languagegrammatical
structureto a classof learners.The problem is first to understandyourself what
is involved in'knowing'the structure (its written and spokenforms, its nuances
of meaning),and in particular what is likely to causedifficulties to the learners;
and second,how to presentexamplesand formulate explanationsthat will
clearly convey the necessaryinformation. This is a place where clear thinking
and speakingare of paramount importance:although you may elicit suggestions
from the learnersand encouragetheir participation in the presentation,it is
essentialfor you to know how to present the structure's form and meaning
yourself in a way that is cleaq simple,accurateand helpful. Note that there is
often a conflict between'simple' and 'accurate';if you give a completely
accurateaccount of a structure,it may be far from simple; if you simplifS you
may not be accurate.One of the problems of grammar presentationsis to find
the appropriate balancebefweenthe t'wo.
The task provides a framework for utilizing your own experiencein order to
learn more about effectivegrammar presentationand improve practice.If you
do not do it, go straight on to the Guidelinessectionat the end of the unit.
Task Glassroom or peer-teaching
Stage1: Presentation
Present and explain a grammatical structure to a class; the presentation
should not take longter than five minutes. (You may or may not wish to
consult a grarnmar book to help you prepare.)
If you are engaged in professional teaching, do this in one of yotu own
classes, and teach a structure that is from your textbook, or that fits in with
your programme. If you are not at present teaching, choose a structure you
feel fairly confident about, and present it to a group of colleagues. (If you
are on your own, write down the text of a presentation you might give a
class.)
The presentation should be recorded in some way; you might taperecord it or ask a colleague to obsenre and take notes. If neither of these is
possible, thenwrite dorrn as accurate anraccount as possible immediately
after the lesson.
Stage 2 (optional)
If you did not do so before, Iook up a grammar book (see Further reading
for some references) to checkyour e:<planation: was there anything
important you omitted or misrepresented?
Stage 3: Feedback
Ask a colleague or student to tell you immediately afterwards how clear they
thought your presentation was, and if they have any particular comments.
You may find it usefirl to use the questions in Box 6.2 as points of
reference. Some comments in the form of general recomrnendations may
be found belovv.
81
6 Teachinggrammar
Stage4
In the light of the critical discussion of your presentation, write out for
yourself a set of guidelines forpresenting and e:rplaining granrmar.
r
Sfage 5
Compare what you have written with my suggested guidelines as laid out
belor, or with what others have said (for example, Harmer, 1989;Doff,
1988:Ch.3). Is there anlrthing firrther you would like to add to your or,rrn
guidelines in the light of your readingr?
Stage 6
Do Stage I again, using another structure. Note briefly any changes you
notice in your orrn teaching'as a result of the process you have been
through in this unit.
BOX 6.2: OUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR PRESENTATIONS
1. The structureitself.Wasthe structurepresentedin bothspeechandwriting,
bothformandmeaning?
2. Examples.
provided
Wereenoughexamples
of the structure
in a meaningful
context?Areyousurethe studentsunderstood
theirmeanings?
3. Terminology.Didyou callthe structureby its (grammar-book)
name?lf so,was
thishelpful?
lf not,wouldit havehelpedif you had?Whatothergrammatical
terminology
was (wouldhavebeen)usefulT
4. Language.
Wasthe structure
explained
in the students'mothertongue,or in the
targetlanguage,
or in a combination
of the two?Wasthiseffective?
5. Explanation.
givenaboutthe structure
Wasthe information
at the rightlevel:
reasonably
accurate
but nottoo detailed?
Didyouusecomparison
with the
students'mothertongue(if known)?
Wasthis/would
thishavebeenuseful?
(andwriting)clearlyandat an appropriate
6. Delivery.Wereyouspeaking
speed?
7. Rules.Wasan explicitrulegiven?Why/whynot?lf so,didyouexplainit yourself
or didyouelicitit fromthe students?
Wasthisthe bestwavto do it?
@Cambridge
University
Press1996
Guidelineson presentingand explaininga new grammatical
structure
1. In general, a good presentation should include both oral and wriffen forms,
and both form and meaning.
2. It is important for learners to have plenty of contextualized examples of the
structure and to understand them. Visual materials can also contribute to
understanding.
3. The answersto this will depend on your situation and learners.On the whole
older or more analytically-minded learnerswill benefit more from the use of
terminology.
4. Again, this very much dependson your own situation and judgement.
5. This is the problem about striking the right balanceberweenaccuracy and
simplicity referred to earlier in this unit. Your explanation should cover the
great majority of instanceslearnersare likely to encounter; obvious
82
Gram mar p ractice activities
exceptionsshould be noted, but too much detail may only confuse.As a rule,
a simple generalization,even if not entirely accurate, is more helpful to
learnersthan a detailedgrammar-book definition.
6. Theseare basicand important points; your observerwill help you here.
7.Here you have to decidewhether a rule would be helpful or norl then,
whether to elicit it from the learnerson the basisof examples(sometimes
calledthe 'inductive' method), or give it yourself, and invite them to produce
examples('deductive').Like grammaticalterminology explicit rules are
helpful to older or more analytically-mindedlearners.As regardsinductive or
deductive methods: you have to ask yourself which is more effective in this
situation. If the learnerscan perceiveand definethe rule themselvesquickly
and easilSthen there is a lot to be said for letting them do so: what they
discover themselvesthey are more likely to remember.But if they find this
difficult, you may waste a lot of valuable classtime on sterile and frustrating
guessing,or on misleadingsuggestions;in suchcasesit is better to provide the
information yourself.
The aim of grammar practice is to get students to learn the structures so
thoroughly that they will be able to produce them correctly on their own. But it
is unsatisfactory for students to be able to produce correct samplesof a
structureonly when they are being specificallytestedon it: many of us are
familiar with the phenomenon of learners who get full marks on all the
grammar exercisesand tests,but then make mistakesin the samestructures
when they are composing their own free speechor writing. The problem in such
a caseis that the structures have not been thoroughly mastered;the learner still
dependson a measureof consciousmonitoring in order to produce them
correctly.
One of our jobs as teachersis to help our studentsmake the 'leap' from formfocussedaccuracywork to fluent, but acceptable,production, by providing a
'bridge': a variety of practice activities that familiarize them with the structures
in context, giving practice both in form and communicative meaning.
Look at Box 6.3, which consistsof descriptionsof a number of practice
activitiesfor various English structures.They are laid out in sequence:from a
very controlled and accuracy-orientedexerciseat the beginningto a fluency
activity giving opportunities for the free use of the grammar in context at the
end.
It is not suggestedthat such a sequencebe rigidly followed in classroom
teaching,though on the whole the more controlled procedurestend to come
earlier; but rather that our lessonsshould include a fairly representative
selection of activities that provide both form-focussed and meaning-focussed
practice.
83
6 Teachinggrammar
BOX6.3: TYPESOF GRAMMARPRACTICE:
FROMACCURACY
TO FLUENCY
Type1:Awareness
(seeUnitFourabove),
Afterthelearners
havebeenintroduced
to thestructure,
they
aregivenopportunities
to encounter
it withinsomekindof discourse,
anddoa task
thatfocusses
theirattention
on itsformand/ormeanino.
Example:
Learners
aregivenex-tracts
fromnewspaper
articles
andaskedto
underline
alltheexamples
of the pasttensethatthevcanf ind.
Type2: Controlleddrills
produce
Learners
examples
of thestructure:
theseexamples
are,however,
predetermined
bytheteacher
ortextbook,
andhaveto conform
to veryclear,closedendedcues.
Example:
Writeor saystatements
aboutJohn,modelled
onthefo lowing
example:
Johndrlnksteabuthe doesn'tdrinkcoffee.
a) like:icecream/cake b) speak:English/ltalian
c) enjoy:playing
football/playing
chess
Type3: Meaningfuldrills
Againtheresponses
areverycontrolled,
butlearners
canmakea limted
Example:
In orderto practise
formsof thepresent
simpletense:
youknowverywell,andwritedowntheirname.Now comoose
Choose
someone
truestatements
aboutthemaccording
to thefollowing
model:
He/Shelikesicecream:oBHe/Shedoesn'tlikeicecream.
a) enjoy:playing
tennis b) drink:wine
c) speak:Polish
Type4: Guided,meaningfulpractice
Learners
formsentences
of theirownaccording
to a setpattern,
what
butexactly
vocabulary
theyuseis upto them.
Example:
Practising
learners
conditional
clauses,
aregiventhecuelf I hada miiliotl
dollars,
andsuggest,in speechor writing,whattheywoulddo.
Type5: (Structure-basedl
freesentencecomposition
Learners
areprovided
witha visualor situational
cue,andinvited
to compose
their
ownresponses;
theyaredirected
to usethestructure.
Example:
A picture
showing
a number
of people
doingdifferent
thingsis shownto
theclass;theydescribe
it usingtheappropriate
tense.
Type6: (Structure-based)
discoursecomposition
Learners
holda discussion
orwritea passage
according
to a giventask;theyare
directed
to useat leastsomeexamoles
of thestructure
withinthediscourse.
('Youhaveseena goodfriend
Examp
e : Theclassis givena dilemma
situation
inanimportant
cheating
test')andaskedto recommend
Theyaredirected
a solution.
to includemodals@ight,should,must,can,could,elc.lin theirspeech/writing.
Type7: Freediscourse
As inType6, butthelearners
aregivennospecific
direction
to usethestructure;
however,
thetasksituation
is suchthatinstances
of it arelikelyto appear.
Example:
As inType6, butwithoutthe finaldirection.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
84
Grammar practiceactivities
',lication Look at the grammar exercises in a locally-used foreigm langruage
coursebook, and classify them roughly according to the types listed in Box
6.3. Many coursebooks provide plenty of exercises that suit the
descriptions of Tlrpes 2-3, but tend to neglect the others. Is this true of the
bookyou are looking at?
Unit Six: Grammatical mistakes
Note: This module doesnot include a sectionon grammar testing;for some
practical testing techniquesthat may be used for grammar as well as vocabulary
seeUnit Five of the previousmodule; and for a discussionof languagetestingin
general,seeModule 3: Tests.I prefer to concentratehere on one of the most
important products of such tests:the information they give us on common
learnererrors.
Terminology
Applied linguistics theory commonly distinguishesbetween errors (which are
consistentand basedon a mis-learnedgeneralization)and mistakes(occasional,
inconsistentslips).However,when you come acrossinstancesduring a lessonit
is usually difficult to tell the differencewith any degreeof certainty; I have,
therefore,not insistedon rigorous distinction betweenthe two terms in the
following discussion.
What is a mistake?
Usually,languageteachersperceivea mistake intuitively: somethingsoundsor
looks 'wrong'. It may actually interferewith successfulcommunication,or
'We
simply 'jar' - produce a slight feeling of discomfort in the reader or hearer.
have to be careful, however, not to define as mistakes slightly deviant forms
which may not accord with some grammar-book prescriptions, but are quite
acceptableto competentor native speakersof the language.
Mistakeswithin the learning process
If we presentnew structurescarefully and give plenty of varied practicein using
them, we may hope that our studentswill make relatively few mistakes. But
somewill inevitably appear.
Mistakes may be seenas an integral and natural part of learning: a symptom
of the learner'sprogressthrough an 'interlanguage'towards a closerand
closerapproximation to the target language.Somewould say that it is not
necessaryto correct at all: as the learner advancesmistakeswill disappearon
their own.
Even if you think - as most learnersdo - that grammar mistakesneedto be
corrected,it is important to relate to them not as a sign of inadequacy(you have
failed to teach something,the studenthas failed to learn it), but rather as a
meansto advanceteachingand learning ('here is someuseful information about
85
6 Teachinggrammar
what we needto pay attention to, let's now considerhow to usethis
information in order to make progress').The following Inquiry task is basedon
this approachto correction.
Inquiry
Learner errors
Stage I : Gathering samples
Gather a few samples of learners'writing that does not consist of answers
to grammar exercises: answers to comprehension questions, essays,
letters, short paragraphs. Alternatively, record foreign learners speaking.
(If you did Unit T\po of Module 4: ?baclring pronunciafion then you will
already have recordings you might be able to use here; if not, the same unit
will provide you with some hints on hour to make such recordings. See
page 50.)
Stage 2: Classifying
Go through the samples you have collected, noting mistakes. Can you
categorize them into tylres? \Mhat are the most conrmon ones?
Sfage 3: Ordering
Together with collea€tues, make a list of the most common mistakes, in
rough order of frequency.
Stage 4: Reordering
Ttrere are, of course, all sorts of other factors, besides frequency, which
may affect the level of importance you attach to an error. It may be, for
example, less urgent to correct one which is very cornmon but which does
not actually affect comprehensibility than one that does. In English,
Iearners commonly omit the third-person -ssuffix in the present simple,
and slightly less comrnonly substitute a present verb form when they mean
the past; on the whole, the second mistake is more likely to lead to
misunderstanding than the first and therefore is more important to correct.
Another error may be considered less important because a lot of very
proficient, or native, speakers often make it. Arrd so on.
Rearrange your list of errors, if necessary, so that they are in order of
importance for correction.
Using the information
The information you have gainedmay be usedfor three main purposes:
1. As a guide for the presentation and practice of new structures
If you know that a certain structure is particularly difficult to produce without
mistakes, you will try to invest more time and effort next time you present it.
Learnerswho like to think analytically may appreciateyour sharingthe
problem with them frankly evenat the earlieststages:'This'is the mistake a lot
of peoplemake: look out for it!' Converselgif you know that your learners'use
of another structure is usually mistake-free, maybe you can afford to teach it
more brieflg and skip lengthy explanations.
86
Grammaticalmistakes
2. As a guide for correction
It is possibleto correct everysinglemistake in learners'oral or written work;
but then they may be unable to cope with the sheerquantity of information, let
alone learn it with any degreeof thoroughness.[t is probably better to be
selective:to concentrateon the 'important' errors, and direct the learner's
attention towards them only. (On the questionof correction in general,see
Module 17: Giuing feedback.)
3. As a guide for remedialwork
Having diagnosedthat a certain structureis particularly problematic for your
students,it is a good idea to give a review and extra practiceof the structure,
detachedfrom the mistake-making event itself. You may start by telling them
frankly what the frequenterror is that you are trying to correct; or you may feel
it better (particularly with more intuitive, or younger learners)to go straight
into practiceof correct forms.
Notes
(1)Definition
One possibledefinition might be: Grammar is a set of rules that definehow
words (or parts of words) are combined or changedto form acceptableunits of
meaningwithin a language.
(2) Units of language
The sentenceis:
If you do decideto do any formal, consciousteachingof
grammar, it is useful to have at your fingertips the various
common terms that are usedin explanationsof grammatical
structures.
Clauses
The main clauseof the sentenceis: it is useful to haue at your fingertips the
uarious common terms.There are two subordinateclauses:lf you do decide
to do any formal, consciousteaching of grammar and that are used in
explanations of grammatical structures.
Phrases
Somenoun phrasesare.youi any formal, consciousteachingof grammar; it;
your fingertips; tbe uarious common terrns; explanations of grammatical
structures. (Note that grammatical structures is another noun phrase within
a prepositionalphrasewithin a noun phrase!)
Verb phrasesare do decide,is, are used.
Prepositionalphrasesare of grammn6 at yowr fingertips,of grammatical
structures.
87
6 Teaching grammar
'Words
Thesearesimply:If, you, do, decide,etc.
Morphemes
Most of thewordsarealsosinglemorphemes.
Somethat canbe brokendou-iinto morethan onemorphemeare:-teach+ing;use+ful,finger+tips.
(3) Partsof the sentence
The sentenceis:
\7e may also analysethe sentenceaccordingto the relationships
betweenits componentphrases:theseare called parts of the
sentence.
Subject:In this sentencethe subjectsare pronouns: we, these.
Verb: There are two verbs: analyse and are called.
Obiect: the sentenceis the object of the verb analyse.
Complement:parts of the sentenceis the complementof the verb are called.
Aduerbial: The phrase according to the relationships between its component
phrasesfunctions as an adverbial.
Further reading
ENGLISH
(basedon British English,exceptfor
GRAMMARS
AND BAcKGRoUND
the Celce-Murcia,which is basedon American)
Celce-Murcia,M. and Larsen-Freeman,D. (1983) The Grammar Book,
Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
(A fairly detailedaccount of Englishgrammar for the teacher)
Leech,G., Deuchar,M. and Hoogenraad,R. (1983) English Grammar for
Today, London: Macmillan.
(Lessthorough than the Uniuersity Grammar listed below but more readabler
for improving your own general grammatical knowledge)
Quirk, R. and Greenbaum,S. (1973) A Uniuersity Grammar of English,
London: Longman.
(A very comprehensivereferencebook - perhapstoo detailedto be often used
by a busy teacher)
Sinclair,I. $992) Collins COBUILD English Usage,Birmingham University
with London: HarperCollins.
(A comprehensivebut accessiblegrammar for teacheror learners,basedon
the COBUILD corpus of languagesamples)
Swan,M. (1980) PracticalEnglish Usage,Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(Good for looking up specificpoints you needfor teaching;clearly set out,
with common mistakesexplainedand corrected.There is also a simpler
version, Basic English Usage)
Swan,M. and Smith, B. (7987) Learner English, Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press.
(Articles on common interferencemistakesproduced in English by speakers
of other languages)
88
Further reading
TE A CHE R' SHA N D BOOK S
Bygate,M., Tonkyn,A. and'Williams,E. (eds.)(79941Grammrand the
LanguageTeacher,Hemel Hempstead:PrenticeHall International.
(A collectionof articleson variousaspectsof grammarand grammar
teaching,with a practicalclassroomorientation)
Celce-Murcia,M. and Hilles,S.L. (1988)Techniques
and Resources
in
TeachingGrammar,New York: Oxford UniversityPress.
(Guidelinesand practicalsuggestions,
with examples;readable)
Close,R. A. (19921ATeachers'Grdmmdr:The CentralProblemsof English,
Hove:LanguageTeachingPublications.
(A summaryof someof the grammarproblemsof English,and how to cope
with them)
Doff, A. (1988)TeachEnglish:ATraining Coursefor Teachers
(Teacher's'Workbook
and Trainer'sHandbook),Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress:Chapters3 and 6.
(Verypracticaladviceand activitiesfor the (student)teacher)
Harmer,J. $989) Teachingand LearningGramrnar,London:Longman.
(A slim,readablevolume:usefulsuggestions
and advice)
Ur, P.(1988)GrammarPracticeActiuities,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.
(A collectionof communicativeand game-likeactivities,with general
guidelinesfor effectiveactivity design)
89
Module
7:Topics,
situations,
notions,
functions
Languagehas traditionally beensegmented,as shown in the last three modules.
into sounds,vocabulary and grammaticalstructures,but it may equally well be
taught through larger meaningfulsegmentsbasedon whole 'chunks' of
discourse.It would seemlogical to group suchchunks round a common topic
and many coursesare planned in such awa.y.Unit 1 of a coursebookmight, for
example,deal with the home, Unit 2 with the familg and so on.
Another possibility is to basethe languageround situations:theseare topics
'brought alive' as it were, and integratedinto somekind of communicative
event.Thus the Unit 1 mentionedabove might integrateinto the topic of 'homr
a situation where someoneis showing a visitor round their home, describingth.
different rooms and furniture; similarly the topic of 'family' might be
contextualizedby showing the samehost introducing the visitor to membersof
the family.
In someways topics and situationsare more difficult to teachthan isolated
items like words or structures,in that they involve whole discourse,with longer
and more complicatedlanguageconstructs.On the other hand, the learneris
immediatelyengagingwith languagethat expressesmeaningsin context, and
thesemay be seenas more interestingand clearly relevantfor communicative
purposes.
Many coursebooksbasetheir units on topics or situationsas described
above.
Question
Have a look at a locally-used coursebook. Is each urrit in fact based on a
clearly defrnable topic, or situation, or both? Is there a general 'base'
situation which is maintained throughout the book (for example, the doings
of a particr:lar set of people)?
lntroducinga new topic or situation
New topics and situationsneedto be presentedin much the sameway as new
languageitems or texts (seeModule t: Presentationsand explanations).That is
to say,learnershave to perceiveand understandboth the underlying theme and
the languagewhich is usedto expressit. The presentationof topics or situations
may be approachedfrom different directions;for example:
L. Take the topic or situation, do a task basedon it, eliciting from the learners
or teachingany necessarynew language,possiblygoing on later to study a
text; or
90
Topicsand situations
2.Teachthe new language,and through it approachthe topic/situation and/or
an approprlatetext; or
3. Go straight into a text, using it both to teachnew languageand to explore
the relevanttopic/situation.
Somepractical techniquesimplementingtheseideasare shown in Box 7.1.
Question
Look ttuough the techniques suggested in Box 7.1. Are there any you would
not use? Can you add more?
Task Peer-teaching
Choose one of the folloring topics or situations: the frrst two are
appropriate for a relatively lroung, elementary class, the next two for an
older, more advanced one.
L School
2. TVuochildren discussing their favourite lessons
3. Education
4. A teachers' meeting about a problem student
In small l1roups, plan hovuyou would introduce your chosen item to your
class, perhaps utilizing some of the ideas in Box 7. I; then one
representative actually presents it to the rest of the full group. Continue
until each small group has 'taught' its topic.
Then discuss the presentations: how interesting were they? Horrrrwell do
you think the learners would have understood the material?
NF NE WT O P I CS
BOX 7 .1: S OMEIDE A SFORP RE S E NT A T I OO
OR S ITUA TIONS
-
Write the nameof the tooic in the middleof the boardand invitethe classto
words they canthinkof (seepp.68-69).
brainstormall the associated
Write the nameof the topic in the middleof the boardand ask the classwhat
they know aboutit and/orwhat they would liketo know.
situationand characters
and invitethe classto suggest
Describea communicative
will say.
orallVwhat the characters
Givethe title of a text and invitethe classto write down sentencesor
they expectwill occurwithin it.
expressions
in a communicative
situationand
Definebrieflythe openingeventand characters
ask the classto imaginewhat will happennext.
Presenta recordeddialogueand askthe classto tell you where they thinkit is
are.
takingplaceandwho the characters
Presenta text, askfor an appropriate
title.
Expressyourown, or someoneelse's,opinionsabouta topic,invitediscussion.
ask the classwhat they thinkthe
Teacha selectionof words and expressions,
situationor tooic is.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
91
7 Topics,situations,notions,functions
Notionsand functionsarerathermoreprecisecategories
than 'topics'and
'situations'.The latterdefinegeneralthemesor communicative
events,whereas
notionsandfunctionsarethewaysparticularmeaningsarercalizedin language.
Thus,asdiscussed
in thepreviousunit, a topicmay be'thefamily'anda
situationmaybe'visitinga friend'shome',whereas
notionsandfunctionsmay
bethingslike 'timepast'or 'inviting'.'Timepast'mayincludepasrrenses,
phraseslikea monthago,in 1990,lastuteek,andutterances
usingtemporal
clauses
beginning
withuhen...,before...,
after...andsoon;'inviting'may
includephrases
llke Wouldyou liketo...?,I suggest...,
Houtabout...?,Please...
.
The numberof possibletopicsandcommunicative
situationsis virtually
infinite,whereasthe numberof functionsandnotionsis in principlefinite. It has
thereforebeensuggested
that syllabuses
for language
courses
shouldbebased
on a taxonomyof functionsand notions,sincetheyrepresentthe basicunits
underlyinga communicative
systemmorerealistically
thanthecategories
of
lexisandgrammarwhichmaybetaughtdetached
from particular
communicative
contexts.Therationalebehindthe designof suchsyllabuses
has
beendiscussed
by I7ilkins (7976)amongothers;perhapsthemostwell-known
example(in English)is VanEk (1990).
Thedifferencebetweena notionand a function
If you look up someof the referenceslistedunderFurther readingat the end of
this unit, and readwhat peoplehaveto sayaboutnotionsand functionsyou
will find that the two termsare not usedvery consistently.Sometimesthey seem
to referto the samething; sometimes
oneis seenasa subsetof the other;and the
issueis further complicatedby the introduction of other overlappingtermssuch
as'conceptualcategories',
'speechacts','performatives',
etc.It is all very
confusing.
It is probablynot very usefulfor us asteachersto investtime and energyin
sortingout and definingall theseconcepts,althoughyou may enjoydoingso:
the subjectof communicativeactsis a fascinatingone in its own right! For
professional
purposes,however,we may perhapsfocuson only oneinteresting
distinction:that betweennotions and functionsasdefined,for example,in Van
Ek (1990).
A notionis a concept,or idea:it maybequitespecific,
in whichcaseit is
virtually the sameasvocabulary(dog,house,for example);or it may be very
general- time, size,emotion,rnouemenr- in which caseit often overlapswith
the conceptof 'topic'.A comprehensive
list of notionsmay befound in a
thesaurus(for example,Roget'sThesaurus
in English):the headingsof the
different sectionsare 'general'notions,whereasthe itemslistedwithin theseare
morelikely to be 'specific'.
A functionon the otherhandis somekind of communicativeact: it is the use
of languageto achievea purpose,usuallyinvolvinginteractionbetweenat least
promising,apologizing,greeting.
rwo people.Exampleswould be suggesting,
Veryoftenfunctionsare 'binary'; that is to say,the performanceof oneimpliesa
certainresponse
or setof responses
which takethe form of another,
92
Teachingchunks of language;from text to task
complementaryfunction. Suggestionsor invitations, for example,are rypically
followed by acceptanceor rejection; greeting by acknowledgement or further
greeting; and so on. 'Unitary' functions may occur on their own - informing,
for example - with no necessaryexpected response.However, whether a specific
instance of a function is binary or unitary would, of course, depend on its actual
context.
To check Have a look at the items listed in Box 7.2. Canyou sort them into separate
under- lists of notions and functions? And can you then suggest which of the
standing functions would be likely to be 'binary', i.e. follovrred or preceded by a
complementary firther function? A solution is provided in the Notes, (l) at
the endof the module.
BOX 7.2= NOTIONSA ND FUNCT I O NS
location
obligation
advise
threat
aporogy
probability
offer
promrse
the future
cnme
the body
expressionof
o p rn ro n
requesr
spatialrelations
food
instruction
remind
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
Unit Three: Teaching chunks of language; from
text to task
Topics, situations, notions and functions may differ in the ways outlined in the
previous two units, but in principle the idea uniting them is a 'holistic'view of
how bits of languageshould be presentedto learners.Such a view emphasizes
the importance of dealing with whole, meaningful chunks of languagein
context, rather than decontextualized items such as lists of vocabulary, or
isolated examplesof grammatical structures.It is, of course,possibleto present
notions and functions 'phrase-book' fashion as lists of isolated items (just as it
is possible- and desirable- to teach grammar and vocabulary as used in
communication); but it is, on the whole, more effective to teach them as
samplesof language used by people within a specific interactive situation.
This unit looks at sometechniquesof teachingsuch samplescontextualized
within texts.
Learningby heart
Learning by heart has been until recently rather frowned upon by teachersand
educationists - and not only in the field of language teaching. This has been
partly a reaction againstthe mindlessrote-learningof previous generationsof
93
7 Topics,situations,notions,functions
schoolchildren,
associated
with the discouragement
of creativeor original
thinkingandstresson thememorization
of datasuchasmultiplicationtables,
datesin historyandpassages
from literature.'Withinlanguageteaching,
learningby hearthasbeenassociated
with the audio-lingualmethodology
popularin in the 1960sbut laterrejectedby mostmethodologists,
which also
emphasized
learningthrough unthinking habit-formingand reliedheavilyon
mimicryand memorization.
More recently however,both within languageteachingand in other areasof
education,peoplearebeginningto realizethat learningby hearthasvalue,and
that it is quitecompatiblewith creativityand originalityof thought.Justasan
automaticknowledgeof the multiplicationtablesenablestheyoung
mathematician
to progressfasterinto interestingproblem-solving,
so
memorizedchunksof languageor formulaicutterances
associated
with
particularcommunicativecontextsfurnish the learnerwith a rich and reliable
'vocabulary'of ready-made
expressions
whichcontributesignificantly
to his or
her overallmasteryof the language('Widdowson,
1,9891.
Thus if we presentour learnerswith samplesof functionsincorporatedinto
situationaldialogues,
it makessenseto askthemto learnsomeof theseby heart:
provided,of course,that we consistently
maintaintheir awareness
of the
meaningand purposeof what theyaresaying.
BOX7.3: OFFERING
HELP
A: CanI helo?
B: Ohyes,please,
I don'tknowwhatto do...
A: What'sthematter?
B: Hedoesn'tunderstand
whatl'mtellinghim!
A: Wouldyoulikemeto explain?
B: Please
do!
(adapted
fromAlanMaleyandAlanDufI,Variations
ona Theme,
Cambridge
University
Press,1978,p. 46)
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Task Different interpretations of the sarne text
Imagine you are teaching the function of offering help and accepting. You
have selectedthe dialogue shownin Box 7.3 to exemplify it. Having learned
it by heart, what sorts of different interpretationswould you or your
studentssuggestin order to consolidatelearning and vary its
performance?For example,you might wish to suggestdifferent situations
or contextsfor the dialogue; different kinds of characters;different
relationshipsbetween them; different attitudesto the problem aboutwhich
help is being offered.
Someideas of my own are given belovy.
Somewaysof varyingthe dialoguein Box 7.3
The situation: foreigntouristsare trying to buy somenecessary
equipmentin a
snop;a stuclentteacherls trylng to explainsomethingto a child,helpedby
lll.
94
Teachingchunksof language;from text to task
the classteacher;a driver has beenstoppedby a police officer for atraffic
offenceand is trying to explain why he or sheis innocent...
The characters:excited,apathetic,annoyed,pleased,tired, nervous,
good-humoured...
assertive,
embarrassed,
The relationships:authoritative-deferential;aggressive-defensive;
affectionate;
formal...
Attitwde to the problem: the problem may be seenas: trivial; distressing;a
matter of life or death;irritating; funny...
Varying a theme
Learning texts by heart and then deliveringthem accordingto different
interpretationsis one way of engagingwith samplesof written or spoken
languagefunctions or situations.Another possibility - which may or may not
be combinedwith learning by heart - is to take the basictext and elaborateon
it.
Let us take the situation of two peoplemeetingat somekind of social
gatheringand getting to know one another.The situation is presentedto
learnersthrough an introductory spokenor written text: a dialoguebetweenthe
new acquaintances,for example) or a narrativeaccountof their meeting,or a
diary entry by one of them describingthe encounter.Languagefunctions may
include things like introducing oneself,informing, requestinginformation,
expressinginterestltopics and notions might include familS work, tastes,
travel.
Rather than simply learning or answeringcomprehensionquestionson such
texts, the classmay be invited to vary and extend them, leadingto further
exploration of the kind of languagebeinglearned.They might, for example,
either on their own or in collaboration with vou. do one or more of the
following:
- createa new text on a similar tooic:
the samenotionsor
- suggestother ways the characteiscould haveexpressed
functions; what differencewould thesechangeshave made?
- suggestother ways the meetingmight have developed,and how the
charactersmight have expressedthemselves;
- re-presentthe original text in a different way: if it was a diary entrS for
example,then reconstructthe dialogue,or vice versa.
Task
Lookingat
acoursebook
Select a coursebook you know that uses texts based on communicative
events or situations. lMhat are some of the tasks throughwhich the book
gets the learners to engage with the topics, situations, notions and
functions within the texts? Do these tasks limit learner activity to the actual
words of the text, or do they lead into further variations, other ways of
expressing similar themes? Have you any suggestions of your own for
supplementing the tasks set by the book?
95
7 Topics,situations,notions, functions
task to text
Teachingtopics, situations,notions and functions through tasks and learnerinitiated languagerather than through ready-madetexts is another possible
strategy.Methodologiesbasedon this idea have beendescribedby Prabhu
(19871and l$Tillis(1990).
In such a methodology the teacherhas a syllabusof topics, but may or may
not have ready-madetexts or lists of actual languagesamplesthat are to be
taught. The main initiative comesfrom the students.Thus in a lessonon
personalappearance,for example,learnersmight be askedto start by working
in pairs describingpicturesof people beforethem; eachparticipant has to drau.
peoplefrom the descriptionprovided by their partner. If they neednew bits of
languagethey teacheach other or ask the teacher.(Notice that the teacher
presentationof new language,as describedin the first module, is still inevitablr
with us, but the items to be presentedgrow out of learner needwithin a
communicativesituation rather than being predeterminedby teacher,syllabus
or textbook.) Later, the activity may be reported in rhe full classand the
necessarylanguagesummarized,polished and elaborated- and later reviewed
and practised.Also at alater stage,listeningand readingtexts may be brought
in, but theseare to consolidateor enrich the original task-basedlearning,rather
than as a starting-point themselves.
One advantageof doing it this way is that the minds of teacherand students
are from the outset firmly focussedon the 'holistic' languagetopic, whereasthe
useof a text as starting-pointcan lead ro neglectof meaningand purposein
favour of analysisof grammar and vocabulary items - as you may have found if
you did the task at the end of the previous unit. Another advantageis the
'authentic' flavour of the languageJearningprocess:this is arguably how people
learn languageswhen they are plunged into a foreign society,having to function
in communicativesituations,and learning as they go along, coping wirh a
certain unpredictability of the languagecontent that will be neededand learned.
This unpredictabiliry however,can be a disadvantage:many teachersand
learnerslike the senseof structureprovided by a programme of language
content which has beenplanned in advanceand which they know they are
going to have to work on. Also, a lot of initiative and sheerhard work is
demandedof both teachersand learnersin suggestingand then recallingor
noting down the new language.
Task Role play
One member of the group role plays the teacher; the rest are not very
advanced learners who have been studying the foreigm language for, say, a
year or two at school.
Sfage l: Role play
The 'learners' divide into pairs and do the describing-people task
mentioned above: each member of the pair has a different pair of
ctraracters in ftont of them (either Bq 7.4.1 or Bo:r 7.4.2), and describeg each
96
Teachingchunksof language:from task to rcrt
in turn; the partner has to try to draw the people from the description. As
you work, remember how limited )rou €rrein yor:r lcrorledge: ask the
'teacher' for new language as you need it.
Stage 2: Discussion
Discuss the folloring
questions.
l. Hor did you feel doing this activity? Do you have any particular
comments, positfire or negative, as teacher or learners?
2. The objective of the task was to produce and use langruage growing out
of topics and notions connected with parts of the body, clothes and
accessories and of situations and functions connected with describing
and explaining. Did the task in fact achieve this objective?
3. Was this languagre noted down - or could it have been - by the teacher or
students and used as a basis for further practice?
4. \ltlhat would you suggest doing next in order to engage further with the
target language functions, notions, etc.?
5. Do you feel the need for a prepared written or spoken text? If so, what
sort of text might you use? Would you prefer to use it before the task or
after?
BOX 7 .4.1: P E OP LE
TO DE S CRIB E
@ CambridgeUniversity Press 1996
BOX 7 .4.2: PEOPLETO DESCRIBE
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
97
7 Topics, situations, notions, functions
Unit Five: Gombining different kinds of
languagesegments
Probablythe teachingof larger'holistic'languagecomponentssuchasfunction:
or topicsis mosteffectivewhencombinedwith someteachingof othersmaller
segments
suchasvocabularyor grammar(Longand Crookes,7992l.Thustask
may be
basedactivityaimedat focussingon chunksof language-in-context
integratedwith the presentation
or practiceof specificitemsthat arerelevantto
the targettheme,andwill helplearnersengagemoreintensivelywith the
languageassociated
with it. Converselythe learningof pronunciation,
vocabularyand grammaris probablymosteffectivewhen thesearealso
integratedinto activitiesthat usethe targetitemsmeaningfullyfor some
purpose.
communlcatlve
If thisis accepted,
thenthequestionarises:whereshouldwe start?Teachthe
smallerbits first (thewordspen,pencil,etc.;the useof haue,has,possessive
adjectives)
and thengetlearnersto communicateinformationaboutthe
ownershipof differentobjects?Or getthemto try to communicatesuch
information,teachingthemthe itemsastheyneedthem?Or providethemwith
a ready-made
text exemplifyinga situationwhereownershipof objectsneedsto
for intensivestudy?
be identifiedand lateranalyseit into components
I do not think the answerto this questionis necessarily
veryimportant.
Probablyall thesemethodsarepracticableand may be effective.\fhich oneyou
and thoseof your
choosewill dependto someextenton your own preferences
studentslperhapsevenmoreso,in practice,on the approachadoptedby your
coursebook.
What is importantis the principlethat the differentlanguage
segments
shouldbecombined:that we shouldnot losesightof the importance
of the communicative
actsand overallinteractivecontextof languageuseby
over-stressing
accuratepronunciationor grammar;andconverselythat we
shouldnot spendall our time on'holistic'communication,neglectinguseful
intensivestudyof specificlanguageproblems.
Whatgoes with what?
But if we aregoingto combinepronunciation,vocabularyandgrammarwith
morecommunicative
languagesegments
suchasfunctionsand notions,how do
we selectwhat to studywith what?Someassociations
may seemquite
straightforward:the generaltopic of 'people'sappearance'
will entailnotions
suchaspartsofthe body and clothing,and vocabularysuchashead,hand,
is that berweenfunctions
dress,shoesandcoat.A more problematicassociation
and grammar.It may on the faceof it seemobviousthat somefunctionshave
neatoppositenumbersin grammar;for example,onemight think that the
function of inviting would go with the imperative:Hauea cup of coffee!,Come
that are
to my party! Howevera little morethoughtwill produceutterances
clearlyinvitations,but equallyclearlynot imperatives:Weshouldloueyou to
you likeanotherpieceof cake?
corneto our party.,'Would
In principle,anygrammatical
itemmaybeused
structureor vocabulary
within a varietyof notions,functions,topicsand situations- and viceversa:
The notion of possibilitymay be
therearefew,if an5 'one-to-one'relationships.
98
Combining different kinds of languagesegments
expressedby the modal can;but also by words llke perhaps and feasible, and
expressionslike uould not exclude the possibility that. Conversely am may
also be used for requests,where actual possibility is not in question (Can you
open the utindou, please?),personalabilities (Shecan play the piano
beautifully.), and so on.
Question
Try making similar comparisons in another langruage you knornr.Is the same
gteneral principle - that there are no one-to-one correspondences between
grammar and function- true?
Thus, even if you accept in principle that a grammatical structure should be
practised within the context of an appropriate function or situation, or that the
teaching of a topic should include the teaching of relevant vocabulary the selection
of actual items may not be so simple. Your coursebookmay do this for you,
coordinating different categoriesof languagewithin each teaching unit; but it may
not. ln any case,it is worth being aware yourself, as a teacher,of the relationships
betweenthe different categoriesand possibleways of combining them. The
following task invites you to work out somecombinations of your own.
Task Coordinating different categories of language in a teaching
programJme
In the table shovrnin Box7.5eachcolumnrepresentsa differentbasisfor
selectionof language:situation,function,vocabulary,etc.In eachrow one
of these is filled in; can you fiIl in some suggestions for the others? Note that
BO X
CO ORDINA TING
DIFFE RE NT
LA N G UA G ECA T E G O RI E S
Gettingto
xnow
ir SOmeOne
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
99
7 Topics,situations, notions, functions
pronunciationhas been omitted, since any specifrc aspect of pronunciation
can be linked to a very wide range of other categories, and the decision
about which to concentrate onwill be to some extent arbitrary. In the
vocabulary column put only a sample of the kinds of words and e:rpressior-*
you would teach, or a defrnition; you do not have to list them all.
You do not, of course, have to fill in every single box; but try to frll in as
many as lrou can, in say,twenty minutes. Thenperhaps compare your table
with a colleague's.
Some suggestionsforways the table couldbe frlledin are giveninthe
Notes, (2).
Notes
(1) Notionsand functions
The functionsin the list would bezoffea request,promise,aduise,threat,
instruction,apology,remind,expressionof opinion. The rest are notions.
Of the functions,the obviouslybinaryonesare:offer (followedby acceptanc.
instruction
or rejection);request(followedby positiveor negativeresponse);
(usuallyresponded
apology(usually
to by someexpression
of comprehension);
Promises,aduice,remindersandthreatsmay or
followed by acknowledgement).
in any casethesemay varywidely in
may not be followedby explicitresponses:
to at all; in
nature.Expressions
of opinionin writing areoftennot responded
of (different)opinions.
speech,theymay be followedby furtherexpressions
10 0
Notes
(2) ldeas for coordinating different language categories
Situations
Topics
Notionsand
Functions
Grammar
Vocabulary
Gettingto
know someone
Tastes,
hobbies
Inquiring
Informing
Greeting
Interrogative
forms
Verb(e.9,
enjoy)+-ing
swtmmng,
spolts,etc.
(pastimes,
leisureactivities)
Reporting
anaccident
Road
accidents
Timepast
Narrating
Describing
Pasttense
road,car, drive,
etc. (to do with
streetscene
or accident)
Shopping
Clothes
Making
requests
Modals
would,could,
might
clothes,
adjectivesof
colour,size,etc.
Planninga
noliday
Travel,
accommodation
Futuretime
Predicting
Suggesting
Future
tense
train,plane, etc.
(transport)hotel,
camping,elc.
(accommodation)
Askingaboutor
Cescribing
a
crofession
Professions
Activities
Equipment
Requesting
information
Describing
activity
Yes/noquestions
Presenttense
fanner,
secretary,elc.
(jobs)
Further reading
Long, M. H. and Crookes, G. (1992) ''Threeapproachesto task-basedsyllabus
design',TESOL Quarterly, 26,'/..,27-S 6.
(Suggests
that teachingprogrammesbasedon communicativetasks are
most effective when combined with explicit teaching of grammar, vocabularg
etc.)
MaleS A. and Duff, A. (7978) Variationson aTheme, Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press.
(A collection of dialogues exemplifying different functions and notions)
Prabhu, N. S. (19871SecondLanguage Pedagogy:A Perspectiue,Oxford,:
Oxford University Press.
(Rationaleand descriptionof a teachingprogramme basedon communicative
tasks)
Ur, P. (1988) Grammar PracticeActiuities, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.
(Ideasfor practisinggrammar within appropriate situations,or to express
notions or functions)
Van Ek, J. A. (1990) The Threshold Leuel in a European (Jnit-Credit Systemfor
Modern Language Learning by Adults, Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
(A well-known exampleof a functional-notional syllabusin use)
101
7 Topics,situations, notions, functions
Widdowson, H. G. (1989)'Knowledge of languageand ability for use',Applie,:
Linguistics, 70, 2,'1,28-37,
(On the importance of learning 'chunks' of complete utterancesor 'formulae'
for effective languagelearning)
Vilkins, D. A. (1976) Notional Syllabuses,Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(A classic,fairly brief introduction to the rationale behind basing syllabuses
on functions and notions rather than grammar or vocabulary)
Villis, D. (1990) The Lexical Syllabus,London: Collins: Ch. 5.
(Describeshow a lexical syllabus would be taught through a task-based
methodology)
102
Teachingthe language (2): The'how'
Languageproficiencycan be definedin terms of accuracyand fluency; if a
learnerhas mastereda languagesuccessfully,
that meansthat he or shecan
understandand produceit both accurately(correctly)and fluently (receiving
and conveyingmessages
with ease).Thus in planning a unit of teaching,it is
useful to separatethe two aspects,and defineclearly the learning objectiveat
'When
any givenpoint in a lesson.
the objectiveis accuracSteacherand learners
are chiefly concernedwith 'getting the languageright': forming correct sounds,
words, sentences.'When
it is fluency,they are concentratingon the 'message':
communicatingor receivingcontent.(For a more detaileddiscussionof the
accuracy/fluencydichotomy, seeBrumfit, 1,984,)
On the whole, the teachingof pronunciation,vocabularyand grammarwill
tend to be accuracy-oriented:in thesewe are mainly interestedin getting
learnersto say the soundsright, to usethe words to expressthe appropriate
meanings,or to constructtheir sentences
in a way that soundsacceptable.
In the
teachingof languagecontent within the more 'holistic' categoriesof topics or
functions we are beginningto move over towards fluency with more emphasis
on producing appropriate languagein context: equal importance is attachedto
form and message.
In teachingthe so-called'four skills'- listening,speaking,readingand writing the emphasiswill usually be firmly on fluency.What we are interestedin hereand what is emphasizedin the following four modules- is the developmentof
learners'facility in receivingand conveyingmessages,
with a corresponding
'Where
lowering of emphasison accuracy.
'listening' or 'reading' texts are used
in coursebooksfor accuracy,it will be found that they are in fact being usedto
teachgrammar or vocabulargnot listeningor readingcommunicationas such.
Not that this is necessarily
a bad thing! - but it is important for the teacherto
know what is in fact beinglearnedin any specificlanguagetask.
To clarify this distinction, look at the following table which shows someways
accuracyand fluency activitiesin the classroomtypically differ:
)ccuracy actiuities
Fluencyactiuities
The texts are usually composed of separate
'discrete')items: sentencesor words.
The textsareusuallywholepiecesof discourse:
conversatlons.
stofles.etc.
Performance is assessedon how few language
.nistakesare made.
Performanceis assessed
on how well ideasarc
expressedor understood.
Textsmay be usedin any mode(skill),regardless Texts are usuallyusedas they would be in real
,ri how they are usedin real life (dialoguesmay
life: dialoguesare spoken,articlesand written
re written, written textsusedfor listening).
storiesareread.
Tasksdo not usually simulate real-life situations. Tasks often simulate real-lifesituations.
103
Teachingthe Language(2): The'how'
Sometimesan activitF that stressesacouacy leads into one that is based on
fluencg or vice versa; and in many casesactivities combine both to some extent.
In most classroom procedures, however, a clear orientation one way or another
is evident. Lack of awarenessof such orientation can lead to confusion and
frustration: as, for example, when the teacher gives a writing assignmentwhose
ostensible aim is fluency-oriented (to tell a story for example, or to answer a
it on the basis of grammar and spelling.
letter), and then assesses
Reference
Brurfftn C. J. (1984) CommunicatiueMethodologyin LanguageTeaching:The
Rolesof Fluencyand Accuracy,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
104
listening
Module
8:Teaching
In principle, the objectiveof listeningcomprehensionpracticein the classroom
is that studentsshould learn to function successfullyin real-life listening
situations.This being so, it makessenseto examinefirst of all what real-life
listeningis, and what sorts of things the listenerneedsto be able to do in order
to comprehendsatisfactorilyin avafiety of situations.
Task Real-lifelisteningsituations
StageI : Gatheringsamples
Make a list of as many situations as you can think of where people are
listening to other people in their ovvnmother tongrue. These include, of
course, situations where they may be doing other things besides listening speaking, usually - but the essential point is that they need to be able to
understand what is said in order to function satisfactorily in the situation.
One way of doing this task is to tdk yourself through a routine day and note
all the different listening experiences that occur.
Nor compare your list with that given in Box 8.1. Are there any items
there which you had not thought off Are there any items you had which this
Iist does not include? In any case, if you put the two lists together - yours
and mine - you should have a fairly representative selection of listening
situations.
BO X 8 ,1: LIS TE NINGS ITUA TIONS
interview
instructions
loudspeakerannouncements
radionews
committeemeeting
shopping
theatre show
teleohonechat
lesson,lecture
gossip
conversation,
watchingtelevision
story-telling
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Stage 2: Finding typical characteristics
Irooking at the list you have compiled, can you find some featr:res that seem
to be comrnon to most of the situations? Such features might be associated
with: the kind of language that is usually used; the kind of interaction; what
the listener is doing. For example, in most situations the speaker is
105
8 Teachinglistening
improvising as he or she speaks, which results in a rather informal,
disorganized kind of langruage;and in most situations the listener is
responding to what is being said as well as listening. Can you think of other
such comrnon characteristics?
This is a rather difficult task, and you may not be able to find many ideas.
Shareyour ideas with collea€tues,if possible, and then compare them with
the suggestions given in the next section.
Characteristics of real-life listening situations
1. Informalspokendiscourse
Most of the spokenlanguagewe listento is informal and spontaneous:
the
goes
speake-ismakingit up ashe or she
alongratherthan readingaloud or
reciting from memory.(You might like to refer to the transcription of a sample
of suchlanguageshownin Box 10.1;though this lacks,of course,illustrations
suchaschangesin vocalpitch or volume.)
of purely auditorycharacteristics
Informal speechhasvariousinterestingfeatures:
Brevity of 'chunks'.It is usuallybrokeninto short chunks.In a conversation,for
example,peopletake turns to speak,usuallyin short turns of a few seconds
each.
Pronunciation.The pronunciation of words is often slurred,and noticeably
givenin a dictionary.There
differentfrom the phonologicalrepresentation
are obviousexamplessuchas can't,in Englishfor cannot,whichhavemade
their way eveninto the written language.Lessobviousexamplesincludesuch
changesas 'orright' for all right or'Sh'we go?' for Shallue goi (For a
detaileddiscussionof this seeBrown, 1,977.1
Vocabulary.The vocabularyis often colloquial; in Englishyou might, for
example,useguy where in writing you would nserlrAn,or kid for child.
Grammar.Informal speechtendsto be somewhatungrammatical:utterancesdo
not usuallydivideneatlyinto sentences;
a grammaticalstructuremay change
mid-utterance;
in
unfinishedclausesarecommon.
'Noise'.Therewill be a certainamountof 'noise':bits of the discoursethat are
unintelligibleto the hearer,and thereforeas far ashe or sheis concernedare
'noise'.This may be becausethe words are not saidclearlg or
meaningless
not known to the hearer,or becausethe heareris not attending- any number
'We
of reasons. usuallycomprehendsomewhatlessthan 1.00per centof what
is saidto us, makingup for the deficitby guessingthe missingitemsor simply
ignoring them and gatheringwhat we can from the rest.
Redundancy.The speakernormally saysa good deal more than is strictly
for the conveyingof the message.
Redundancyincludessuchthings
necessary
asrepetition,paraphrase,glossingwith utterancesin parenthesis,
selfcorrection,the useof 'fillers' suchasI mean,well, er. This to someextent
for the gapscreatedby'noise'.
compensates
Non-repetition.The discoursewill not be repeatedverbatim;normally it is
for by the redundancy
heardonly once,though this may be compensated
of the discourse,and by the possibilityof requestingrepetitionor
explanation.
106
What does real-life listening involve?
2. Listener expectation and purpose
The listeneralmost always knows in advancesomethingabout what is going to
be said:who is speaking,for example,or the basictopic. Linked to this is his or
her purpose:we normally have someobjectivein listeningbeyond
understandingfor its own sake- to find out something,for example.And we
expectto hear somethingrelevantto our purpose.
3. Looking as wellas listening
Only a very small proportion of listeningis done 'blind'- to the radio or
telephonefor example.Normally we have somethingto look at that is linked to
what is being said: usually the speakerhim- or herself,but often other visual
stimuli as well - for examplea map, sceneor object, or the environment in
general.
4. Ongoing, purposeful listener response
The listeneris usually respondingat intervalsas the discourseis going on. It is
relatively rare for us to listen to extendedspeechand respondonly at the end.
The responses,moreover,are normally directly relatedto the listeningpurpose,
and areonly occasionallya simple demonstrationof comprehension.
5. Speaker attention
The speakerusually directshis or her speechat the listener,takesthe listener's
character,intentions etc. into accountwhen speaking,and often responds
directly to his or her reactions,whether verbal or non-verbal,by changingor
adapting the discourse.
Application
Think of a situation where you Jrourself have recently been listening. How
many of the aborre featu"res in fact apply?
The title above is, of course,a contradiction in terms: classroomlisteningis not
real-life listening.However, in order to provide studentswith training in
listening comprehension that will prepare them for effective functioning outside
the classroom,activitiesshould give learnerspracticein coping with at least
someof the featuresof real-life situations.For example:it would seemnot very
helpful to baselisteningexercisesmainly on passagesthat areread aloud and
followed by comprehension questions,when we know that very linle of the
discoursewe hear in real life is read aloud, and we do not normally respond by
answeringcomprehensionquestions.
It is worth noting also that listeningactivitiesbasedon simulatedreal-life
situationsare likely to be more motivating and interestingto do than contrived
textbook comprehensionexercises.If you did not do Unit One, look now at the
section Characteristicsof real-life listening situations on pages I06-L07 . Below
are someguidelinesfor the designof listeningtexts and tasksthat are basedon
theseideas.
107
8 Teaching listening
Guidelines
1. Listening texts
Informal talk. Most listeningtexts should be basedon discoursethat is either
genuineimprovised,spontaneousspeech,or at least a fair imitation of it. A
rypical written text that is read aloud as a basisfor classroom listening
activity is unlikely to incorporate the characteristicsof informal speechas
describedabove,and will thus provide the learnerswith no practicein
understanding the most common form of spoken discourse.
Speakervisibility; direct speakerlistener interaction. The fact that in most
listeningsituationsthe speakeris visible and directly interactingwith the
listenershould make us think twice about the conventionaluseof audio
recordingsfor listeningcomprehensionexercises.It is usefulto the learnersif
you improvise at leastsomeof the listeningtexts yourself in their presence
(or, if feasible,get another competentspeakerof the languageto do so).
Video also makesa positive contribution to the effectiveness
of listening
practice,in that it suppliesthe aspectof speakervisibility and the general
visual environmentof the text.
Singleexposure.If real-life discourseis rarely 'replayed'then learnersshould be
encouragedto develop the ability to extract the information they need from a
singlehearing.The discourse,therefore,must be redundant enough to
provide this information more than oncewithin the original text; and where
possiblehearersshould be able to stop the speakerto requesta repeator
explanation.
2. Listerring tasks
Expectations. Learners should have in advancesome idea about the kind of text
they are going to hear.Thus the mere instruction 'Listen to the passage...' is
lessusefulthan somethinglike: 'You are going to hear a husbandand wife
discussingtheir plans for the summer ...'. The latter instruction activares
learners'relevantschemata(their own previousknowledgeand conceptsof
facts, scenes,events,etc.) and enablesthem to usethis previous knowledgeto
build anticipatory 'scaffolding' that will help them undersrand.
Purpose. SimilarlS a listening purpose should be provided by the definition of a
pre-settask, which should involve somekind of clear visible or audible
response.Thus, rather than say simply: 'Listen and understand...'we should
give a specificinstruction such as: 'Listen and find out where the family are
going for their summer holidays.Mark the placeson your map.' The
definition of a purpose enablesthe listener to listen selectivelyfor significant
information - easier,as well as more natural, than trying to understand
everything.
Ongoing listener response.Finallg the task should usually involve intermittent
responsesduring the listeningllearnersshould be encouragedto respondto
the information they are looking for as they hear it, not to wait to the end.
Practical cl assroom appl ication
The guidelinesgiven above are, I believe,valid and useful as generalbasesfor
the design of effective listening materials and tasks. They are not, however,
108
Real-lifelistening in the classroom
rules:they do not, as we have seen,apply to everyreal-life situation; moreover,
there may be very good pedagogicalreasonsfor deviating from someof them in
the classroom.
Putting aside,for the moment, the criterion 'nearnessto real-life listening', let
us considertheseguidelinesfrom the point of view of practical classroom
teaching.The latter involvespedagogicalconsiderationsno lessimportant than
authenticity of the listeningexperience,such as classroommanagemenr,cosreffectiveuseof time, student motivation, interestand learning preferences.
For example:one pedagogicaladvantageof 'reallife' listeningsituationsas a
basisfor comprehensionexercisesis, as previously noted, that theseare
motivating to do - far more than artificial texts-with-questions. On the other
hand, a disadvantageof the guideline 'singleexposure'is that it might conflict
with your desire to let your students listen more than once in order to give them
more practice, prevent frustration and give them another chanceto succeedin
doing the task.
Question
\lvtrat practical advantages or problems can you foresee, or have you
e:rperienced, that might derive from applying any of the guidelines listed
earlier?
My orn answers to this follorrrr.
lmplementing the guidelines:some specificpractical
implications
1. Listening texts
The implication of this guideline is that at leastsomeof your students'listening
practice should be basedon a text which you yourself improvise for your class,
and which is heard only once.
Advantages.Lessrecordedmaterial meanslessof the expense,inconvenience
and occasionalbreakdown that the frequent useof tape-recordersentails.
You can also adapt the level and speedof the text to your specificstudents
and responddirectly to their needs.
Problems or reservations.Many teacherslack confidence in their own ability to
improvise fluently in the target language,or are worried their spoken
languageis not a good enough ('native') model for studentsto listen to; such
teachersprefer to relS if not on recordings, then at least on a written text
they can read aloud. However,most foreign languageteachers,evenif not
native speakersof the target language,can presenta perfectly competent
improvised speechmodel; though many find this difficult to believeand are
unnecessarilyapprehensive
!
Another problem is that if learnersonly hear you, they will not have the
opportunity to practiselisteningto different voicesand accents.
Finally, on the point of single-exposurelistening:evenif learnerscan do the
task after one listening,you may wish to let them hear the text again, for the
sakeof further exposureand practiceand better chancesof successful
performance.
Conclusion.In general,it is important for foreign languageteachersto be able
to improvise speechin the target language.Few, however,can do so without
r09
8 Teaching listening
prompts or notes of somekind; it helps to have before you a list of the main
points you want to mention, or the picture or diagram you have to describe,
or the answersyou plan to elicit from the class.
Having said this, there certainly is room for the occasional use of
recordings,in order to give practice in situationswhere we listen 'blind', and
in order to exposelearnersto different voicesand accents.
'We
shall also often wish to let our students listen to the text more than
once,for the reasonsgiven above.Perhapsa good compromisemight be to
ask them to try to do as much as they can on the first listening, and check
results; and then let them listen again for the sake of further practice and
improved answers.
2. Listening tasks: expectations and purpose
Advantages.Providing the studentswith someidea of what they are going to
hear and what they are askedto do with it helps them to succeedin the task,
as well as raising motivation and interest.A visual focus can often provide
this: for example,if the task involves marking a picture, diagram, or map or eYena wntten text.
Problems or reservations. occasionally we may wish to ask students to find out
what the passageis about without any previous hint: for the sakeof the fun
and challenge,and to encouragethem to usereal-world knowledge to help
interpretation. Also, there are someexcellentlistening activitiesthat need no
clear task at all beyond the comprehensionitself: listeningto storiesfor
example, or watching exciting films.
Conclusion. If there is no pre-settask we should be careful ro ensurethat the
text itself is stimulating enough, and of an appropriate level, to ensure
motivated and successfullistening on the part of the learners.
3. Ongoing listener response
Advantages.The fact that learnersare active during the listening rather than
waiting to the end keepsthem busy and helps ro prevent boredom.
Problems or reservations. The most naturally-occurring response- speech- is
usually impractical in the classroom:you cannot hear and monitor the
spoken responsesof all the classtogether! Thus most answerswill have to be
in the form of physical movements,which can be monitored visuallS or by
written responseswhich can be checked later.
A more seriousproblem is that materialswriters often overload the task:
too many responsesare demandedof the learners,information is coming in
too fast (not enough 'redundancy') and there is no time to respond during the
listening.The result is frustration,and irritation: even if the listening text is
repeatedthe initial feeling of failulreis somethingthat should be avoided.
Conclusion. Check the activity by doing it yourself or with colleaguesbefore
administeringit: make sure the task is do-able! If necessary,
reducethe
demands,at leastthe first time round.
1 10
Learnerproblems
The topic of listeningpractice as a preparation for real-life listening
comprehensionhas beenexamined in Units One and Two. Here, we shall be
looking at someproblems from the point of view of the learner.What aspectsof
listening to a foreign language are particularly difficult for learners to cope
with, and what can we as teachersdo about them?
Inquiry
lrearnerproblems
Stagel: Defining someprohlems
Readttuoughthe list givenin Box8.2of somedifficultiesthatlearnershave
with listening to a foreigmlanguage. Add more if you wish.
Stage2: Interview
Interview some learners to find out which of these they consider
particula"rlyproblematic, whether there are any others they can suggest,
andwhat sort of practice theyfindhelpful.
Sfage 3: Summary
On your ovm or with colleagues, try to summarizethe main problems and
make some suggestionsas to what the teacher can do to help solve them.
Some conunents follow.
BO X 8 .2: LE A RNE RDIFFICULT I ElN
S L I S T E NI NG
1. I havetroublecatchingthe actualsoundsof the foreignlanguage.
2. I haveto understandeveryword; if I miss something,I feel I am failingand get
worriedand stressed.
3. I can understandpeopleif they talk slowlyand clearly;I can't understandfast,
naturalnative-sounding
speech.
4. I needto hearthingsmore thanonce in orderto understand.
5. I find it difficultto 'keep up'with all the informationI am getting,and cannotthink
aheador predict.
6. lf the listeninggoes on a longtime I get tired,and find it more and more difficult
to concentrate.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Commentson the learnerproblems describedin Box 8.2.
1.Troublewith sounds
Sincemostlistenersrely mostlyon contextfor comprehension,
theyareoften
themselves
unawareof inaccuratesoundperception.SeeModule 4: Teaching
pronunciationf.orsomeideason how to diagnosethesekindsof problems.
2. Haveto understandeveryword
This is a verycommonproblem,oftenunconsciously
fosteredby teachers
1L1
8 Teaching listening
and/or listening comprehension materials which encourage the learner to believe
that everything that is said bears (equally) important information. The effort to
understand everything often results in ineffective comprehension, as well as
'We
feelings of fatigue and failure.
may need to give learners practice in selective
ignoring of heard information - something they do naturally in their mother
tongue. We should explain this point to the learners,and set them occasional
tasks that ask them to scan a relatively long text for one or two limited items of
information.
3. Can't understand fast, natural native speech
Learnerswill often ask you to slow down and speakclearly - by which they
mean pronounce eachword the way it would sound in isolation; and the
temptation is to do as they ask. But if you do, you are not helping them to learn
to cope with everyday informal speech.They should be exposed to as much
spontaneousinformal talk as they can successfullyunderstandas soon as
possible; and it is worth taking the time to explain to them why. One of the
advantages of teacher-produced talk is that you can provide them with this sort
of discourse at the right level for them, getting faster and more fluent as rheir
listening skills develop.
4. Need to hear things more than once
As noted in Unit Two above there may be very good pedagogicalreasonsfor
exposing learners to texts more than once. But the fact remains that in real life
they are often going to have to cope with 'one-off' listening; and we can
certainly make a useful contribution to their learning if we can improve their
'We
abilify to do so.
can for example, try to use texts that include 'redundant'
passagesand within which the essentialinformation is presentedmore than
once and not too intensively; and give learners the opportunity to requesr
clarification or repetition during the listening.
5. Find it difficult to keep up
Again, the learner feels overloaded with incoming information. The solution is
not (so much) to slow down the discoursebut rather to encouragethem to
relax, stop trying to understand everything, learn to pick out what is essential
and allow themselvesto ignore the rest.
6. Get tired
This is one reason for not making listening comprehensionpassagestoo long
overall, and for breaking them up into short 'chunks' through pause,listener
responseor change of speaker.
This unit providesa fairly full - though not exhausrive- taxonomy of listening
comprehensionactiviry rypesyou may find in coursebooksor listening
comprehensionbooks.Thereare variousways of classifyingsucha taxonomy:
11.2
Types of activities
by listening skill, by level of difficultg and so on. I have chosento do so by the
amount and complexity of responsedemandedof the learner.
Study the list, and add any further rypes you can think of that I have omitted.
Then perhaps try the task suggestedat the end of the unit.
Typesof listening activities
1. No overt response
The learnersdo not have to do anything in responseto the listening;however,
facial expressionand body languageoften show if they are following or not.
Stories.Tell a joke or real-life anecdote,retell a well-known story read a story
from a book; or play a recording of a story. If the story is well-chosen,
learners are likely to be motivated to attend and understand in order to enjoy
it.
Songs.Sing a songyourself, or play a recording of one. Note, however,that if
no responseis required learnersmay simply enjoy the music without
understandingthe words.
Entertainment: films, theatre, video. As with stories, if the content is really
entertaining(interesting,stimulating, humorous, dramatic) learnerswill be
motivated to make the effort to understand without the need for any further
task.
2. Short responses
Obeying instructions. Learners perform actions, or draw shapesor pictures, in
responseto instructions.
Ticking off items. A list, text or picture is provided: listenersmark or tick off
words/componentsas they hear them within a spokendescription,story or
simple list of items.
Tiue/false.The listeningpassageconsistsof a number of statements,someof
which are true and somefalse (possiblybasedon material the classhas just
learnt). Learners write ticks or crossesto indicate whether the statementsare
right or wrong; or make brief responses('True!' or 'False!'for example);or
they may stay silent if the statementsare right, say 'No!' if they are wrong.
Detecting mistakes. The teacher tells a story or describessomething the class
Listeners
knows, but with a number of deliberatemistakesor inconsistencies.
raisetheir hands or call out when they hear somethingwrong.
Cloze. The listeningtext has occasionalbrief gaps,representedby silenceor
some kind of buzz. Learners write down what they think might be the
missingword. Note that if the text is recorded,the gapshave to be much
more widely spacedthan in a reading one; otherwisethere is not enoughtime
to listen, understand, think of the answer,and write. If you are speakingthe
text yourself, then you can more easily adapt the pace of your speechto the
speedof learnerresponses.
Guessingdefinitions. The teacher provides brief oral definitions of a person,
place,thing, action or whatever;learnerswrite down what they think it is.
Skimming and scanning.A not-too-long listeningtext is given, improvisedor
recorded;learnersare askedto identify somegeneraltopic or information
(skimming),or certain limited information (scanning)and note the answer(s).
tr3
8 TeachingIistening
'Written
questionsinviting brief answersmay be provided in advance;or a
grid, with certain entriesmissing;or a picture or diagram to be alteredor
completed.
3. Longer responses
Answering questions.One or more questionsdemandingfairly full responses
are given in advance,to which the listeningtext provides the answer(s).
Becauseof the relative length of the answersdemanded,they are most
conveniently given in writing.
Note-taking. Learners take brief notes from a short lecture or talk.
Paraphrasing and translating. Learners rewrite the listening text in different
words: either in the samelanguage(paraphrase)or in another (translation).
Summarizing. Learners write a brief summary of the content of the listening
Passage.
Long gap-filling. A long gap is left, at the beginning, middle or end of a text;
learnersguessand write down, or say,what they think might be missing.
4. Extended responses
Here, the listeningis only a 'jump-off point' for extendedreading,writing or
speaking:in other words, theseare 'combined skills' activities.
Problem-solving.A problem is describedorally; learnersdiscusshow to deal
with it, and/or write down a suggestedsolution.
Interpretation. An extract from a pieceof dialogueor monologue is provided,
with no previous information; the listenerstry to guessfrom the words, kind.
of voices,tone and any other evidencewhat is going on. At a more
sophisticatedlevel, a pieceof literature that is suitablefor reading aloud
(somepoetry, for example)can be discussedand analysed.
Follow-up Listening activities in coursebooks
fask
Any one specific set of materials is r:nlikely of coulse, to provide examples
of all the types listed here, though if you look through the books listed
vnder Further readingbelorr, you should find most of them. But certainly
teachers and learners have a right to qq)ect a fair range anrdvariety in the
specific materials used in their course.
Go through the list of,Types of listening activities again, marking activity
tytrresthat seem to you particularly useful, or even essential. firen look at a
coursebook or listening comprehension book that you iue familiar with,
and see hor many of these .ue represented. Are there many that are totally
neglected? Are there others that are over-used?
If the range and variety in a book you are using is very limited, you may
be able to remedy this by improvising your own activities or using
supplementary materials: English teachers will find some suggestions for
such materials under Further readrngbelor.
1.1.4
Adapting activities
Most modern course materials include cassettesof listening texts, with
correspondinglisteningtasks in the students'book. You can, of course,simply
usetheseas they stand, but you may find that you wish to supplementthem.
The tasks may be too easyor difficult; they may give no useful preparation for
real-life listening (seeUnit Two); they may not seemto come to grips with some
specificlearner problem (seeUnit Three); or some types of activity that you
considerimportant (seeUnit Four) may be missing.
You will probably not, in the courseof a busy teachingschedule,have much
time to prepare many supplementary activities of your own. Perhapsthe most
useful and cost-effectiveaction is to take your ready-madematerialsand, using
either the text or the task as your basis,make alterations, involving minimal
preparation, to make the activity more effective.
Task Criticizing
and adapting coursebook listening activities
In Bo:res 8.3.I-3 ale descriptions of three listening tasks, with the listening
texts that go with them. Vtlhat might you do to improve or vary them to suit a
class you teach or lrsror of? Try doing them yourself before thinking about
changes: one person reads or improrrises the text(s), others do the tasks.
This will not, of course, reproduce exactly learner e:rperience with such
activities, but it will give you a 'feel' for possible problems.
My own suggestions follor.
B O x 8. 3. 1 : L IST E N IN G AC T IVIT Y 1
Instruetions
1. Listento the recordingof someonegivinginstructions.
What are they talking
about?
2. Lookat the words below.Use a dictionaryto checkthe meaningof anyyou are
not sureabout.
Nouns: switch, slot, disk, handle, key, arrow, screen
Yerbs: lock, type
Adjectives: bent, capitat
3. Listento the cassetteagain,and use the words to completethese notes:
Turnit on, hereis the
at the side.Thenvou'llseesomewordsand
numberson the
andfinallya
C.
Takeyour
andput it in the
it in;
, and
you haveto closethis
. Now
in 'A'andpressthe
with the sort of
at the side.
The listening text
Firstyou turn it on, here'sthe switchat the side.Thenyou'llsee somewordsand
numberson the screen,andfinallya capitalC anda sortof V sidewayson. OK,now
takeyourdisk,thisone,andput it in the slot- it's calleda 'drive'- andlockit in,you
haveto closethis littlehandlehere.Now type in 'A' and pressthe keywith the sort
of bentarrowat the side.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
115
8 Teachinglistening
B OX8. 3 . 2 :LISTENING
ACTIVITY2
lnstruetionsto student
Yourworksheetshowsa mapof a zoo;write in the namesof the animalsin the
appropriate
cagesasyourteachertellsyou.
Instructionsto teacher
mapof the zoo,describe
Usingyourfilled-in
to the classwhereeachanimallives;
theymayaskyouto repeator explain
anything
theydidnotcatchor understand.
map
Student's
NORTH
entrsnce
13
3
2
14
12
4
\inEsT11
EAST
U
o
10
5
6
9
SOUTH
Teacher's
map
NORTH
entrance
13
14
zcbrds
l2
giraffes
pqndqs
2
3
lc npt g )
carn?19
monK"gt
4
WEST tl
l0
fox
I
lla r n e s
EAST
lioni
5
tigGr
I
dolphins
hippog
SOUTH
(Adapted
f romPennyUr,Teaching
Listening
Comprehension,
Cambridge
University
Press.
1984,pp.109-10 @Cambridge
Press1984)
University
11.6
Adapting activities
B O X 8. 3 .3 : L IS T EN IN G AC T IVIT Y 3
Instructions
Lis t ento th e fo l l o w i n gre c o rd e dta l k , and then answ er the mul ti pl e-choi ce
questionsbelow.
The listening text
Crashlwas perhapsthe mostfamouspopgroupof thattime. lt consisted
of three
femalesingers,with no band.Theycameoriginally
from Manchester,
and began
singingin localclubs,but theirfame soonspreadthroughout
the Britishlslesand
then all over the world. Their hairstyleand clotheswere imitatedby a whole
generation
of teenagers,
andthousands
cameto hearthemsing,boughtrecordings
of theirsongsor went to seetheirfilms.
The questions
1. Cr a s h l w a s
a) notorious
b) well-known
c) unpopular d) local
2. Thegroupwas composed
of:
a) threeboys
b) two girlsanda boy
c) two boysanda girl
d) threegirls
3. Thegroupwas from:
a) Britain b) France c) Brazil d) Egypt
4. A |ot of youngpeoplewantedto
a) singlikethem
b) looklikethem
c) livein Manchester d) allof these
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Criticisms of the examples of listening activities in Boxes
8.3.1-3
Activity 1
The topic of this activity (a computer) limits its learner audienceto someextent
to middle-class''Westernized'learnerslit would be inappropriate for classesof
students unfamiliar with computers.
Assuming that the audiencehas the necessarybackground knowledge, the
first exercise(gist-getting) is a useful one, and the text sounds like authentic
speech.We might, however, need to pre-teach some of the vocabulary in order
to make sure the listening is successful.Note that the text, although an
imitation of spontaneousspeech,is in fact very dense,with little redundancy
and not much opportunity to make up for anything you have missed;it is also
'blind' listening- which it obviously would not be in real life. It might be worth
re-presentingthe text through your own speechin order to correct some of
theseshortcomings, andlor providing a prcture.
The secondtask is basicallya vocabulary exercise,entailing learning or
looking up words many of which they will aheady have neededfor the previous
activify: if they are only learning them now, they must have had unnecessary
difficulty before.As mentioned above,it would probably be a good idea to preteach- or at leastreview - the Vocabularyin advance.
The final exercisedemandsrecyclingof the words they have learned:useful
for vocabulary practice,but not so good for listening.If they understandand
have the items before them, and have already heard the text, then they can
1.17
8 Teaching listening
probably do the exerciseby reading; there is no logical necessityfor listening.I:
however,they are askedto fill in the items while listening, as suggested,they ar,
unlikely to be able to write fast enough to do so - as you will have found
yourself if you tried this out. One solution here is to let learnersfill in the gaps
at their leisure on the written text, and then use the listening to check their
answers.
Activity 2
Here, I would say the activity is child-oriented,and perhapslesssuitable for
adults; but the necessarybackground knowledge is perhapseasier,so it could b.
usedin a wider variety of classesthan the previous example.
This is an example of the teacher-improvisedtype of exercisepreviously
recommended,where the actual words of the text can be adaptedto the level ot
the class,and where the listenerscan requestrepetition of information they
missedor clarifications.It involvesmore work for the teacher,but is easieron
the learners,and arguably provides a more authentictype of listeningtext than
recordedpassages.Resistthe temptation to write out the text you are going to
say! - though it can be helpful to supplementthe sketcheswith notes.
Note, however,that this is not a particularly 'authentic' type of interaction: it
is more of a game,perhaps,than a real attempt at simulation of a natural
communicative situation.
Activity 3
This is a very common kind of listening task: usedmostly for testing sinceit is
very easyto mark objectively. It is probablS however, lesseffective in giving
listening practice than the previous two examples. It lacks most of the common
characteristicsof real-life listening (seeUnits One and Two), is basedon a
dense,obviously written text, and does not give much help with learner
problems such as those suggestedin Unit Three. There is a heavy reading
component; in fact, this givespracticein reading as much as in listening.
It can be improved to some extent as a listening activity if you go through the
questionswith the classfirst, checkingcomprehension:this lightensthe reading
load when they are answeringthe questionsand givessomeprevious
information, expectation and purpose with which to approach the listening.
SometimesI even ask a classto guesswhat the answerswill be before listening:
this activates their background knowledge, and adds extra challenge and
motivation: was I right or wasn't I?
To practise selectivelistening, learners can be asked to answer only one or
two specific questions each time they hear the text.
Further reading
BACKGROUND
Brown, G. (1977) Listening to SpokenEnglish, London: Longman.
(A detailedand comprehensiveanalysis;theoreticalorientation, but the
application to teaching is clear)
118
Adapting activities
Rost, M. (1990) Listening in Language Learning, London: Longman.
(Comprehensivecoverageof background issues,clear and interestingto read:
plenty of examplesand discussionquestions)
TEACHER'S HANDBOOKS
Anderson,A. and Lynch, T. (1988) Listening, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(Very accessibleguidancefor teachers:an analysisof listeningskills, plenty of
examplesof activities;particular emphasison problems of grading)
Rost, M. (199U Listening in Action: Actiuities for Deueloping Listening in
Language Education, Hemel Hempstead: PrenticeHall International.
(A seriesof suggestedactivities, classifiedaccording to the type of listening,
with guiding notes and suggestions)
Underwood, M. (1989) TeachingListening, London: Longman.
(A readable,practical teacher'shandbook: discussespre-, while- and postlisteningactivities,and somekey problems)
Ur, P. ( 19 84 ) Teaching Listening Compr ehension, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
(Theoretical topics similar to those treated here; with a number of suggestions
for listening activities)
LL9
Module
9:Teaching
speaking
Of all the four skills (listening,speaking,reading and writing), speakingseems
intuitively the most important: people who know a language are referred to a.
'speakers'of that language,as if speakingincluded all other kinds of knowing,
and many if not most foreign languagelearnersare primarily interestedin
learning to speak.
Classroomactivitiesthat developlearners'abiliry to expressthemselves
through speechwould thereforeseeman important component of a language
course.Yet it is difficult to designand administersuch activities;more so, in
many ways, than to do so for listening,reading or writing.'We shall corl€ on r,
what the problems are presentlSbut first let us try to definewhat is meant by
'an effectivespeakingactivity'.
Question
Imagine or recall a successful speaking activity in the classroom that you
have either organized as teacher or participated in as student. What are th€
characteristics of this activity that make you judge it 'successful'?
Compare yoru ideas with those shown in Box 9.1.
B OX 9.1: CHA RA GTE RI S T I CS
O F A S UCCE S S F UL
S P E A K I NG
ACTIVITY
1. Learnerstalk a lot. As much as possibleof the periodof time allottedto the
activityis in fact occupiedby learnertalk.This may seem obvious,but often most
time is takenup with teachertalkor pauses.
2. Participation is even. Classroomdiscussionis not dominatedby a minorityof
talkativeparticipants:
all get a chanceto speak,and contributions
are fairlyevenly
distributed.
3. Motivation is high. Learnersare eagerto speak:becausethey are interestedin
the topicand havesomethingnew to sayaboutit, or becausethey want to
contributeto achievinga task objective.
4. Language is of an acceptable level. Learnersexpressthemselvesin utterances
that are relevant,easilycomprehensible
to eachother,and of an acceptablelevel
of languageaccuracy.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
ln practice,however,few classroomactivitiessucceedin satisfyingall the
criteria shown in Box 9.1.
120
Successfuloral fluencypractice
Question lMhat are some of the problems in getting learners to talk in the classroom?
Perhaps think back to your e:rperiences as either learner or teacher.
Now look at Box 9.2, and see if any of the problems I have come across in
my teaching are the s€uneas yours.
BO X 9.2: P ROB LE MS
WITHS P E A K I NGA CT I V I T I E S
1. Inhibition. Unlikereading,writingand listeningactivities,speakingrequiressome
degreeof real-timeexposureto an audience.Learnersare often inhibitedabout
tryingto saythingsin a foreignlanguagein the classroom:worriedaboutmaking
mistakes,fearfulof criticismor losingface,or simplyshy of the attentionthat
theirspeechattracts.
2. Nothing to say. Evenif they are not inhibited,you often hearlearnerscomplain
that they cannotthinkof anythingto say:they haveno.motiveto express
themselvesbeyondthe guiltyfeelingthat they shouldbe speaking.
3. Low or uneven participation. Only one participantcan talk at a time if he or she
is to be heard;and in a largegroupthis meansthat eachone will haveonlyvery
littletalkingtime. Thisproblemis compoundedby the tendencyof some learners
to dominate,while othersspeakvery littleor not at all.
4. Mother-tongue use. In classeswhere all,or a numberof, the learnerssharethe
same mothertongue,they may tend to use it: becauseit is easier,becauseit
feels unnaturalto speakto one anotherin a foreignlanguage,
and becausethey
feel less'exposed'if they are speakingtheir mothertongue.lf they aretalkingin
smallgroupsit can be quitedifficultto get some classes- particularly
the less
disciplined
or motivatedones- to keepto the targetlanguage.
UniversityPress1996
@Cambridge
Consider what )roumight do in the classroomin order to overcomeeach of
Follow-up
drbcussrbn the problems described in Box 9.2.You may wish to supplement your ideas
with those suggestedbelo,r.
What the teachercan do to help to solve some of the problems
1. Use group work
This increasesthe sheeramount of learnertalk going on in a limited period of
time and also lowers the inhibitions of learners who are unwilling to speak in
front of the full class.It is true that group work means the teacher cannot
superviseall learner speech,so that not all utteranceswill be correct, and
learnersmay occasionallyslip into their native language;nevertheless,
even
taking into considerationoccasionalmistakesand mother-tongueuse,the
amount of time remaining for positive, useful oral practice is still likely to be far
more than in the full-classset-up.
2. Base the activity on easy language
In general, the level of languageneededfor a discussionshould be lower than
that usedin intensivelanguage-learningactivitiesin the sameclass:it should be
easily recalled and produced by the participants, so that they can speak fluently
L21
9 Teaching speaking
with the minirtrum of hesitation.It is a good idea to teach or review essential
vocabulary before the activity starrs.
3. Make a careful choic'eof topic and task to stimulate interest
On the whole, the clearerthe purpose of the discussionthe more motivated
participantswill be (seeUnit Two).
4. Give some instruction or training in discussionskills
If the task is basedon group discussionthen include insrructionsabout
participation when introducing it. For example,tell learnersto make sure rhar
everyonein the group contributesto the discussion;appoint a chairpersonto
eachgroup who will regulateparticipation.
5. Keep students speaking the target language
You might appoint one of the group as monitor, whose job it is to remind
participants to usethe target language,and perhapsreport later ro the teacher
how well the group managedto keep to it. Even if there is no actual penalty
attached,the very awarenessthat someoneis monitoring such lapseshelps
participantsto be more careful.
However, when all is said and done, the bestway to keep studentsspeaking
the target languageis simply to be there yourself as much as possible,reminding
them and modelling the languageuseyourself:'thereis no substitutefor nagging
Unit Two: The functions of topic and task
This unit looks at somekey componentsthat make for successfuloral fluency
activities.A good way to study theseis through the group experimentsuggested
below; or simply look briefly at Box 9.3, and then read on ro rhe following
sections.
Comparing two activities
Group
experiment Sfage l: Experience
In Box 9.3 is a description of two oral fluency activities. Try them out in
small groups, one after the other, alloving about frve minutes for each. You
can do this with colleagues, or with a class of learners whose English is
fairly advanced.During the activities, try - even if you are participating
yourself - to keep an elre on hourthings are going: how much people are
talking, the kind of langruagethey are using, horpinterested and motivated
they seemto be.
Stage2: Comparing
Now compare the two: whichwas more successfulinproducing good oral
fluency practice? If you felt that one was noticeably more successfulthan
the other, can you put your frnger on some of the reasonswhy? Wasit the
topic? fire task?The organization?
r22
The functions of topic and task
BO X 9.3: TY P E SOF ORA LFLUE NCYA CT I V I T I E S
Activity 1
Discussthe followingconflictingopinions.
Opinion 1. Childrenshouldbe taughtin heterogeneous
classes:settingthem into
abilitygroupingsputs a 'failure'labelonto membersof the lowergroups,whereas
puttingmore and lessablelearnerstogetherencourages
the sloweronesto
progressfaster,without penalizing
the more able.
Opinion 2. Childrenshouldbe dividedinto abilitygroupingsfor most subjects:this
enablesthe lessableonesto be taughtat a pacesuitablefor them, while the
better studentsdo not need to wait for the slower ones to catch up.
Activity 2
A goodschoolteacher
shouldhavethe followingqualities.Canyour groupagree
together in what order of priorityyou would put them?
senseof humour
honesty
loveof children
knowledgeof subject
flexibility
clearspeakingvoice
enthusiasmfor teaching
pleasantappearance
fairness
abilityto createinterest
abilityto keeporder
intelligence
UniversityPress1996
@Cambridge
The results I usually get from this experiment a.redescribed under Which
is beffer?orrerleaf.
Topic-and task-basedactivities
The main differencebetweenthe two activitiesin Box 9.3 is that the first is
topic-basedand the secondtask-based.In other words, the first simply asks
participantsto talk about a (controversial)subject,the main objectivebeing
clearly the discussionprocessitself; the secondasks them actually to perform
something,where the discussionprocessis a meansto an end.
Topic. A good topic is one to which learnerscan relate using ideas from their
own experienceand knowledge;the 'ability-grouping'topic is therefore
appropriatefor most schoolchildren,schoolteachersor young peqplewhose
schoolmemoriesare fresh.It should also representa genuinecontroversy,in
which participants are likely to be fairly evenlydivided (asmy own classestend
to be on this one). Somequestionsor suggestedlines of thought can help to
stimulatediscussion,but not too many argumentsfor and againstshould be
'fed'to the classin advance:leaveroom for their own initiative and originality.
A topic-centreddiscussioncan be done as a formal debate,where a motion
is proposedand opposedby preparedspeakers,discussedfurther by
membersof the group, and finally voted on by all. (This techniqueis usedin
the task of Unit Six below.)
Task. A task is essentiallygoal-orienled: it requires the group, or pair, to achieve
an objectivethat is usually expressedby an observableresult, such as brief
notesor lists, a rearrangementof jumbled items, a drawing, a spoken
123
9 Teaching speaking
summary.This result should be attainableonly by interaction between
participants: so within the definition of the task you often find instructions
suchas'reacha consensus',
or'find out everyone's
opinion'.
A task is often enhancedif there is somekind of visual focus to basethe
talking on: a picture, for example.
Someexamplesof discussiontasks are presentedin Unit Three.
Which is better?
Vhen I have done the above experiment with teachersthe task-centred activit)'
scoreshigher with most groups on all criteria: there is more talk, more even
participation, more motivation and enjoyment.'Whenaskedwhg participanrs
say things like: 'I knew where I was going, there was somepurposein speaking':
'It was a challenge- we were aware that time was running out and we had to
get a result'; 'It was more like a game,we enjoyedit'.
Thus, as a generalization,it is probably advisableto basemost oral fluency
activitieson tasks.
However, having said this, it is important to note that there is usually a small
but significant minority who do prefer a topic-centred discussion:'I found it
more interesting:you can go into things more deeplywithout the pressureof
having to reach a decision';'I like debating,exploring issuesin free discussion'.
Suchlearnersalso needto be cateredfor so occasionaltopic-centreddiscussions
should be included in a balancedprogramme.
This unit presentsa selectionof discussionactivitiessuitablefor various levels.
The study of their strong and weak points as classroomproceduresis bestdone
through experience,as suggestedin the teaching task below. Alternativel% you
may find it interestingsimply to read and think about the ideasin Box 9.4 and
then look at the following comments.
Task Classroom- or peer-teaching: trying out activities
SfageI: Preparation
The activities in Box 9.4 are laid out more or less in order of difficulty (of
bothlanguage andtask), the simplest first. Select one that seems
appropriate for a class you teach, or may be teaching in the future, and,
alone or with a colleague, discuss and note dovtnrhovrryou expect this to
work with them. Hor will you present it? Will all your students participate?
Will they enjo1rit? Can you foresee any particular problems?
.Sfage2: Experience
Do the activity. If you carutot conveniently do so with learners, then try it out
with a group of colleagues, where one of you role-plays the teacher and the
rest are students. If you are doing it with a class of students, try to get a
1.24
Discussionactivities
colleagnre to come and observe and take notes, relating particularly to the
points listed in Box 9.1.
Stage 3: Reflection
After finishing, discuss (with your observer if you had one) or think about
your students' anrdyour ownperformance. If you did itwith a group of
learners, base your discussion on the questions under Stage I above and
your anticipatory anrswers:hour accurate were your predictions? Otherwise,
relate to the points listed in Box 9.1.
Note that not all the ideas listed in Box 9.4 are necessarily good ones:
some may have interesting wealcresses!
Conclusions from my own e:q)erience with these activities are described
below.
B O X 9 . 4: D ISC U SS ION
A CTIV ITIE S
1. Describing pictures
Eachgrouphasa picture(oneof the two shown below)which all its memberscan
see.They havetwo minutesto say as manysentencesas they canthat describeit; a
'secretary'marksa tick on a pieceof paperrepresenting
eachsentence.At the end
of the two minutes,groupsreporthow manyticksthey have.Theythen repeatthe
exercisewith the secondpicture,tryingto get moreticksthanthe first time.
,-<_)oi 1n,,
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
r25
Discussionactivities
Nameof commodiv
Second
buyer
Third
buyer
Fourth
buyer
1. Morefreetime
2. An automatichouserobot
cleaning
3. Popularity
4. A job that involves
travelabroad
5. Fame
6. More oatience
7. A perfect figure
8. More excitementin
my life
9. Perfecthealth
10, A t alentf or m a k i n g
money
5. Solving a problem
The studentsare told that they are an educational
advisorycommittee,which hasto
advisethe principalof a schoolon problemswith students.What would they advise
with regardto the problembelow?Theyshoulddiscusstheir recommendation
and
write it out in the form of a letter to the principal.
Benny,the only childof rich parents,is in the 7th Grade(aged13).He is unpopular
with both childrenand teachers.He likesto attachhimselfto other membersof the
class,lookingfor attention,and doesn'tseem to realizethey don't want him. He likes
in classandout of it, but hisideasareoftensilly,and laughed
to expresshis opinions,
at. He hasbadbreath.
got annoyedand told him straightthat they didn't
LastThursdayhis classmates
want him around;next lessona teacherscoldedhim sharplyin front of the class.Later
he was foundcryingin the toilet sayinghe wantedto die. He was takenhomeand has
not beenbackto schoolsince.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Solutionto differencesbetween the picturesin Picturedifferencesin Box 9.4
1. In pictureA the babyis crying.
2. In pictureA the motherhasa blacksweater;in PictureB shehasa whitesweater.
3. In pictureA a womanis drivingthe car;in pictureB a manis driving.
4. In pictureA the passenger
in the caris differentfromthe passenger
in pictureB.
hasfourwindows;in PictureB it hassevenwindows.
5. In pictureA the buildingin the background
hasa hat.
6. In pictureA the manin the foreground
7. In pictureA the mandirectingthe carhasstripedtrousers;in pictureB he haswhitetrousers.
haslonghair;in pictureB shehasshorthair.
8. In pictureA the womanin the foreground
on the scaffolding
in the background.
9. ln pictureB thereis a wheelbarrow
10. In pictureA the numberon the dooris 118;in pictureB it is 119.
11. In pictureA the manon the ladderhasa T-shirt;in pictureB he hasa long-sleeved
shirt.
r27
9 Teaching speaking
Commentson the activitiesin Box 9.4
1. Describingpictures
This is a simple but surprisinglyproductive activity for beginnerclasses.Make
sureparticipants understandthat it is only necessaryfor the secretaryto put a
tick for eachcontribution; sometend to assumethat everysentencehas to be
wriffen out - but this cuts down drastically the amount of talk possible.The
secondtime round, with a new picture, thi grorrpsalmost invariably break their
previous record.
2. Picture differences
A well-known activity which usually produces plenty of purposeful questionand-answer exchanges.The vocabulary neededis specific and fairly predictable;
make sure it is known in advance,writing up new words on the board, though
you may find you have to add to the list as the activity is going on. The problem
here is the temptation to 'peep' at a partner's picture: your function during the
activity may be mainly to stop peoplecheating!You may also needto drop hints
to pairs that are 'stuck'.
3. Things in common
An 'ice-breaking'activity, which fostersa feelingof solidarity by stressing
sharedcharacteristicsof participants.At the end if all pairs tell the class
everythingthey found, then the feedbackgetsa linle tedious;it is better ro ask a
few volunteersto suggestselectedideasthat they think are particularly original
or pleasing.
4. Shopping list
An imaginative,fun activify - but, as you will have found if you did it, actually
rather sterilein the amount of talk it produces.Participantsmay simply ask
eachother'One?' or 'Seven?',and answer 'Yes' or 'No'. One thing that helps is
simply to deletethe numberson rhe left; another is to suggesrto participants
that they try to persuadeeachother to changetheir choicesin order to agreeon
which to buy. The teacher can role-play the srore-owner.
5. Solving a problem
This is particularly suitablefor peoplewho are themselvesadolescents,or
involved with adolescenteducarion,and is intendedfor fairly advanced
learners.It usually works well, producing a high level of participation and
motivation; as with many simulation tasks,participantstend to become
personallyinvolved: they begin to seethe charactersas real people, and to relate
to the problem as an emotional issueas well as an intellectualand moral one. Al
the feedbackstage,the resulting letterscan be read aloud: this often produces
further discussion.
L28
9 Teachingspeaking
2. Picture differences
Thestudentsarein pairs;eachmemberof the pairhasa differentpicture(eitherA or B).
Withoutshowingeachothertheirpictures
theyhaveto findoutwhatthe differences
are
(Solution
on p.127.1
betweenthem (thereareeleven).
3. Thingsin Gommon
Students
sit in pairs,preferably
choosing
as theirpartnersomeonetheydo notknow
verywell.Theytalkto oneanotherin orderto findoutas manythingsastheycanthat
theyhavein common.Thesemustbe thingsthatcanonlybe discovered
throughtalking
- notobviousor visiblecharacteristics
like'We arein the sameclass'or 'We bothhave
blueeyes'.At the endtheysharetheirfindingswith thefullclass.
4. Shoppinglist
lmaginethereis a miraclestorethatactually
sellsthe commodities
shownin thetable
below.Theownersof this storewill, however,onlystockthe itemsif theyareconvinced
thereis a demand.Students
eachchoosethreeitemstheywantto buy,andtry to find
for eachat leastthreeother'buyers'- thatis,studentswho havealsochosenit. They
markthe namesof the otherstudentsin theappropriate
column;if fourpeoplewantan
item,thisis enough'demand'to justifythe ownersof the storeacquiring
the stock.The
aim is to get the ownersto stockallthe itemsyou havechosen.
@Cambridge
University
Press1996
r25
Discussionactivities
Name of commodity
Second
buyer
Third
buyer
Fourth
buyer
1. Morefreetime
house2. An automatic
robot
cleaning
3. Popularity
4. A job that involves
travelabroad
5. Fame
6. More patience
7. A perfectfigure
8. More excitementin
my life
9. Perfecthealth
10. A talentfor making
money
5. Solving a problem
advisorycommittee,which hasto
The studentsare told that they are an educational
advisethe principalof a schoolon problemswith students.What would they advise
and
with regardto the problembelow?Theyshoulddiscusstheir recommendation
write it out in the form of a letterto the principal.
Benny,the only childof rich parents,is in the 7th Grade(aged13).He is unpopular
with both childrenand teachers.He likesto attachhimselfto other membersof the
class,lookingfor attention,and doesn'tseem to realizethey don't want him. He likes
to expresshis opinions,in classand out of it, but his ideasare often silly,and laughed
at. He hasbadbreath.
Last Thursdayhis classmatesgot annoyedand told him straightthat they didn't
want him around;next lessona teacherscoldedhim sharplyin front of the class.Later
he was foundcryingin the toiletsayinghe wantedto die. He was takenhomeand has
not beenbackto schoolsince
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Solutionto differencesbetween the picturesin Picturedifferencesin Box 9.4
1. In pictureA the babyis crying.
2. In pictureA the motherhasa blacksweater;in PictureB she hasa whitesweater.
3. In pictureA a womanis drivingthe car;in pictureB a manis driving.
in pictureB.
in the caris differentfromthe passenger
4. In pictureA the passenger
hasfourwindows;in PictureB it hassevenwindows.
5. In pictureA the buildingin the background
hasa hat.
6. In pictureA the manin the foreground
7. In pictureA the mandirectingthe carhasstripedtrousers;in pictureB he haswhitetrousers.
haslonghair;in pictureB shehasshorthair.
8. In pictureA the womanin the foreground
in the background,
on the scaffolding
9. In pictureB thereis a wheelbarrow
10. ln pictureA the numberon the dooris 118;in pictureB it is 119.
shirt.
11 In pictureA the manon the ladderhasa T-shirt;in pictureB he hasa long-sleeved
r27
9 Teaching speaking
Commentson the activitiesin Box 9.4
1. Describing pictures
This is a simple but surprisinglyproductive activity for beginnerclasses.Make
sureparticipants understandthat it is only necessaryfor the secretaryto put a
tick for each contribution; some tend to assumethat every sentencehas to be
written out - but this cuts down drastically the amount of talk possible.The
secondtime round, with a new picture, the groups almost invariably break their
previousrecord.
2. Picture differences
A well-known activify which usually produces plenty of purposeful questionand-answerexchanges.The vocabulary neededis specificand fairly predictable;
make sure it is known in advance,writing up new words on the board, though
you may find you have to add to the list as the activity is going on. The problem
here is the temptation to 'peep' at a partner's picture: your function during the
activity may be mainly to stop people cheating! You may also need to drop hints
to pairs that are 'stuck'.
3. Things in common
An 'ice-breaking'activity, which fostersa feelingof solidarity by stressing
sharedcharacteristicsof participants.At the end if all pairs tell the class
everything they found, then the feedback gets a linle tedious; it is better to ask a
few volunteers to suggestselectedideas that they think are particularly original
or pleasing.
4. Shopping list
An imaginative, fun activity - but, as you will have found if you did it, actually
rather sterilein the amount of talk it produces.Participantsmay simply ask
eachother 'One?' or 'Seven?',and answer 'Yes' or 'No'. One thing that helps is
simply to delete the numbers on the left; another is to suggestto participants
that they try to persuadeeach other to change their choicesin order to agreeon
which to buy. The teacher can role-play the store-owner.
5. Solving a problem
This is particularly suitablefor peoplewho are themselvesadolescenrs,or
involved with adolescenteducation,and is intendedfor fairly advanced
learners.It usually works well, producing a high level of participation and
motivation; as with many simulation tasks, participants tend to become
personallyinvolved: they begin to seethe charactersas real people,and to relate
to the problem as an emotional issueas well as an intellectualand moral one. Ai
the feedbackstage,the resultingletterscan be read aloud: this often produces
further discussion.
728
Other kinds of spoken interaction
Structuredtask- or topic-basedactivitieswith clear goals are a good basisfor
classroomtalk in the foreign language,particularly at elementaryand
intermediatelevels.However, the kind of talking they give practicein is in some
respectslimited: more advancedlearnersmay need a wider range of activity types.
Question Look (again) at the activities described in Box 9.4. What kinds of speaking
(situations) can you think of that they do not give practice in?
The extractsin Box 9.5 suggestsomemore kinds of oral interaction; study and
perhapsdiscussthem, and then read on to the following Comment.
Comment:Differentkinds of interaction
Discussiontasks tend to be basedon transactionaltalk, short turns and fairly
detachedargument or persuasion.The main types of interaction which are
discussedin the extractsin Box 9.5 and which tend to be neglectedare:
interactional talk; long turns; talk which is basedon (non-classroom)situations,
emotions and personalrelationships.
1. lnteractionaltalk
This is to someextent a matter of learning conventionalformulae of courtesy:
how to greet,take leave,begin and end conversations,apologize,thank and so
on. But evenmore than this it is culture-linked: how the interactional function
of speechis realizedin different languagesdependsas much on cultural
convention as on knowledge of the words of the language.
2. Long turns
The ability to speakat length is one which adult, more advancedor academic
students will perhaps need and therefore needscultivating; for other types of
classesit may be lessimportant.
3. Varied situations, feelings, relationships
It is certainly arguablethat learnerswill needto function in a wide variety of
such contexts,and it makes senseto give them opportunities to try using the
t^rget languagein simulationsof at leasta selectionof them. Conventional taskbaseddiscussionsdo not provide such opportunities; but, as the extract quoted
here claims, role-play activitiesdo - which is a cogent argument for including
them in a languagecourse.(For a more precisedefinition and discussionof
simulation and role play, seeUnit Five.)
Follow-up Vtlhich of the aborre kinds of interaction are important for your students? For
guesfibns those kinds you think important, can you suggest activities that give
practice in them?
Some ideas of my ourn follow.
129
9 Teachingspeaking
B O X 9 .5 : T Y PE S OF S POK E N D IS C OU R S E
Extract 1
lnteractionaluses of languageare those in which the primary purposesfor
communication
are social.The emphasisis on creatingharmoniousinteractions
between participantsratherthan on communicatinginformation.The goal for the
participantsis to make social interactioncomfortableand non-threatening
and to
c o mmu n i c a teg o o d w i l l .A l th oughi nformati onmay be communi catedi n the
process,the accurateand orderlypresentation
of informationis not the primary
purpose.Examplesof interactional
uses of languageare greeting,makingsmall
talk,tellingjokes,givingcompliments,
makingcasual'chat'of the kindusedto pass
time with friendsor to makeencounterswith strangerscomfortable.
Brown and Yule (1983)suggestthat languageused in the interactional
mode is
listeneroriented .. .
Transactional
uses of languageare those in which languageis beingused primarily
for communicating
information.
Theyare 'message'orientedratherthan 'listener'
oriented.Accurateand coherentcommunication
of the messageis important,as
well as confirmationthat the messagehas been understood.Explicitnessand
d i re c tn e s so f m e a n i n g i s e s senti al ,i n compari sonw i th the vaguenessof
i n te ra c ti o n alla n g u a g e ... E x ampl esof l anguagebei ng used pri mari l yfor a
tra n s a c ti o n apl u rp o s e i n c l u d e new s broadcasts,l ectures,descri pti onsand
instructions.
(from Jack C. Richards, The Language TeachingMatrix, Cambridge University Press
1990, pp. 54-5, 56)
Extract 2
A shortturn consistsof only one or two utterances,a long turn consistsof a string
of utterances
whichmay lastas longas an hour'slecture... What is demandedof a
speakerin a longturn is considerably
more demandingthanwhat is requiredof a
speakerin a shortturn.As soonas a speaker'takesthe floor'for a longturn,tells
an anecdote,tells a joke, explainshow somethingworks, justifiesa position,
describesan individual,
and so on, he takesresponsibility
for creatinga structured
sequenceof utteranceswhich must help the listenerto createa coherentmental
re p re s e n ta ti o n
o f w h a t h e i s tryi ng to say. W hat the speakersays must be
coherently
structured...
The generalpointwhichneedsto be made... is that it is importantthatthe teacher
should realisethat simply trainingthe student to produceshort turns will not
yieldstudentswho can performsatisfactorily
automatically
in longturns.
(fromGillianBrownandGeorgeYule,Teaching
the SpokenLanguage,
Cambridge
Press,1983,pp.12,14t,
University
Extraet 3
T h e u s e o f ro l e p l a y h a s a d d ed a tremendous number of possi bi l i ti esfor
practice.Studentsare no longerlimitedto the kind of language
communication
usedby learnersin a classroom:
theycanbe shopkeepers
or
or spies,grandparents
children,authorityfiguresor subordinates;
they can be boldor frightened,irritated
or amused,disapproving
or affectionate;
they canbe in Buckingham
Palaceor on a
shipor on the moon;they canbe threatening,
advising,
The
apologising,
condoling.
languagecan correspondingly
vary along severalparameters:accordingto the
profession,status, personality,attitudesor mood of the characterbeing roleplayed,according
to the physicalsettingimagined,
according
to the communicative
functionsor purposerequired.
(fromPenny
Ur,Discussions
thatWork,
Cambridge
Press,
1981, p g)
University
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
130
Role play and related techniques
Teachingthese kinds of interaction in the classroom
1. lnteractionaltalk
The way interactionaltalk is carried out in different languagesis very culturelinked, and it is difficult to explain the conventions that govern it in a foreign
language;it is dubious therefore whether it is worth investing very much effort
in teachingand practisingthem. My own opinion is that given generallanguage
proficiencyand a knowledgeof the more obvious courtesyconventions,most
learnerswill be able to cope adequatelywith interactional speechon the basisof
their own cultural knowledgeand common sense.Somekinds of role play (see
Unit Five) can give opportunities for practising it.
2. Long turns
Someactivitiesthat help studentsto practisespeakingin long turns are:
-
telling stories(well-known talesor personalanecdotes)
telling jokes
describinga person or place in detail
recounting the plot of a film, play or book
giving a short lecture or talk
arguing a casefor or againsta proposal.
3. Varied situations, feelings, relationships
The obvious classroomactivitiesto usehere are those basedon role play. This
topic is discussedmore fully in Unit Five.
It was suggestedin one of the extracts quoted in the previous unit that one way
to vary the kinds of spokeninteraction that learnerscan experiencein the
classroomis the useof what is called 'role play'. Role plaS in the abovecontext,
is usedto refer to all sorts of activitieswhere learnersimaginethemselvesin a
situation outsidethe classroom(asfor examplein Box 9.4, Activity 5),
sometimesplaying the role of someoneother than themselves,and using
languageappropriate to this new context. (The term can also be usedin a
narrower sense,to denote only those activities where each learner is allotted a
specificcharacterrole, as in the sectionheadedRole play below.)
Dialogues
This is a traditional language-learningtechniquethat has gone somewhatout of
fashion in recent years. The learners are taught a brief dialogue which they
learn by heart. For example:
A: Look, it's stopped raining!
B; So it has! Do you udnt to go out?
A: Yes,I'ue got a lot of shopping to do.
13r
9 Teaching speaking
B: Right,let's go.'Wheredo you uant to go first?
They then perform it; privately in pairs, or publicly in front of the whole class.
Learners can be asked to perform the dialogue in different ways: in different
moods (sad,happy,irritated, bored, for example);in different role-relationships
(a parent and child, wife and husband,wheelchairpatient and nurse,etc.).Then
the actual words of the text can be varied: other ideassubstituted(by teacheror
learners)for 'shopping' or 'it's stoppedraining', and the situation and the rest of
the dialogueadaptedaccordingly.Finally the learnerscan suggesta
continuation: two (or more) additional ufteranceswhich carry the action
further.
Particularly for beginnersor the lessconfident, the dialogue is a good way to
get learners to practise saying target-languageutteranceswithout hesitation and
within a wide variety of contexts;and learning by heart increasesthe learner's
vocabulary of ready-madecombinationsof words or 'formulae'.
Plays
Theseare an expansionof the dialoguetechnique,where a classlearns and
performs a play. This can be basedon something they have read; or composed
by them or the teacher; or an actual play from the literature ofthe target
language.
Rehearsalsand other preparationsare rather time-consuming,but the results
can contribute a great deal both to learning and to learner confidenceand
morale. The production of a classplay is perhapsmost appropriatefor the end
of a courseor a yeart study performed at a final party or celebration.
Simulations
In simulationsthe individual participantsspeakand react as themselves,but the
group role, situation and task they are given is an imaginary one. For example:
You are the managing committee of a special school for blind
children. You uant to organize d summer carnp for the children,
but your school budget is insufficient. Decide hout you might
raise the money.
They usually work in small groups,with no audience.
For learnerswho feel self-consciousabout acting someoneelse,this type of
activity is lessdemanding.But most such discussionsdo not usually allow much
latitude for the use of languageto expressdifferent emotions or relationships
betweenspeakers,or to use 'interactive' speech.
Role play
Participantsare given a situation plus problem or task, as in simulations;but
they are also allotted individual roles, which may be wrirten out on cards.For
example:
ROLE CARD A: You are a custornerin a cakeshop. You want
a birthday cake for a friend. He or she is uery fond of chocolate.
732
Oral testing
ffi:Z:frY.i::f
:"i:;t;!:!.::;:':rl:::tr:'sh'pY'u
1987:51)
{Pofter-Ladousse,
Very often the role play is done in pairs, as in the above example;sometimesit
involves interaction between five or six different roles.
Normally the groups or pairs improvise their role play benveenthemselves,
simultaneously,with no audience. Sometimes,however, volunteers may perform
their role plays later in front of the class.
This is virtually the only way we can give our learnersthe opportunity to
practiseimprovising a range of real-life spokenlanguagein the classroom,and
is an extremely effective technique if the students are confident and cooperative;
but more inhibited or anxious people find role play difficult and sometimeseven
embarrassing.Factorsthat can contribute to a role play's successare: making
surethat the languagedemandedis well within the learners'capacity;your own
enthusiasm;careful and clear presentationand instructions.A preliminary
demonstrationor rehearsalby you togetherwith a studentvolunteer can be
very helpful.
Follow-up
discussjon
Have you e:rperienced any of the above techniques as teacher or learner?
Choose the one that you think most useful, and write down or share with
colleagrues your e4periences and reflections.
$(/hentestingthe oral proficiencyof learnerswe may simply interview them and
assesstheir responses;or use other techniqueslike role play group discussion
betweenlearners,monologue,picture-descriptionand so on (more ideasfor
oral testingtechniquescan be found in Underhill,1,987).
But choosingan appropriate elicitation techniqueis only part of the problem;
there are many other difficulties associatedwith design,administration and
So seriousare thesedifficulties,in fact, that most languageexams
assessment.
either do not include oral testingtechniquesor give them very low weighting in
the final grade.
Question
Does a final langruage proficiency examination you are familiar with (a state
school-leavin€t exam, for example) include an oral component (as distinct
from listening comprehension)? If so, hovvmuch weighting is it given in the
final grrade?
This uriit deals mainly with the question: to test or not to test? The main
arguments for and against are displayed in Box 9.6, and the Debating task
suggestedbelow can help you clarify your own thinking about them. My own
conclusions are summarized brieflv at the end of the unit.
133
9 Teaching speaking
Task Debate
Sfage l: Preparation
Think about what your own arguments would be for, or against, testing oral
proficiency. Perhapslook at those laid out in Box 9.6 and decide what your
reaction is to each as ]rouread it. Do you agEeeor disagree?Would you add
anyfurther comment?
Sfage 2: Debate
If you are working with other teachers, divide into two (Foups; one
prepares the case in favour of oral testing, the other against. (It does not
matter, for the moment, which side you are really on; prepare the case for
your €Foup as convincingly as you can for the sake of the argrument.) One or
two main speakers present the case for each group, and the discussion is
then throvwr open for free participation.
At the end of the debate, you might like to put the issue to the vote. At this
point you may abandon the views of 'yolrr' lFoup if you do not really accept
them, andvote according to your ovm inclination.
If you are workingf on your ovun,discuss the issues in writing and come to
lfour o\rvnconclusion. You may be interested in comparing your conclusion
withmine as e:q)ressed at the endof this unit.
B OX 9.6: FORA ND A GA I NS TT E S T I NGO RA LF L UE NCY
For
1. In principle,a languagetest shouldincludeallaspectsof languageskill- including
speaking.
2. Speakingis not just 'any skill'- it is arguablythe most important,and therefore
shouldtake priorityin any languagetest.
3. lf you havean oralproficiency
test at the end of a course,then this will havea
'backwash'effect:teachersand studentswill spendmore time on developing
speakingskillsduringthe courseitself. Conversely,
if you do not havesucha test
they will tend to neglectthem.
4. Studentswho speakwell but write badlywill be discriminated
againstif all,or
most,of the test is basedon writing.
Against
1. lt is very difficultto designtests that get learnersto improvisespeechin the
foreignlanguage.
2. When answersto a test arewritten,assessorscan checkthem carefullyat their
leisure;but speechflits past,and is very difficultto judgequickly,objectivelyand
reliably.Recordings
can be made;but this is liableto be prohibitively
expensive
andtime-consuming.
3. Thereare no obviouscriteriafor assessment.Are you goingto judgetesteesonly
on fluency?Or is accuracygoingto playa part?And what aboutlistening
comprehension?
4. Evenif you agreeon criteria,some testerswill be stricterin applyingthem, others
more lenient.lt will be difficultto get reliable,consistentassessment.
5. In oraltestingeachcandidatehasto be testedseparately
in real
and individually,
time; few institutionscan affordthe necessaryinvestmentof time and money.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
1.34
Notes
My conclusion
I think that oral testing is worth the investment: not so much for the sake of the
overall validity of the proficiencytest of which it is part, as for the sakeof the
backwash.An example:someyearsago an oral componentwas introduced into
the Israeli school-leavingexam, with a 20%oweighting in the final grade;the
immediate effect was a very noticeablerise in the emphasison oral work in
schoolclassroomsand a correspondingimprovementin learners'speakingskills.
This is not to say that there are not seriousdifficulties and criticismsof the
test. One of the main problems is, of course,inter-rater (tester)reliability: the
fact that sinceyou needa very large number of testers,and it is difficult to
ensureappropriate training for all of them, you are likely to get somevariation
in their assessments
of testees'proficiency.This problem can, however,be
mitigated by requiring testersto grade accordingto very explicit criteria (for an
example,seethe No/es).
More detailedinformation gainedfrom professionalresearchand materials
developmentcan be found in the literature: look at someof the articlesand
books listed under the last sectionof Further reading below.
Notes
Scale of oraltesting criteria
The following scaleis loosely basedon that actually usedin the Israeli exam
mentionedin Unit Six. The candidatesare testedon fluencyand accuracSand
may get a maximum of five points on eachof thesetwo aspects,ten points in all.
Fluency
Accuracy
Little or no languageproduced
1
Little or no communication
1
Poor vocabulary,mistakesin basicgrammar,
may havevery strongforeignaccent
2
Very hesitant and brief utterances,
sometimes difficult to understand
2
Adequatebut not rich vocabulary,makes
obvious grammar mistakes,slight foreign
accent
J
Getsideasacross,but hesitantlyand
briefly
3
Good range of vocabulary, occasional
grammar slips, slight foreign accent
4
\trilidevocabularyappropriatelyused,
virtually no grammar mistakes,native-like
or slightforeignaccent
J
Effective communication in short turns
Easy and effective communication, uses
long turns
4
5
TOTALSCOREOUTOF 10:
135
9 Teaching speaking
Further reading
BAC KG RO UND
Brown, G. and Yule, G. (1983) Teachingthe SpokenLanguage,Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversity Press.
(A comprehensivesummary of theoreticalissuesunderlying practical teaching
decisions)
Richards,J. C. and Schmidt,R. IUf.(eds.)(1983) Languageand
Communication, London: Longman.
(Applied linguistics:research-based
discussionof aspectsof verbal
interactionl seeparticularly articles by Canale and by Richards and Schmidt)
TEACHER's HANDBOoKS, ARTICLES
Byrne, D. (1986) TeachingOral English (2nd edn.), London: Longman.
(A basic,readableteacher'sguide, relating to oral work in a progressionfrom
presentationto practiceto production; plenty of examplesand teaching
ideas)
Byrne, D. (1987) Techniquesfor Classroomlnteractioz, London: Longman.
(Simple,practical guidelinesand a variety of ideasfor gamesand fluency
activities;provides someuseful teacherawarenesstasks)
Dcirnyei,Z. andThurrell, S. (79921Conuersationsand Dialoguesin Action,
Hemel Hempstead:PrenticeHall International.
(Practicalideasfor using and developingdialoguesfor conversationpractice)
Hyland, K. (1991) 'Developingoral presentationskills', English Teaching
Forum,29,2,35-7.
Porter-Ladousse,G. and Noble, T. (7991)'Oral presentations:Group activity or
one-manshow?', English Teaching Forum, 29, 2, 3I-2.
(Two useful articles- convenientlyin the sameissueof the journal - on
teaching'long-turn' speechin the classroom)
Klippel, F. (1984) Keep Talk"ing,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
(A collection of imaginativediscussionactivities,mostly for fairly advanced,
adult students)
Nolasco, R. and Arthur, L. (1,9871Conuersation,Oxford:Oxford University
Press.
(Brief summariesof somebasicissuesaccompaniedby plenty of illustrative
and useful classroomtasks)
Pattison,P. (1.987)Deueloping Communication Skills,Cambridge:Cambridge
Universiry Press.
(Plentyof ideasfor oral communication activities,with examplesin French,
German and English)
Porter-Ladousse,G. (1987) Role Play, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(Brief practical guidelines;and an excellentcollection of role play and
simulation techniques)
Ur, P. (198Ll Discussionsthat'Work, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
(Guidelines,followed by a number of task-baseddiscussionactivities,mostly
for intermediateto advancedlearners)
t35
Further reading
TESTING ORAL PROFICIENCY
Hayward, T. (1983)'TestingspokenEnglish- an introduction', Practical
EnglishTeaching4, 2, 37-9.
(A clear,brief introduction to the issues:someideason how to test)
Lombardo,L. (19841'Oral testing:gettinga sampleof real language',English
Teaching Forum, 22, l, 2-6.
(An accountof an oral testactuallycarriedout with students:problems,
solutions,conclusions)
Underhill, N. (1987) TestingSpokenLanguage,Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
(Readable,interesting;particularly good on elicitationtechniques)
r37
Module
10:
Teaching
reading
Preliminary definition. For the purposes of this module, reading means 'reading
and understanding'.A foreign languagelearnerwho says,'I can read the words
but I don't know what they mean' is not, therefore,reading, in this sense.He or
sheis merely decoding- translating written symbolsinto correspondingsounds.
This unit attempts to clarify and illustrate some aspectsof the nature of reading,
as definedabove.It consistsmainly of a task which examrnesassumptrons
through experiment.
B OX 10.1: S OMEA S S U MP T I O NS
A B O UTT HE NA T UREO F
RE A DING
1. We needto perceiveand decodelettersin orderto readwords.
2. We needto understandall the words in orderto understandthe meaningof a
text.
3. The more symbols(lettersor words)thereare in a text, the longerit will taketo
read it.
4. We gathermeaningfrom what we read.
5. Our understanding
of a text comesfrom understanding
the words of which it is
composed.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Task Examining
how we read
Stage I : Preliminary thinking
Look at the statementssho,r'rnin Box 10.t. Do you agneewith them?
Disagree?Agree, but with reseryations?
Think about or discussthese statements,and perhaps note dovtrnyour
responses.
Stage2: Short experimental readings
Nwrr try reading some short texts, and see whether the results make any
difference to, or confirm, your answers.
I . Can you read the English words shownin Box I 0.2.I ?
1 38
How do we read?
BO X 1 0 .2.1:CA N Y OU RE A DlT? (1 )
/*,()n'LA
@ CambridgeUniversity Press 1996
You might g"uessvarious possibilities; but you cannot be sure you are
right.If, horever, youlookatBox IO.2.2 onpage 140, youwillprobably
be able to read the same words with little difficulty.
The conclusion would be that we can read words without necessarily
being able to identify and decode single letters; in this case, you read a
word by fitting its general visual 'shape' into a sense context.
2. Read calefully the three tefis in Box 10.3. TVtrich takes you most time to
read and which least? Read on only after you have tried this.
BO X 1 0 .3: HOW LONGDOE SlT T A K EY O U T O RE A D?
I.x P TA A E W T
2. jam hot pin call did tap son tick
3. How guickly canyou read and understand this?
@ CambridgeUniversity Press 1996
Most people find that the first two texts take about the same time to read,
the third is noticeably quicker. This is a fairly clear indication that it is not
accurate to say that there is a simple one-to-one relationship between
the amount of text (words,letters) andthe speedof reading. What
appears to be more significant is the number of sense units: letters
combined into meaningful words, or words combined into meaningful
sentences. Roughly speaking, a text will take more or less time to read
according to the number and coherence of these kinds of units, rather
than simply according to the arnount of words and letters.
3. Finally, read the text in Box 10.4 as guickly as you can.
1.39
10 Teaching reading
B OX 10.4: RE A DOUICKL Y
The handsomeknightmountedhis horse,and gallopedoff to savethe beautiful
princess.On and on, over mountainsand valleys,untilhis gallopinghousewas
exhausted.At lasthe dismounted... Wherewas the dragon?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Did you notice that the second occurrence of the word 'horse' was spelled
'house'? If you did not, this does not mean that you are a bad reader, but
rather the reverse: lrou are looking for meanings, antd rurderstanding the
text in terms of its orrerall sense. SuccessfuI reading results from the
r:nderstanding ]rou bring to a text, which is often based, as herle, on
previous lcrowledge of a type of story or context; where this conllicts with
the actual words you see on the page, you will (usually rightly) prefer to
rely on lfour general understanding.
For a more thorough treatment of these issues, see Smith (1978).
.Sfage 3: Drawing conclusions
In the light of the aborre e:rperiments, do you need to revise your original
responses to the statements in Box l0.l?
My orn conclusions follow.
BOX 10.2.2: GAN YOU READtf? l2l
6l^1T 4 t tfu^-r! k^,1*- . t
sto- n7/t -rn ^,e
do .L*< /*.e-.LA
^-)
( n^l
*
Some conclusions
Possiblereformulations of, or reservationsto the statementsin Box 10.1 might
be:
1. !7hen beginning to read a text, or where there is little or no helpful context,
we dependon decodinglettersto understandwords; but as soon as there is a
meaningful context we tend to bring our own interpretation to the word
accordingto its general'shape'and the senseof the text rather than according
to its exact component letters.Thus, reading activitiesshould probably stress
reading for understanding rather than exact decoding of lerters.
2. Ve needto understandsomewords in order to understandthe meaningof a
text, but by no meansall: we often 'skip' or misreadwords in order to make
senseof the whole more quickly or conveniently. The implication of this for
r40
How do we read?
teachingis probably that we should not insist too strongly on our learners
understandingeveryword, but rather encouragethem to go for the overall
meaningof a text.
3. Very roughly, the more senseunits there are in a text, the longer it will take to
read it. If smaller senseunits (words, sentences)are combined into bigger,
paragraphs),the whole is much faster to read than
coherentones (sentences,
if they are separateor incoherent.Learnersthereforewill probably read more
successfullyif given whole meaningfulunits of text to read rather than
disconnected'bits'.
4. and 5. The word 'gather' implies that somehowthe meaningof a text is there
in the words and all we needto do is pick it up. However, our understanding
is basedon far more than simple receptionof the words themselves,and the
processof readingwould be better definedas 'constructing' meaningfrom a
written text. The 'construction' of meaningthat occursin reading is a
combination of 'bottom-up' processes(decodingand understandingwords,
phrasesand sentencesin the text) and'topdown'ones (our expectations,
previousknowledgeconstructs(schemata)of the text content and genre).It is
very difficult, sometimesimpossible,to read successfullya text where our
own schematacannot be brought to bear.Thus, learnersshould be
encouragedto combine top{own and bottom-up strategiesin reading,
which meansin practicedoing such things as discussingthe topic of a text
beforereading it, arousingexpectations,eliciting connectionsbetween
referencesin the text and situationsknown to the learners.
Nore: This unit is relevantfor situationswhere the learners'mother tongue has
a different alphabetfrom that of the foreign languagebeingtaught.
For many learners,beginningto read the foreign languageinvolves learning an
entire new set of written symbols.And for the teacher,somepreliminary
decisionsneedto be made about how to teachthem. Someof the problems are
shown in Box 10.5.
Task Thinking about teaching the beginning of reading
Look at the questions in Box 10.5 and note for yor:rself, or discuss with
colleagrues, what your own answers would be. Then compare these with my
ideas as laid out under Guidelines below. Hor far are the latter acceptable
and appropriate inyoru situation?
Beginningreading:some guidelines
1.It is generallypreferableto beginreading only after the learnershave some
basicknowledge of the spokenlanguage,so that reading becomesas quickly
as possiblea matter of recognizingmeaningsrather than deciphering
141
10 Teaching reading
B OX 10.5: S OMEOUES T I O NS
A B O UTB E G I NNI NGRE A DI NG
1. ShouldI teachmy studentsonlyorallyfor a while,so that they havebasicoral
proficiencyin the foreignlanguagebeforetacklingreading?Or startreadingand
writingfrom the beginning?
2. ShouldI teachthem singleletters,and graduallybuildthese up into words?Or
teachthe writtenform of meaningfulwords first, lettingthem come to the
differentcomponentlettersby analysislater?
3. lf I decideto teachsingleletters,shouldI teachthem by namefirst,or by (usual)
sound?
4. lf therearevariousforms to eachletter{suchas the capitaland lower-caseforms
in the Romanalphabet,the beginning,middleand end forms in Arabic),at what
stageshouldI teacheach?
5. At what stageshouldI teachthe conventional
orderof the alphabet?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
symbols.Suchknowledge also enablesus to give much more varied and
interestingtasks for readingpractice.
2.lhave found it most practical and productive to begin with singleletters (the
conventional'phonic'method), starting with the most common and useful.A
collection of known, common lettersvery quickly enablesstudentsto cope
with a large number of words, whereaslearning specificwords as such does
not readily generatefurther combinations.Having said this however,there
are two important reservations.First, it is worth teachingsomevery common
words globally very early on - for example:the, he, she,this, is,are in English
- and practisingtheir recognition through taskslike identifying them in a
newspaperextract. Second,somelearnersdo actually prefer to learn
'globally', having a good memory for full-word combinations.In any case,
whole words in tasksthat involve understandingmeaningsshould be used as
soon as possible;phoneticslearning is only an entry stage,and our aim is
proficient reading that involves recognition of whole senseunits.
3. It is, surely,more useful for reading purposesif the learnerknows the most
common sound of the letter; its name can be left until later.
4. My own preferenceis to teach the different forms of the letters together. This
slows down the processa little, but means that the letters the learners do
know can immediately be recognizedin the context of a text.
5. Alphabetical order can be learnedlater when the learnersneedto know it for
dictionary use.
If you are interested in seeinghow theseguidelines may be implemented in
materials, have a look at the sample tasks for the beginning of reading/writing
shown in the Notes.
r42
Beginning reading
Text + comprehensionquestionactivities
A conventional type of reading activity or test consists of a text followed by
comprehensionquestions.In this unit, we shall look at someexamplesof this
kind of material, consider what makes it more, or less,effective, and suggest
variations.
Task .Hnswering comprehension questions (l)
I?y doing the activity shovvnin Box 10.6.
B O X 10. 6 :
C OMP R E H E N S IO N T E X T A N D OU E S TION S (11
READTHETEXTAND ANSWERTHE FOLLOWINGOUESTIONS.
YesterdayI saw the palgishflestergolliningbegruntthe bruck.He seemedvery
chanderbil,
so I did not jorterhim, just deapledto him quistly.Perhapslaterhe will
besandcander,and I will be ableto rangelto him.
1. What was the flesterdoing,andwhere?
2. What sort of a flesterwas he?
3. Why did the writer decidenot to jorterhim?
4. How did she deaple?
5. What did she hopewould happenlater?
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
You probably had no difficulty in answering the questions; however, this
obviously did not show that you had understoodthe passage!In other words,
you did not in fact'read' the text successfullyat all, in the sensein which the
word is understoodhere (seethe definition at the beginning of the module). The
conclusionhas to be that answering'comprehension'questions,as such, may
not encourage,or provide proof of, successfulreading.
Question
What is it about these questions which makes them answerable in spite of
the incomprehensibility of the source text? Try to answer before reading
on!
The answer,perhaps, is that their vocabulary simply echoesthe text, while the
grammar of both text and questions is fairly obvious and corresponds neatlS so
that if you recognize the grammar context, you can simply slot in the
appropriate vocabulary.
Task .f,nswering comprehension questions (2)
The text and guestions in Box 10.7 are different. Try ansvuering them, and
then think about the guestion that follovvs.
743
10 Teaching reading
B OX 1 0 .7 :
C O MP R E H E N S ION TE X T A N D OU E S TION S (2)
R EA DT H ET E XTAN D A N S WE RTH EFOLLOW IN G
OU E S TION S :
YesterdayI saw the new patienthurryingalongthe corridor.He seemedvery upset,
so I did not follow him,just calledto him gently.Perhapslaterhe will feel better,and
I w i l l b e a b l eto ta l kto h i m .
1. What is the oroblemdescribedhere?
2. ls this eventtakingplaceindoorsor outside?
3. Didthe writer try to get nearthe patient?
4. What do you thinkshe saidwhen she calledto him?
5. What might the job of the writer be?
6. Why do you thinkshe wants to talkto the patient?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Question
Here, the reader would have to understand the content of the passage in
order to answer these questions (similar ones would be unanswerable if
applied to the previous 'nonsense' text). Gan you put your finger on why?
In other words, in what ways - apart from the fact that they are in normal
English- do these questions differ from those given in Box 10.6?Try
answering before reading on.
The questionshere are different in that they do not quote verbatim from the
text but paraphraseit, or requestparaphrases,or invite somemeasureof
interpretation and application of the reader'sbackground knowledge.They thus
demandreal comprehension,and encouragean interactive,personal'engaging'
with the text, as well as being more interestingto do. Interpretativequestions
often have more than one possibleanswer and can be usedas a basisfor
discussion.
However, one disadvantageof the conventionaltext-plus-questionsremains:
the readerhas no particular motive to read the text in the first place.
Task Answering comprehension questions (3)
Sfage I : Ttying a task (1)
Try doing the activity in Box I 0.8. l.
BOX 10.8.1:QUE S TIONS
G I V E NB E F O RE
T HET E X T
Readthe questionsand guesswhat the answersare goingto be. Later,you will read
the text and be ableto checkhow manyyou got right.
1 . Wh e rew a s J a n ew a l k i n g ?
2. What did she hearbehindher?
3. What was her necklacemadeof?
4. What did the thief steal(two things)?
5. What did he do next?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
144
Types of reading activities
Stage 2: Reflection
Before reading on, try answering the follovving guestions (assuming that
you did not cheat and read the source passage first!): Were your guesses as
to what the answers would be completely random? Or did you base them
on some kind of evidence or knowledge?
A suggested answer will be for.rnd under Comments below.
Sfage 3: Trying a task (2)
Now look at Box 10.8.2, which is the text on which the questions are based'
T?y as you do so to compare your motivation to read and ease of
comprehension with those you felt when reading the 'new patient' passage.
Comments
You probably felt more motivated to read, and the reading itself was more
purposeful, becauseof the challenge of finding out whether you had got your
answersright or not. Probably at leastsome of your answerswere in fact right;
you will have basedthem both on information given within the questions
themselves(the necklace,for example,was obviously one of the things stolen)
and on your own 'schemata'(your previous knowledge,for example,of thieves
and theft; thus you would be likely to guessthat having stolen something the
thief would run away).
\Thether you found the reading text easierto understand is more difficult to
judge, sinceyour level of English is obviously too high for this example;but for
a learner,the passagewould probably have beeneasiersimply becauseof the
preparation of topic and vocabulary which was provided through the questions.
Guessingthe answersto comprehensionquestionsbefore reading is only one
way of motivating learners to read a text. There are, of course' many others,
and thesecan often be basedon the learners'own previous ideason the topic
rather than the teacher'sor textbook writer's. For example, you might tell them
what the topic of the text is going to be and invite them to frame their own
questions(what do they want to find out?) or suggestvocabulary that they
think will come up in the course of the text (what sorts of things do they think
the text will say?).
Readingfasksother than questions
Setting questions to answer,whether before or after the text, is not, of course,
the only way to get learnersto engagewith the meaning of a reading passage.
if the passageis easyand motivating to
Sometimesno actual task is necessary,
her
own mother tongue, for enjoyment or
read: the learner reads,as in his or
information. But a task is useful for two reasons:first, it may provide the
learners with a purpose in reading and make the whole activity more interesting
and effective;second,we needto know how well our learnersare reading, and
we can get this information conveniently through looking at the results of
comprehensiontasks.An exampleof a task not basedon comprehension
questionsmight be: giving the learnersa set of titles togetherwith a set of
extracts from different newspaper articles or stories and asking them to match
the titles to the appropriate extracts.
145
10 Teaching reading
BOX 10.8.2: PASSAGEFOLLOWINGOUESTIONS
As Janewas walkingdown the street,she heardsomeonewalkingquietlybehind
her.She beganto feel afraid.Suddenlya largehandtouchedher neck:her gold
necklacebrokeand disappeared.
In anothermoment,her bagtoo was gone,andthe
thief was runningaway.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Tbsk Thinking of dternative
reading activities
Make a list of firrther possible reading activities, using different kinds of
texts. These can be for different kinds of learners, or for a specific class you
are acquainted with. A locally-used textbook may be one source of ideas,
as well as your orn and yor:r colleagrues' e:rperience and creativity. Some
suggestions of my ourn appear inBox 10.9.
BOX 10.9: IDEAS FOR READING ACTIVITIES
1. Pre-question.
A generalquestionis givenbeforereading,
to
askingthe learners
findouta pieceof information
central
to the understanding
of thetext.
2. Do-it-yourcelfquestions.Learners
composeandanswertheirown questions.
3. Providea title. Learners
suggesta titleif nonewasgivenoriginally;
or an
if therewas.
alternative,
4. Summarize.
Learners
summarize
thecontentin a sentence
or two.Thismay
alsobe donein themothertongue.
5. Continue.Thetext is a story;learners
suggestwhat mighthappennext.
6. Preface.Thetext is a story;learners
suggestwhatmighthavehappened
before.
7. Gappedtext. Towardsthe endof the text,fouror fivegapsareleftthatcanonly
be filledin if the text hasbeenunderstood.
Notethatthisis differentfromthe
conventional
clozetest (atext with regulargapsthroughouil
whichtests
grammatical
purposeful,
andlexical
accuracy
andactually
fluent
discourages
reading.
8. Mistakesin the text. Thetext has,towardsthe end,occasional
mistakes
(wrongwords;or intrusive
Learners
ones;or omissions).
aretoldin advancehow
manymistakes
to lookfor.
9. Gomparison.Therearetwo textson a similartopic;learners
notepointsof
similarity
or difference
of content.
10. Responding.
Thetext is a letteror a provocative
article;learners
discusshow
theywouldrespond,
or writeananswer.
11. Re-presentation
of content.Thetext givesinformation
or tellsa story;learners
graphic
re-present
itscontentthrougha different
medium.Forexample:
- a drawingthatillustrates
the text
- colouring
- marking
a map
in the text
- listsof eventsor itemsdescribed
(suchasa gridor flowchart)indicating
- a diagram
relationships
betweenitems,
characters
or events.
@Cambridge
University
Press1996
146
lmproving reading skills
Getting our learnersto understanda simple text, as discussedin the previous
unit, is only the beginning.Readingskills needto be fosteredso that learners
can cope with more and more sophisticatedtexts and tasks,and deal with them
efficiently:quickly appropriately and skilfully. The following task invites you ro
look at characteristicsof efficientreading and think for yourself about how they
would affect teaching.But you may if you prefer simply read eachitem of Box
10.10, and then continue immediatelyto the Commentsand Summarysections
below.
Task Gharacteristics of efficient reading, and implications
teaching
for
Look at the list of ideas on efficient and inefficient reading in Box 10.10;
cross out or change any lfou do not agree with, and add any further items
youwish.
Next, note for each what the implications are for teaching. In other words,
try to put your finger on what you as a teacher could, or should, do to help
to foster the 'efficient' guality: what types of texts or tasks you might select,
what kinds of instructions and advice you might provide.
Having done this, you might like to compare your ideas with mine as
discussed in the Comrnents. When you have finished, sumrnarize for
yourself a list of main recommendations for teaching, and/or look at the
Summary section at the end of the unit.
Commentson the items in Box 10.10
1. and 2. The texts should be accessible:if learnerscannot understandvital
information without looking up words or being given extra information
from elsewherethen the activity may improve their vocabulary and general
knowledge, but will be lessuseful as an aid to improving their reading skills
as such.Note that the appropriatenessof languagelevel dependsto some
extent on the task: quite a difficult text may provide useful readingfor an
intermediate-class
if the task demandsunderstandingonly of those parts
that arereadily comprehensibleto them.
3. There is somecontroversyover whether you can in fact improve reading
speedas such through training; and in any casedifferent readingpurposes
demand different speeds.In my opinion, the most useful thing we can do as
teachersis to provide our studentswith the opportunities to do as much
(successful)reading as possible,including a varied diet of types of reading
(fast, slow, skimming, scanning,studying).The aim is to encourage
(automatization'
of recognition of common words or word-combinations,
this being in generalthe crucial contributory factor to reading speed.
4. Scanningtasks (wherethe student is askedin advanceto look out for a
specific item of information while reading) are very useful for getting
learnersto read selectively.Careful selectionof texts (see( 1) above)is also
important. FinallS this is a place where frank explanation of efficient
147
10 Teachingreading
BOX 1 0 .10 : E FFIGIE NT
A ND INE FF I CI E NT
RE A DI NG
Efficient
lnefficient
1. Language
The languageof the textis
to the learners.
comprehensible
The languageof the text is too
ditficult.
2. Content
Thecontentof thetextis accessible
to the learners;
theyknowenough
aboutit to be ableto applytheir
ownbackground
knowledge.
The text is too difficultin the
sensethat the contentis too far
removedfromthe knowledge
andexperience
of the learners.
3. Speed
fairlyfast:
The readingprogresses
mainlybecausethe readerhas
'automatized'
recognition
of
commoncombinations,
anddoes
notwastetimeworkingout each
wordor groupof wordsanew.
Thereadingis slow:the reader
doesnothavea large'vocabulary'
recognized
items.
of automatically
4. Attention
Thereaderconcentrates
on the
significant
bits,andskimsthe
rest;mayevenskippartshe or
sheknowsto be insignificant.
The readerpaysthe sameamount
of attentionto all partsof the text.
5. Incomprehenslble
vocabulary
Thereadertakesincomprehensible The readercannottolerate
vocabulary
in hisor herstride:
incomprehensible
vocabulary
guessesits meaningfromthe
items:stopsto lookeveryoneup
surrounding
text,or ignoresit and
in a dictionary,and/orfeels
manageswithout;usesa
fromtryingto
discouraged
dictionary
onlywhenthese
thetextas a whole.
comprehend
strategies
are insutficient.
6. Prediction
Thereaderthinksahead,
predicts.
hypothesizes,
The readerdoesnotthinkahead,
dealswiththetextas it comes.
7. Background
information
The readerhasand uses
information
to help
background
understand
thetext.
The readerdoesnot haveor use
background
information.
8. Motivation
The readeris motivatedto read:
by interesting
contentor a
challenging
task.
The readerhasno particular
interestin reading.
9. Purpose
The readeris awareof a clear
purposein reading:for example,to
findoutsomething,
to getpleasure.
The readerhasno clearpurpose
otherthanto obeytheteacher's
instruction.
10. Strategles
The readerusesditferentstrategies
for ditferentkindsof reading.
The readerusesthe samestrategy
for alltexts.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
748
Improving reading skiIls
reading strategy (for example, where the teacher 'legitimizes' skipping
insignificant parts of a text for certain tasks) can help learners help
themselves.
5. Again, tasks aimed at encouraginglearnersto guessor 'do without' words
can help to habituate them to using thesestrategies.The dictionary is often
over-used,resulting in slower, lessfluent reading, as well as frequent
misunderstanding through the selection of the wrong definition. Learners
should, of course,know how to usethe dictionary, but they should also
learn when it is necessaryand when an intelligent guessis preferable.On
the whole, the dictionary is best used as a meansto confirm or disprove a
preliminary guessof their own, basedon understanding of the context.
6. There are tasks which specifically encourageprediction, such as .Sfhat do
you think will happennext?' or 'What do you think the next few words will
be?'
7. Tasks should encouragelearners to apply their own background knowledge
and experienceto the reading of texts.
8. and 9. On the whole, it is bestto give the task in advance,so that learners
know what their purpose is in reading. The exception is the caseof
extensivereading (novelsor stories,for example)when the readingmaterial
is motivating in itself and a task may actually distract and spoil the reader's
enjoyment.
L0. \Ve should make sure that our learners are provided with a variety of
different kinds of readingtasks,and encouragethem explicitly to use
different strategies('Just skim through this quickly and get the main idea';
'You'll find you have to study this fairly carefully to grasp the author's
prejudices;look for ...').
A summary of the above in the form of brief practical recommendations is given
in Box 10.11.
BO X 10.11: RE GOMME NDA TIO NS
1. Make sureyour studentsget a lot of successfulreadingexperience:
through
encouraging
them to choosetheirown simplifiedreaders,for example,and giving
them time to readthem.
2. Make surethat most of the vocabularyin readingtexts is familiarto your
students,and that words that are unknowncan be eithereasilyguessedor safely
ignored.
3. Giveinterestingtasksbeforeaskinglearnersto read,so that they havea clear
purposeand motivatingchallenge.Or use texts that are interestingenoughto
orovidetheirown motivation.
4. Make surethat the tasksencourageselective,intelligentreadingfor the main
meaning,and do not just test understanding
of trivialdetails.
5. Allow,and even encourage,studentsto managewithout understanding
every
word: by the use of scanningtasks,for example,that requirethem to focuson
limiteditems of information.
6. Provideas wide a varietyof texts and tasks as you can,to give learnerspracticein
differentkindsof reading.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
1.49
10 Teaching reading
Application
look at the reading texts and tasks supplied in a foreigm la:rgruagetextbook
you know. How far do they accord with the recommendations in Box l0.l l?
Andwhat might you do to compensatefor any weaknessesyou discorrer?
Activities for more advanced readers are more sophisticated in various ways: the
texts and tasks probably approximate more closelyto the kind of texts and
tasks that people tackle in their mother-tonguereading; the tasks tend to involve
more complex thinking than mere comprehension of information; and the
activities more often involve extendedspeaking,listening and writing as well as
reading. (Note the repeateduse of the word ?nore;I am not implying that all
thesethings may not also occur in lessadvancedreading materials.)
Authenticity of text and task
'With
lessproficient learners,we usually use simplified texts in order to make
them appropriate in level for our learnersland tasks also may not representany
kind of real-life reading purpose. This is becausesuch materials on the whole
are more effectiveat earlier stagesof learning; indeed, the use of 'authentic'
texts with lessproficient learners is often frustrating and counter-productive.
However, ultimately we want our learnersto be able to cope with the same
kinds of reading that are encountered by native speakersof the tar1et language.
As they becomemore advanced,therefore, it would seemsensibleto start basing
their reading practice on a wide variety of authentic (or near-authentic)texts,
and on tasks that representthe kinds of things a reader would do with them in
real life rather than on conventional comprehensionexercises.Answering
multiple-choice questionson a poem, for example, or filling in words missing
from a letter would seema fairly irrelevant responseto thesetypes of discourse:
discussingthe interpretation of the poem or writing an answer to the letter
would be more appropriate. Obviously completely authentic performance
cannot always be provided for - we are not going to turn our classroominto a
kitchen, for example, in order to respond authentically to a recipe! - but we
can, and should, make some attempt to selecttasks that approximate to those
we might do in real life.
Beyond understanding
Our aims in (real-life) reading usually go beyond mere understanding.Ife may ,
wish to understand something in order to learn from it (in a course of study, for
example), in order to find out how to act (instructions,directions),in order to
expressan opinion about it (a letter requestingadvice),or for many other
purposes. Other piecesof writing, into which the writer has invested thought
and care (literature, for example) demand a personal responsefrom the reader
to the ideas in the text, such as interpretation, application to other contexts,
criticism or evaluation. Advanced reading activities should therefore seethe
150
Advancedreading
understandingof a text only as a preliminary step on the way to further
learning or other personalpurposes.
Combiningskills
Tasksthat are basedon more complex thinking are likely to involve a more
complex process.Also, in general,more advancedlanguagework of any kind
tends to involve longer, multi-stage activities, in order to explore to the full the
opportunities to engagewith the languagein different ways. It is thereforevery
likely that activity before,during and after the readingitself will entail extended
speaking,listeningand writing.
Task Griticizingreadingmaterials
In Boxes t 0. 12.I-5 are five examples of texts in English for intermediate to
advanced readers. The frrst three are accompanied by tasks; the last two
are not. I/Vhatwould be your comments on the first tluee? And can you
desigm Jrour own tasks for the others? Some suggested answers to these
questions appear after the boxes.
BO X 1 0 .12.1:RE A DINGTE X TA N D T A S K (1 1
EXERCISE
Choosethe best answers.
a. The Bay Window is
- abar
- a restaurant
- a theater
b. You can order dinner at the Bay
Window Restaurant
- on weeknights
-everynight
- on weekends
Live Maine Lobster / Fresh Fish
Steaks & Chops
Cocktails . Dinner Nightly
c. Bay Window Restaurant
advertises
- seafood only
- meat dishes only
-both seafoodand meat dishes
d. Bay Window Restaurantis next to
- the Paramount Theater
- the BaysideTheater
- Bay View Community College
e. Bay Window Restaurant'stelephone
number is advertised so you can
- order dinner
- arrange for parking
- make reservations
2(X0 Broadway, San Francisco
N*t
to BaysideTheter.
Rwatiqs
(415) 555-1855
(from EvelyneDavies,NormanWhitney,MeredithPike-Blakey
and LaurieBass,Iask
Reading,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,@ 1990;pp 98-9)
151
10 Teaching reading
B OX 10.12.2:RE A DINGT E X TA ND T A S K (2 )
The fiollowing excerpt is taken from Alice in Wondalznd. Thc Dodo (a kind of bird) is
suggesting a way in which the whole party, who are very wert, catr get dry. What is ridiculous
about this excerpt?
A Carcus\ace
"\7hat I was going to say," said the Dodo in an offended rone, "was that the best
thing to get us dry would be a caucusrace."
"\fhat rs a srucus race?" said Alice; not rhat she much wanted to know, but the
Dodo had paused as if it thought that somebodyought to speak, and no one else
seemedinclined to say anything.
"\7hy," said the Dodo, "the best way to explain ir is to do it." (And as you might
like to try the thing yourself, some winter day, I will tell you how the Dodo managed
it.)
First it marked out a race-course,in a sort of circle ("the exact shape doesn't
matter,' it said), and then dl the parry were placed dong the course, here and there.
There was no "One, two, three, and away," but they began running when rhey liked
and left off when they liked so that it was nor easy to know when the race was over.
However, when they had been running half an hour or so, and were quite dry again,
the Dodo suddenly called out, "The race is over!" and they all crowded round it,
panting, and asking, "But who has won?"
This question the Dodo could not
answer without a great deal of
thought, and it sat for a long time
with onefingerpressedupon its
(fromAlice in Vondzrhnd by
Leuis Canoll)
Vc all have concepts of what "a rac€" is. In what ways does rftis passagechdlenge the
usual concepts?
Look up tte word "c.rrc's" in your dictionary. In tle light of the dictionary defnition,
can you offer a deeper interpretation of the passagettan "a description of a silly game
that Wonderland characters play''?
(fromAmosParcn,Points
of Departure,lsrael:
EricCohenBooks,1993:p.74)
152
Advanced reading
BOX10.12.3:
TEXTANDTASK(3)
Writing summaries
1. Look at the following documentwhich is issuedby the MetropolitanPolice,
London. lmagine you are a Crime Preventionfficer. Wrhe down five questions
you would ask a householderabout his/herpropertyif they had askedyou for
adviceon how to beatthe burglar.
2. Work in pairs.Ask your partnerthe questionsyou preparedabout his or her
houselflat,and answer questionsabout yours.
3. Write a brief reportgiving your adviceas CrimePreventionOfficeron how you
would make your partner'shome more secureagainstburglary.
youleaueit - loclritl
When
youmouG
UUhen
hou$e......
Firstofall,fit security
lockstoalldoors
and
windows
anda safety
chainonthefrontdoor.
Secondly,
usethem!
Andusethemevery
time
yougoout,evenif it'sonlyfora shorttime.
lf youhaveanyladders
ortools,don'tleave
inthegarden,
lockthem
themlyingabout
them.
awayoratleastimmobilise
places
forkeys
Don'trelyon"safe"or"secret"
andvaluables
- ninetimesoutoften,theyare
thefirstolacea thiefwilllook.
Whenyoumoveintoa newhome,evenif it is
fittedwithsecurity
locks,
change
them.You
don'tknowwhomayhaveduplicate
keys.
youarenewtoa district,
youare
When
particularly
vulnerable.
letanyone
that
Never
youdon'tknowintoyourhouse.
Anofficiallooking
capisnotenough,
askforproofof
identity
andlookat it carefully
- if youarestill
notsatisfied,
don'tlettheperson
in.
Ualuables
need
$pccial
Frotection
Going
onholiday?
Really
valuable
items,
suchasjewellry,
protection
should
begivenspecial
preferably
byleaving
themwithyourbank.But
installed,
a smallsecurity
safe,properly
protect
youagainst
should
allbutthemost
determined
burglar.
lt isalsomostimportant
to maintain
anuD-to-date
list0f valuables
and
Inthecaseoffineart,
theirdescriptions.
paintings,
ceramics
orjewellrycolour
photographs
cansometimes
be0fassistance
youbeunfortunate
tothepolice
should
to havethemstolen.
Enter
thedetails
enough
onthebackofthepictures.
Butdon'tkeep
inyourhouse,
suchdocuments
keepthemat
thebank0rwithyourinsurance
company.
(Metropolitan
Police:
Don'tadvertise
thefactthatyourhouse
is
empty.
Doremember
tocancel
themilkand
newspapers
andalsotodrawcurtains
back.
Don'tleavenotes
fortradesmen
andtrynotto
talkaboutyourholidays
andMureplans
loudly
inpublic.
Operate
a "Good
Neighbour"
scheme
to
ensure
thatmailistakenin,thehouse
checked
regularly
andhat lightsareputon.lf
youplanto beawayfora longtime,makesure
thatyourlawniscut.
Callatyourlocalpolice
station
andtellthem
youaregoingaway.Makesurethattheyknow
whohasyoursparekeyandhowyoucanbe
contacted
incaseoftrouble.
Especially
at holiday
time,don'tleave
cash0r
inthehouse
- takethemwithyouor
valuables
lodge
themwiththebank.
Beat the Burglar)
(from SimonGreenalland MichaelSwan, Effective Beading: Skillsfor Advanced Students,
@ CambridgeUniversityPress,1986,pp J d - Y'
153
10 Teachingreading
BOX 10.12.4:TEXT(4)
Human rights for everyone
The main DeclarationofRights, coveringhumanrightsfor all people,was
proclaimedbv the United Nationsin 1948.TheUniuersal
Deckration
ofHuman
Rights,1948,hasthirty articles.Thesearesomeof the mostimportant.
All humanbeingsarebon
andrights.
:t forth in the
Everyoneis entidedto all
Declarationwithout distinctionof anykind, suchasrace,colour,sex,
language,religion, political or other opinion, nationalor socialorigin,
propefty, birth or other status.
Everyonehasthe right to life, liberry andsecuriryofperson.
No one shallbe held in slaveryor senitude.
No one shallbe subjectedto torture or to cruelty,inhumanor degrading
treatmentor ounishment.
Everyonehasthe right to recognitioneverywhereasa personbeforethe law.
No one shallbe subjectedto arbitraryarrest,detentionor exile.
Everyonechargedwith a penaloffencehasthe right
until provedguilry accordingto law in a public tri
he hashad all the zuarar
nce.
No one shallbe subjected
vith hisprivacy,family,
home or correspondence,
nor attacksupon his honour andreputation.
Everyonehasthe right to seekand to enjoy in other countriesasylumfrom
Persecutlon.
(Nan Berger,RC,htt)
(quoted
in Michael
Swan(ed.),Kaleidoscope,
University
Press,1979,pp.
@Cambridge
154-5)
BOX 10.12.5:TEXT(5)
Good marriages
ges.Secondmarriages
mosdy.Marriageswhereboth
: bullshitof me-Tarzan.vo
ry helpingeachother,bein
omeup andnot worrying
or aftera coupleof divorc,
fallsawayan,
the nonsense
you're going to die anyway.
ove one anotherbecause
(EricaJong,
FearoJFlying)
(quoted
in Michael
Swanled.l,Kaleidoscope,
Press,1979,p. 71.)
@Cambridge
University
Commentson the materialin Boxes10.12.1-5
Textandtask 1
This is an authenticJooking
text,madeaccessible
to not very advancedlearners
by its shortness,
supportinggraphicdevices(differenttypefaces,
illustration),
and carefullyfocussed
followingquestions.
Note that thesequestionsdo not
just test'technical'comprehension
of content:theyelicitthe kind of information
that a readerof the advertisement
looking for somewhereto eatmight really
154
Advancedreading
want to know. Not all the text needsto be readand understoodby the readerin
order to answerthe questions,which requireselectivescanning- again,the way
one would approachsucha text in real life. This sort of exerciseis a good
introduction to more advancedauthenticreadingtasksusingunsimplifiedtexts.
Textandtask2
Thisis an excerptfrom a classicof children's
literature,publishedandreadin
rn manyparts
many par[s or
translation
rransralronln
of tne
theworld:many
worlq: many students
stuoentsmay therefore
tnerelorealreao)
abeady
know thestory.Thereis a specialkind of extrainrerestin readinga text like
this: it is familiar,yet seenfrom a new angle- and thereis the satisfactionof
knowing that you are readingit in its original form; it is authenticunsimplified
writing, yet not too difficult; and studentsare ableto apply previousknowledge
while reapingthe benefitfrom the readingof a 'new'passage.
Thereis alsothe
sheerliterary value:plenty to talk about and enjoy beyondthe mere
I
'
f '
a
comprenenslon
oI lnlormanon.
Thetasksareappropriate
to thiskind of text:thepre-reading
taskdirects
attentionto the absurdityof the racedescribed;
and the followingquestiongoes
moredeeplyinto the sameissue,invitinganalysisand applicarionto otherlife
situations.Note that thereareno 'comprehension
questions'assuch(compare
this to the previousexample),but ratheran invitationto considerthe storyasa
whole,and go straightinto written or oral discussion
of its eventsand ideas.
Learnersare,indeed,directedto look up a word: but it is clearthat,thisis not
for the sakeof readingcomprehension
assuch(thechildrenfor whom the book
waswritten weresurelynot expectedto know what the word means),but asa
way into anotheranglefrom which to considerand analysewhat the writer
might be gettingat.
A sidebenefitof usingsuchtextsis that theymay stimulatestudentsto go on
and readmoreof the originalfrom whichthe excerptwastaken.
Text andtask3
The learneris askedto read,pick out particulartypesof information,draw
conclusions
and formulatewritten questions:
thesearethenusedasa basisfor
interview-typediscussionand further writing. This is a relativelylengthy,multistageactivitS involving analytic and logical thought and extendedspeakingand
writing aswell asthe basicreading.The task aswell asthe text hasan authentic
flavour,in the senseof beingbasedon an imaginablereal-lifesituation.
The directiveto'write down fivequestions'isperhapsdisproportionately
limiting,considering
the lengthand amountof variedinformationin the text.
Alternativesmight be:.Writeat leastfivequestions'or .Writeasmanyquestions
asyou canin fifteenminutes'.
Text 4
The text setsforth a seriesof principles,which arepresented
in a format similarto
that of laws.It would makesensethereforeto studythemasif thevwerea seriesof
lawsandconsiderquestionssuchasthefollowing,throughdiscussionand/orwriting:
what eachitemis sayingthat you canor
- Canyou definein simplelanguage
cannotdo?
othersimilaritems?
- Canyou suggest
155
10 Teaching reading
- Can you suggestexamplesfrom your own knowledgeof caseswhere one or
more of them have beenviolated?Or maintained?
- Chooseone which seemsto you difficult to implement in practice.'Whatare
the difficulties, and how might they be overcome?
- Can you think of any circumstanceswhere you would think it right to
disobeyany of them?
- Can you suggesta seriesof perhapsmore detailedrights that would be
appropriate for your own particular community or institution?
Text 5
This passageis expressingan opinion about marriage- specifically'good
marriages'.Thus an appropriate responsemight be a reasoned,critical
expressionof a counter-opinionon the part of the reader.Having made sure my
classunderstoodexactly what kind of 'good marriage' Erica Jong is in fact
describing(mature,relaxed,etc.),I might,invite studentsto exchangedifferent
points of view in open discussion:in what ways do they agreeor disagreewith
the ideas put forward here, and can they support their ideas with examples,
anecdotes,quotes. A good summing-up activity might be a piece of writing, of
similar length to the original, expressingthe individual student'snotion of what
a good marriage is.
Notes
Beg i n n i n g -of- rea d i n g wo rkcard s an d wo rksh e ets
The workcards and worksheetsshown on this and the next page are designed
for beginnerlearnersof Englishwho are learning the Roman alphabetfor the
first time. They implement the suggestionsgiven in the last sectionof Unit Two,
and can be usedas self-access
tasks,or as a basisfor class-or homework. Note
that they are presentedhere as illustrations of tasksfor the teachingof reading,
but in f.act many of them are also directed at the learning of writing. They can
be made specifically reading-oriented by changing the 'copy' instructions to
'circle', 'mark' or 'delete'.
Each 'set' showstwo samplesof tasks,which are modelsfor a whole set of
similar short worksheetsor cards;eachsuchset may serveas the basisfor a
reading/writing practice session.The instructions, given here for the reader's
conveniencein English,would in the original have beengiven in the learners'
mother tongue.
Set one
TASK 1
T A S K2
Draw lineslinkingthe Englishletterwith the
Russianone which soundsthe same.
Draw lineslinkingsmallwith capitalletters.
a E
156
D
Y
T
Notes
Set two
TASK 1
Whichletterbeginswhichword?Writethetwo formsof the letterunderthepicture.
EpDtpcdeHCTh
V7\
Mq\
f,T\
W )x
l;filffil {M'
Gt
fii\
})A-
13, r>
Y*{(
)}"d
_A
V
/
4 an\
llf { ))
nv
TASK 2
Undereachpictureis a set of letters.Crossout the lettersthat you can'thearwhen you saythe word.
F,Arl4
Z,F
r/v!tt\
C, A , D, H, K , M, N
s,b,m,n,i,d
Set three
TASK 1
Fromthe extractfrom the
newspaperalongside,
copy
out (andtranslate)
any words
that you can readand
understand.
Set four
TASK 1
T A S K2
Copyout words that arethe namesof animals.
Whichwords go togther?
Copyout the words in pairs.
head
pendil
table
man
up
hand
woman
foot
chair
Set five
TASK 1
Copyout onlythe sentencesthat are
relevantto the picture.
'1. Thereis a tablehere.
2. fhey are underthe tree.
3. Theyare not happy
4 Theyare eating.
5 Th e yar edr ink ing.
1,57
10 Teaching reading
More detailson the useof workcardsandworksheets
canbe foundin
Module t3 Materials.
Further reading
BACKGROUND
Alderson,J. C. and Urquhart, A. H. (eds.)(7984) Readingin a Foreign
Language,London: Longman.
(Articles on researchon various aspectsof foreign languagereading,with
critical discussionby editors)
Carrell, P. L., Devine,J. and EskeSD. E. (eds.)(1988) lnteractiueApproaches
to SecondLanguage Reading, Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press.
(An interestingcollection of articleson researchand underlying theory on
reading as interaction with text in a secondor foreign language)
Hyland, K. (1990) 'Purposeand strategy:teachingextensivereading skills',
English Teaching Forum, 28, 2,'1,4-1,7
.
(A brief but comprehensivediscussionof different reading strategies,with
suggestionsfor teachingthem)
Smith, F. (19781Reading,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversiry Press.
(A very lively and readable,sometimesprovocative,introduction to the topic
of learning to read in the first or secondlanguage)
\Tilliams, R. (1986) "'Top ten" principlesfor teachingreading', ELT Journal,
40,1,42-5.
(Brief, readablesummary of someimportant guidelines)
TEACHER' S HANDBO O KS
Greenwood,J. (1988) ClassReaders,Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(A collection of activitiesto use before,during and after reading a book or
story with a class)
Grellet, F. (1981) DeuelopingReading Skills,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press.
(Analysisof reading skills, suggestedactivitiesthat give practicein them;
guidelinesand plenty of examples)
Nuttall, C. (1983) TeachingReading Skillsin a Foreign Language,London:
Heinemann.
(A thorough and sensibleintroduction to the subject;plenty of practical
teachingsuggestions,with underlying rationale)
'Wallace, (1,992)
C.
Reading,Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(An analysisof learner activity and task design,including tasksfor the
(teacher)reader,mainly basedon materialsfor advancedlanguagelearners)
V/illiams, E. (1984) Readingin the LanguageClassroom,Lond,on:Macmillan.
(A fairly brief, clearly written summary of the topic)
158
writing
Module11:Teaching
No/e: This module doesnot deal with the very early stagesof teachingto read
and write a foreign alphabet; for this topic, seeModule 10 Teacbing reading,
Unit Two.
Unit One: Written versus spoken text
One of the reasonsthat teachingwriting is so different from teachingspeechis
that the fwo types of discoursediffer in some basic characteristics.This unit
studies some of thesedifferences,and their implications for teaching. If you do
not wish to do the task, look at Box Lt.1., and then go straight on to the
D ifferencessection below.
Task Defining the differences between spoken and written
discourse
StageI : Listingdifferences
Can you define and note dovrn some of the differences between spoken
and written discourse? These may refer to vocabulary, style, grammar,
content, the activity of the producers and receivers of the different kinds of
discourse - anything you can think of. It may help to look at the samples of
speech and writing shovwtin Box I l.I.
Do not go on to Stage 2 until you have done thisStage 2: expanding
Nornrcompare ]rour list of differences with mine as given below. Check if
there are items in my list that are missing in yours, and vice versa. Putting
the two together, you should have a fairly comprehensive comparison.
Differences between written and spoken discourse
(The following are somegeneralizations,to which there are certain exceptions:
seethe Notes, (1).)
1. Permanence
tU7rittendiscourseis fixed and stableso the readingcan be done at whatever
time, speedand level of thoroughnessthe individual readerwishes.Spokentext
L59
11 Teaching writing
B OX 11.1: S A MP LE SOF WRI T T E NA ND S P O K E NT E X T S
The written text (refersto a diagramof a cassette recorderwith different
componentsnumbered)
- F o r re c o rd i n gfro m th e bui l t-i nmi crophoneensurethat no equi pmenti s
connectedto socket(1)
- For other recordingsconnectthe separatemicrophoneor the equipmentfrom
which you wish to recordto socket(11)
- Inserta cassette
- Pressrecord(2)and startkey (4)at the sametime
- To stop,pressstop key (6)
The spoken text
M a ri o n : C o u l dy o u e x p l a i nto me how to make a recordi ngw i th thi s cassette
recorder?
(ed Yes certainly.(um) Firstof all you (er}sp"n the (er)placewhere the
Ron:
cassettegoes, press down the button markedeject, then you put the
cassettein and close the lid. (um)Then (um) to recordyou have to press
(ed the one markedrec for recordand the
down two buttonssimultaneously
one markedstart.So you pressthosetwo down likethatMarion: Uhuh
...
Ron:
and it startsrecording(er)automatically
not the
Marion: Ummm.And what if I want to recordwith a differentmicrophone,
built-inone here?
There'sa, a place,a sockethereRon:
Marion: Oh yes
Ron:
on the bottom left, and you can put an outsidemicrophoneinto that and
recordfrom anothersource.
(from RonaldV. While, TeachingWritten English,Heinemann EducationalBooks, 1980,
pp 11-12)
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
in contrast is fleeting, and moves on in real time. The listener - though he or she
may occasionally interrupt to request clarification - must in general follow what
is said at the speedset by the speaker.
2. Explicitness
The written text is explicit; it has to make clear the context and all references.
The wrimen text in Box 11.1, for example, is apparently clarified by a diagram
with numbered items.In speech,however,the real-time situation and
knowledge shared between speaker and listener means that some information
can be assumedand need not be made explicit: in Box 11.1, what is referred to
by words like this and here is apparently clear to both speaker and hearer.
3. Density
The content is presentedmuch more densely in writing. In speech,the
information is 'diluted' and conveyed through many more words: there are a lot
of repetitions, glosses,'fillers', producing a text that is noticeably longer and
with more redundant passages.
r60
Written versus spoken text
4. Detachment
The writing of a text is detached in time and spacefrom its reading; the writer
normally works alone, and may not be acquaintedwith his or her readers.
Speakingusually takes place in immediateinteraction with known listeners,
with the availability of immediatefeedback.
5. Organization
A written text is usually organized and carefully formulated, since its composer
has time and opportunity to edit it before making it available for reading. A
speakeris improvising as he or shespeaks:ongoing alterations,in the shapeof
glosses,self-corrections and so on produce an apparently disorganized 'streamkind of discourse.Thus a written text conforms more to
of-consciousness'
conventionalrules of grammar,and its vocabulary is more preciseand formal.
6. Slowness of production, speed of reception
'Writing
is much slower than speaking. On the other hand, we can usually read a
piece of text and understand it much faster than we can take in the sametext if
we listen while someonereadsit aloud to us.
7. Standard language
'Writing
normally usesa generally acceptablestandard variety of the language,
whereasspeechmay sometimesbe in a regional or other limited-context dialect.
In somelanguages(Chinese,for example),the various spoken dialectsmay even
be mutually incomprehensible, while the written language is universally
understood.
8. A learnt skill
Most peopleacquire the spoken language(at leastof their own mother tongue)
intuitivelg whereas the written form is in most casesdeliberately taught and
learned.
9. Sheer amount and importance
Spoken texts are far longer, normally (in the sensethat they contain more
words), than a representationof the sameinformation in writing; this is largely
becauseof the phenomenoncalled 'redundancy',discussedin (3) above and in
Module 8: Teaching listening, Unit One. It is also, I think, true to say that most
people speakfar more than they write. Associatedwith this point is a third: that
speechis more important for survival and effective functioning in society than
writing is.
Question
Hour far would you thinl< it necessary or useful to make your o\,\rn- present
or prospective - students aware of some or all of these points? (My answer
to thisis givenintheNotes, (2).)
167
11 Teaching writing
Unit Two: Teaching procedures
This unit is basedon the assumptionthat the objectiveof the teachingof writing
in a foreign languageis to get learnersto acquirethe abilities and skills they
need to produce a range of different kinds of written texts similar to thosean
educatedperson would be expectedto be able to produce in their own
language.If the objectivesin your teachingsituation, or as expressedin your
syllabus, are different (to pass a certain exam, for example, or to write specific
kinds of texts), it is worth taking a moment to define what they are; you may
find that you needto adapt someof the material in this unit.
Some of the characteristicsof written texts in general were considered in Unit
One; this unit studiesthe objectivesand content of textbook proceduresthat
teachwriting: what is, or should be, their contenr?'Weshall look at some
writing tasks and examine what each in fact does for the learner. First, does it
really teachwriting, or just usewriting as a meansto teachsomeother aspectof
language(grammar,for example)?Second,if it doesfocus on writing itself,
what sort of a balancedoesit maintain between'micro' aspects(spelling,
punctuation, etc.) and'macro' (content,organization)?
Writing as a meansor as an end
1. As a means
Vriting is widely usedwithin foreign languagecoursesas a convenientmeans
for engagingwith aspectsof language other than the writing itself. For example:
learnersnote down new vocabulary;copy out grammar rules;write out answers
to reading or listeningcomprehensionquestions;do written tests.In these
examples,writing is simply used either as a means of getting the students to
attend to and practisea particular languagepoint, or - evenmore frequentlyas a convenientmethod of testing it: providing information as to how well
somethinghas beenlearnedin a form which the teachercan then check at his or
her leisure.
2. As an end
Other activitiestake as their main objectivethe writing itself. At the 'micro'
level they practise specificwritten forms at the level of word or sentence
(handwriting or typing, spelling,punctuarion); at the 'macro' level the emphasis
is on content and organization tasks invite learners to expressthemselvesusing
their own words, state a purpose for writing, and often specify an audience.
Examples of such activities would be: narrating a story, writing a letter.
3. As both means and end
A third kind of activity combines purposeful and original writing with the
learning or practice of someother skill or content. For example,a wriffen
responseto the reading of a controversialnewspaperarticle (combineswriting
with reading);the writing of anecdotesto illustrate the meaningof idioms
(combineswriting with vocabulary practice).
762
Teachingprocedures
Task Glassifyingwitingactivities
In Box I I.2 are a series of instructions introducing 'writing' activities in
textbooks. Where would you put each on the scale shovynhere?
WXIIINGASAN
END INITSEI,F
WRITINGAS
ME,ANSAITDH\ID
I
WRMNGAS
AMEANS
I
I
Seethe Notes, (3) for my ovvnsuggestedclassifrcation.
BOX 11 .2: INS TRUCTIONS
FORWRI T I NGA CT I V I T I E S
A. The sentencesin the followingparagraph
havebeenjumbled.Write them out in
the correctorder.
word clear.For
B. Finishthe followingsentencesin a way that makesthe underlined
exampre:
An expertis someonewho . ..
C. The followingstoryis written in the presenttense.Rewriteit in the past.
D. We havecome to an excitingpointin the story.Write down what you thinkwill
happennext,and why.
E. Fora surveyon childeducationin this country:couldyou pleasestateyour maln
criticismsof the way you were broughtup?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Writing for contentand/or form
The purposeof writing, in principle, is the expressionof ideas,the conveyingof
a messageto the reader;so the ideasthemselvesshould arguably be seenas the
most important aspectof the writing. On the other hand, the writer needsalso
to pay someattention to formal aspects:neat handwriting, correct spellingand
punctuation, as well as acceptablegrammar and careful selection of vocabulary.
This is becausemuch higher standards of languageare normally demandedin
writing than in speech:more careful constructions, more preciseand varied
vocabulary,more correctnessof expressionin general.Also, the slow and
reflectivenature of the processof writing in itself enablesthe writer to devote
time and attention to formal aspectsduring the processof production sombthingit is difficult to demand in the courseof the real-time flow of speech.
One of our problems in teachingwriting is to maintain a fair balancebetween
u7hat this 'fair
content and form when defining our requirementsand assessing.
balance'is depends,of course,to someextent on your own teachingsituation
and opinion.
Application
Look at a textbook you kno,r, or a book that e:rplicitly sets out to teach
writing, and identify two or three activities that do, in your opinion, really
teach writing as an 'end' not just as a 'mears', as defined in the first part of
this unit. Do these activities maintain a balance between content and form
that seems to you appropriate for your own teaching situation? If there is a
bias, whichway does it tend?
r63
11 Teaching writing
7. Describesomeone
Fairlyeasyto do, and straightforward
to present;canbeinterestingboth to
write andread.
8. Describe people
Of about the samelevel as (7); can also be interesting, becauseof the stimulus to
the imagination - but of coursedemandsmore preparation.
9. Answer a letter
Usually a highly motivating task, fairly advanced,with a clear audienceand
purpose.As it stands,you needto preparethe original letter; an alternativeis to
ask all the studentsto write lettersof complaint, and later answereachother's
letters.Somepre-teachingof conventionalletter formalities and layout in the
target languageis necessary.
10.Job application
Again, some conventions about letters like this will need to be taught, and
perhapssomedetailsabout the exact job being applied fbr.
11,Proposechange
Advancedwriting, involving the organizedand convincingpresentationof an
argument.You may or may not feel it necessaryto read a similar pieceof
writing with the studentsin advance,to supply a model.
12. News report
This is clear 'model-imitation' writing, which is perhaps useful, but not very
interestingto do. It may be more interestingif it is a report of a genuinelocal
event. In preparation, you may need to draw learners' attention to the typical
featuresof this genreof written discourse.
13. ldeal school
A task which is interestingand relevantfor schoolchildren.Little preparation is
necessary,
apart from, perhaps,somepreliminary brainstorming of the kinds of
topics they may wish to include.
14. Describe process
A more sophisticatedtask, requiring preciseand orderly representationof facts:
suitable particularly for learners in scienceor technology.
15. Film music
A stimulating, fun task for imaginativestudents,but it may take time to select
and preparea suitablepieceof music.
166
The process of composition
Unit Four: The process of composition
'S7hen
we are teaching advancedcomposition, it is sometimesdifficult to decide
what kind of teacherintervention can be most productive. One thing that can
help is to study how peoplewrite: how a writer thinks, feelsand acts at rhe
various stagesof composinga text.
Experience The writing process
StageI:Writing
Choose one of the two problems described in Box I 1.5, and compose a
written answer in the form of a short text of about 200-300 words. Do this on
paper, not on a word processor, crossing out rather than erasing parts ynou
wish to delete, so that aUversions of the draft ale preserved, thoughyou
may start a new version on a fresh piece of paper as often as you like. As
you compose your answer, try to be aware of hoiuyou are thinking andwhat
you are doing. You may keep a piece of paper at your elbor to note dovyn
things that you notice about ]rour oJvnthinking and action, as they come up;
or describe your thoughts into a cassette recorder as you write; or simply
keep notes in your head, and write do.nrnwhat you remember as soon as
you finish the composition process. (My oivn responses to the problems
themselves are given at the end of this unit.)
BOX 11.5: P ROB LE MS
TO RE S P O ND
T O lN WRI T I NG
Problem 1
lf the immediateobiectiveof the studentsin a specificclassis to pass
a school-leaving
examwhich does not includeany extendedwriting,and if after
leavingschoolveryfew of them will needto do muchwritingin the foreignlanguage
- how muchwritingshouldbe taught,if any?
Problem2
lf not-very-proficient
studentsare askedto write freely,they producework that is full
of languagemistakes.What shouldbe doneaboutthis?Not let them write freely?
Not correctmistakes?...
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Stage 2: Reflection
If you are in a €lroup, compare your results with those of other participants.
\Mhat were the similarities and differences in ynor:rwriting process? If you
are alone, reflect and note dorrn your conclusions.
In either case, Jroumight find the questions shovynin Box 1I.6 help to
focus your thinking.
1,67
11 Teaching writing
B OX 11.6: RE FLE CTI NG
O N T HEWRI T I NGP RO CE S S
1. Preparation
Did you makepreliminary
notes?lf so, were these in the form of a brainstorm?
A
seriesof numberedpoints?A skeletonoutline?A combinationof these?Or did you
just thinkfor a bit andthen launchstraightintothe writing?
2. Process
How far did you get without crossingout / inserting/ changinganything?In general,
how much rewritingdid you do? Didyou finishone partto yourown satisfaction
beforegoingon to the next?Or did you find yourselfwritinga laterpart,conscious
that you had not yet donean earlierone?Did you find yourselfwritingsomething
that you felt was not quite satisfactory,with a mental note to come backto it later?
Did you changethe orderof 'chunks'of writingas you went on?At what stagedid
you edit formalaspectssuchas punctuation
or grammar?
How did you feel duringthe writingprocess?Was it interesting?
Absorbing?
Tedious?Enjoyable?
Uncomfortable?
Wouldyou havelikedhelpor advicefrom an experienced
writer,or teacher,at any
stage?lf so, when and how?
3. Product
lf you made preliminary
notes,how closelydid the finalresultin fact accordwith the
plan?How satisfieddid you feel with it? Didyou feel you wishedsomeoneto read
it? Were you interestedin readingwhat othershadwritten on the sametopic?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
If you are interestedin reading my own introspectiveresponsesto someof the
above questions,seethe Notes, (4).
Stage 3: Conclusion
Try to draw some practical teaching conclusions from the results of your
introspection and discussion. Compare these with the suggestions in the
folloring section. Would you agEee with them?
The writing process:Summary and implications for teaching
1. Individuals vary. Different writers may produce equally good resultsthrough
widely different processes.This meansthat there is probably no one 'right'
systemof writing that we should recommend; rather, we should suggestand
make availablevarious possiblestraregies,encouragingindividuals to
experiment and searchfor one that is personally effective.
2.'Writing is a messybusiness.Most peopleprogressthrough a number of
untidy drafts before reaching a final version. Nor do they always follow what
might seema rational order of priority: it is true that on the whole good
writers think about content first and form later, but this order is not
consistentlyobserved.Actual content may be alteredat quite late stagesin the
drafting, and changesto sentenceor paragraph organization relatively early.
So while it may be useful to adviselearnersnot to worry too much about
spelling and grammar at the beginning, and to get down their ideas first, it
may not be wise to try to imposethis as a rigid rule. More helpful, perhaps,is
168
Theprocessof composition
to encouragelearners to work through a number of revisions; to accept messy
drafts as a positive, evenessential,stagein writing; to treat early drafts as
transition stagesto be criticized but not formally assessed.
3.'Writing is potentially satisfying.If you are writing on a topic about which
you feel you have something worthwhile or interesting to say,the processof
writing can be absorbingand enjoyable;and if it is worked through to a final
product, most people feel pride in their work and want it to be read. It is
thereforeworth investingthought in the selectionof topics and tasksthat
motivate learners to write; and extremely important to provide an
appreciativereader audience,whether teacheror co-learners.
4. You learn to write through writing. This may seemobvious - the samecan be
said of all the other skills - neverthelessit needsto be emphasized.Reading,
of course,helps, sinceit familiarizeslearnerswith the conventionsgoverning
various kinds of texts and in general improves their language, but it is not
enough, and is no substitutefor hands-onwriting experience.One of our
main tasks then, as teachers,is to get our studentsto write a lot, thinking as
they do so and learning from their own writing experience.
Postscript: The p robl ems th emselves
The 'problems' usedin Box 11.5 as a basisfor writing are of coursegenuine
ones; here are some of my own thoughts on them.
Problem 1
'$fith
a classsuch as that describedhere I would do lesswriting than with other
classes,but I would still do some,for two main reasons.First, neither we nor
our studentscan be quite sure about the future, and someof the studentsmight
find themselvesin a situation where they do needto write. Second,I believethat
learning how to write effectivelyhas value in itself as part of the long-term
educationprocess,and should not be evaluatedonly on whether it is
immediatelyprofitable or not.
Problem 2
The two suggestionsat the end of this 'problem' can both contribute to solving
it.'We can certainly decideto correct only the more basicor seriousmistakesin
order to lessenthe discouragingeffect of too many corrections.And we can
partially control student writing by, for example, giving a pafi of what they are to
write ready-formulatedin advance;or by prescribingcertain limits or frameworks.
But to over-control writing so that there are few or no mistakes would, I feel,
be a pity; students should have opportunities to spread their wings and be
ambitious. Our responsesto free writing, evenif this is full of mistakes,can
mitigate discouragementand encouragelearning:we can, for example,draw
students' attention in our feedback to things they have got right as well as
things they have got wrong; and we can even explain frankly that writing-withmistakes is not something to be ashamedof but rather a helpful and important
stagein learning - which it is.
769
11 Teachingwriting
This unit describesvarious problems associatedwith the giving of feedback on
original writing in the foreign language,and gives some advice as to how to deal
with them. This advice is to be related to critically as suggestedin the
Discussiontask below.
Task Griticaldiscussion
After readingeachsectionthink or discuss:hornrfar do you agreewith the
advice?Wonldyou (or do you)usetherecommendedfeedbackstrategies?
1. Whatshould feedbackbe mainly on: language?content?
organization?
The problem
'S7hen
a student submits a piece of original writing, the most important thing
about it is, arguably its content: whether the ideas or eventsthat are wriffen
about are significant and interesting. Then there is the organization and
presentation: whether the ideas are arr^n9ed in a way that is easy to follow
and pleasingto read. Finally, there is the question of languageforms: whether
the grammar, vocabulary,spelling and punctuation is of an acceptablestandard
of accuracy.
Many teachersare aware that content and organization are important, but
find themselvesrelating mainly to languageforms in their feedback, conveying
the implicit messagethat theseare what matters. This is for various reasons:
L. Mistakes in spellingor grammar catch the eyeand seemto demandto be
correctedl they are very difficult to ignore.
2. Studentsalso want their languagemistakesto be corrected.(Ask them! And
seeLeki, 1991.)
3. Languagemistakesare far more easilyand quickly diagnosedand corrected
than onesof content and organization.
Advice
\7e should, I think, correct languagemistakes; our problem is how to do so
without conveying the messagethat theseare the only, or main, basisfor
evaluation of a piece of writing. One possibility is to note corrections within the
body of the text, and devote comments at the end to matters of content and
organization, followed by the evaluation. Alternatively, we may correct mistakes
and make suggestionsas to content and organization, but not evaluate;and give
the evaluation only on the basisof the rewritten, polished version.
2. Should all mistakesbe corrected?
The problem
If we acceptthat language (including puncfuation) should be corrected, another
problem arises:should alllanguage mistakes be noted, even if there are so many
170
Giving feedbackon writing
that the pagewill be coveredwith corrections?If not, how do we judge which
to relate to and which not?
Advice
The problem is one of potential conflict between two of our funcrions as
teachers:languageinstruction versussupport and encouragementof learning.
The correcting of mistakesis part of the languageinstruction, but too much of
it can be discouragingand demoralizing. Also, over-emphasison language
mistakescan distract both learners'and teachers'attention from the equally
important aspectsof content and organizatlon.
Some kind of compromise is obviously called for, which will vary according
to context. In principle, it would seemreasonableto say that languagemistakes
should be ignored if there is a danger that to correct them would hinder
learning more than help it. V/e might correct only mistakes that actually affect
meaning (that is, might lead to misunderstandingor confusion on the part of
the reader),and/or those which arcvery basic; or, of coursqvary our response
according to individual need.
3. Should learnersrewrite, incorporatingcorrections?
The problem
'Sfhen
we receive written work, we normally correct and comment on it and
give it back. The question is whether to insist on the students rewriting the
compositions, incorporating our suggestionsfor improvements.This can be
tedious, and studentsdo not like doing it; on the other hand, it does probably
help to reinforce learning of the correct forms.
Advice
I think rewriting is very important: not only becauseit reinforces learning, but
also becauserewriting is an integral part of the writing processas a whole.
However, if we demand rewriting on the part of the students, they have a right
to demand from us that we reread - and value - what they have done. It makes
senseto seethe first version as provisional, and to regard the rewritten, final
version as 'the' assignment,the one that is submitted for formal assessment.
This helps to motivate learners to rewrite and to appreciate the value of doing
so.
4. Should we let students correct or give feedbackon each
other's written work?
The problem
Correcting written work is very time-consuming, particularly if we have large
classes.One possiblesolution is to let studentscorrect and edit each other's
writing. They may not be able to seeor define all the good qualities or
shortcomingsof an assignment,but they will detect at least some of them. The
problem is: will studentsfeel uncomfortable correcting, or being correctedb5
their peers?Ifill they acceptcriticism (positive or negative)from each other?
t77
11 Teaching writing
Advice
In general,yes,peer-correctioncan be a time-savingand useful technique;also,
critical reading for style, content and language accuracy is a valuable exercisein
itself. This doesnot releaseus from the duty of checkingand evaluatingstudent
writing; but it can be a substitute for fust-draft reading. Studentscan work
together on their first drafts, giving each other feedback on content, language
and organization; they then rewrite and give in the final version to the teacher.
The question of personal relationships, trust and willingness to accept
criticism and help from one another remains. This is not a problem that can be
solved by particular teachingtechniques;it dependson the generalclassroom
climate, which in its turn is created by the attitudes of both students and
teachers.
Notes
(1)Differencesbetweenwritten and spokendiscourse
The essentialdifferenceis, strictly speaking,betweenformal, detacheddiscourse
and informal, interactive discourse:usually, it is true, the first is writing and the
secondspeech,but not always.For example,passingnotes betweenparticipants
during a meeting or lecture is writing but displays many of the characteristicsof
informal speechas describedin this unit; and the reading of a paper at a
conference,a news broadcast,a poetry recitation, are instancesof speechwith
many of the characteristicsof formal writing. This has led somewriters to
prefer to distinguishbefween'autonomous' (usuallycorrespondingto formal
written) versus'non-autonomous'(usuallycorrespondingto informal spoken)
prose (seeTannen, 1982).In rare caseswe may evenfind mixed genresin either
writing or speech:informal, non-interactive(a comic monologue),or formal,
play). However, in the vast majority of casesthe
interactive(a Shakespeare
differencesare, as suggestedin this unit, applicableto writing as opposedto
speechand as such,I think, provide helpful terms of referencefor teaching.
(2) Should studentsbe aware of the differences?
More advanced,adult students- particularly thosewho are studying the
Ianguagefor academicor businesspurposesand may needto do extensive
writing themselves- may well benefit from a formal presentation of such
information. Other learners may simply be made aware of differencesat the
level of individual languageitem: that colloquial expressions,such as cop or
glitzy, are not usually usedin writing; that contractionssuch as don't and he's
are usually written out in full, and so on.
t72
Furtherreading
(3)Suggestedsolutionto'Classifyingwriting exercises'task
WRIIINGAS
MEANSANDEI{D
WRIIINGASAN
EiID INMSEIF
D
WRIITNGAS
AMEANS
A
c
(A) is essentially
it provideslittle practicein writing
readingcomprehension;
which alsorequiresbrief
beyondthe copying.(B)is a vocabularyexercise
of presenttenses
creativewriting. (C) is a grammarexercise(transformation
into a story.(D) involvesa combinationof reading
into pasts),contextualized
and writing. (E) is clearlya writing activity.
(4) Writing:My own compositionprocess
Preparation
I think for a while, makeverybrief noteson a slip of paperin no particular
order,andthenlaunchstraightinto the writing, orderingand organizingasI go.
Process
I get nowherewithout deletingor changing;do so constantly,asI write, and
rereadings.
I frequentlyleavean unsatisfactory
thenagainduringsubsequent
write later sectionsbeforeearlier
sectionand comebackto it later;deliberately
I edit both form and contentthroughoutthe
ones;changethe orderof sections.
writing process,includingspelling,punctuationand typingerrors,thoughthe
changingwords,
on'micro'-aspects:
usuallyconcentrate
final editingsessions
lettersandpunctuationmarksratherthan wholesections.
from
I find writing absorbingand satisfying;oftenI getmoresatisfaction
rewritingandpolishingthan from the initial composition.Commentsand
readersduringrewritingare
from critical,knowledgeable
suggestions
painfulat first,but eventuallyveryhelpful,in somecasesessential.
sometimes
Produst
The final resultis oftenquitedifferentfrom the originalconception,but usually
I feelpridein it, andwant peopleto readit. I like readingwhat othershave
written on the sametopic, and am interestedin hearingtheir reactionsto my
wrltlng.
Furtherreading
BACKGROUND
I. andYalden,
Freedman,
A., Pringle,
J. (eds.)(1983)Learningto Write: First
Language,London:Longman.
LanguagelSecond
(A seriesof articleson variousaspects
of learningto write: accountsof
research,
discussions
of problems)
'Writing,
(1988)
Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.
Hedge,T.
(A summaryof somemainissues,
of theteachingof
followedby discussion
varioustypesandlevelsof writing,with plentyof illustrativetasks)
t73
11 Teaching writing
Kroll, B. (ed.) (1990) SecondLanguageWriting, Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press.
(A collection of research-based
articles:relatesmainly to writing done by
fairly advancedadult learners)
Leki, I. (199I)'Teaching secondlanguagewriting; where we seemto be',
English TeachingForum, 29 , 2, 8-1.1.,26.
(A brief, readableoverview of issuesin the teachingof writing)
Smith, F. (1982) Writing and the'Writer, London: Heinemann.
(On the processof (first-language)writing in general;informal, readable)
Tannen,D. (1,982)'Oral and literate strategiesin spokenand written narrative',
Language58,1.,1.:21.
(On the differencesbetween'autonomous'and'non-autonomous'text. as
distinct from the written/spokendichotomy)
TEACHER' S HANDBO O KS
Byrne, D. (1988) Teaching'Writing Skills(2nd edn.), London: Longman.
(A guide to teachingwriting from early to advancedstages;plenty of practical
teachingideas)
Raimes,A. (1983) TechniquesinTeaching'Writing, Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
(A simple exposition of a number of varied techniques,mainly focusseson
production of acceptablewritten languageforms)
White, R. V. (1980) TeachingWritten English, London: Heinemann
Educational Books.
(A readable,not too long introduction to the basicsof the topic)
lfhite, R. V. and Arndt, V. (1992) ProcessWriting, London: Longman.
(Discussesvarious strategiesand techniquesusedduring the writing process,
and suggestsappropriate teachingprocedures)
L74
The content of languagecoursesmay be divided into fwo components:the
languageitself (its pronunciation, grammar,how to read it, etc.), and the ideas,
or subjectmatter which the languageis usedto express.Part IV dealsmainly
with the organizationof this content within languagecourses,and a
preliminary questionwhich obviously needsto be askedis: why is such
organizationnecessaryin the first place?The answerto this question as stated
below recapssomepoints made earlier,in the introduction to Part Il: Teaching
the language(1): The'what'.
In the context of 'natural' or 'immersion' learning learnershave almost
unlimited exposureto random samplesof the language,often one-to-one
'teaching' and high motivation to learn in order to survive.Under such
conditions there is little necessity- or indeedopportunity - to order or organize
languagecontent. In formal languagecourses,however,theseconditions do not
obtain, and thereforewe needto do all we can to make the limited language
content availableas 'learnable' as possible.One way we can do this is by
analysingthe language,breaking it up into segmentsand ordering the segments
into a sequenceof gradually increasingdifficulty. The objectiveis that any text
or task learnersare askedto engagewith (a readingpassage,a discussion
activity, an isolatedword) should be accessibleand contribute to learning at a
level 'right' for that learnerl and that the whole seriesof such segmentsshould
come togetherin a rational and convenientprogression.
The first two modulesof Part fV are concernedwith this kind of organization
of languagecontent. Module 12 dealswith the syllabus:an overall specification
or programme of what is to be learned(or at leasttaught) in a particular course
or seriesof courses;and Module 13 dealswith materials:textbooks, audio
computer programmesand so on, through which the content is
cassettes,
'packaged'into setsof learning texts and tasks.
The learning of languagecontent may be the main goal of a course,but
languageitself is not, ultimately, a goal;it is normally a means:specificallya
Thus Module 14 dealswith the subject
meansof communicatingmessages.
matter that is communicated: the ideas or information whose expressionmay
furnish a basisfor languageuse and hencelanguagelearning,and which
themselvesmay also lead to somedifferent, but also valuable,learning.Such
subjectmatter may include such things as culture (of the target language,or
that of the learners'own background);literature of the target language;another
subjectof study; generalworld-knowledge; the learnersthemselves.A
particularly problematic and interestingaspectof such content is the targetlanguage literature, which is the topic of three out of the five units of this
module.
1,75
Module
12:Thesyllabus
Preliminary
questions
Hor would you define the term 'syllabus'? What should, or may, a syllabus
contain?
Compare your ideas with those presented below
The coursesyou teach, or intend to teach, are very likely to be basedon some
kind of written syllabus.This unit looks at the typical content of syllabuses;and
you will get most benefit out of it if you have an example of one at your elbow preferably one that is usedlocally, or that you know somethingabout - to refer
to for illustration or comparison, or in order to do the Application task at the
end of the unit.
Note that a syllabusmay consist of an independentpublication - a book or
booklet - if it is intended to cover all the coursesin a particular context
regardlessof the actual materials used:a country's national syllabusfor schools,
for example,or the syllabusof a group of languagecolleges.However, a
textbook that is designedto cover an entire courseshould also provide its own
syllabusthrough the introduction and contentspage or index. This unit relates
mostly to the first kind: an 'official' and comprehensivedocument that usually
includesthe word 'svllabus' in its title.
Common characteristicsof a syllabusl
A syllabusis a document which consists,essentially,of a list. This list specifies
all the things that are to be taught in the course(s)for which the syllabuswas
designed(a beginner'scourse,for example,or a six-yearsecondary-school
programme): it is therefore comprehensive.The actual components of the list
may be either content items (words, structures,topics), or processones (tasks,
methods).The former is the more common: seeUnit Two for some of the
possibilities.The items are ordered, usually having componentsthat are
consideredeasieror more essentialearlier,and more difficult and lessimportant
oneslater. This ordering may be fairly detailed and rigid, or generaland flexible.
The syllabusgenerallyhas explicit obiectives,usually declaredat the
beginning of the document, on the basisof which the componentsof the list are
selectedand ordered.
Another characteristic of the syllabus is that it is a public document. It is
1Thedescriptiongivenhereis relevantto most
conventional
syllabuses;
thereare,however,
someinnovativetypesto whichit maynot apply.For these,seeUnit Two.
1,76
Different types of languagesyllabus
available for scrutiny not only by the teacherswho are expected to implement
it, but also by the consumers(the learnersor their parentsor employers),by
representativesof the relevant authorities (inspectors,school boards),by other
teachertrainers or textbook
interestedmembersof the public (researchers,
principle
of accountability: the
writers). Underlying this characteristic is the
composersof the syllabus are answerable to their target audiencefor the quality
of their document.
There are other, optional, features,displayedby somesyllabusesand not
others.A time scheduleis one: somesyllabusesdelimit the time framework of
their components,prescribing,for example,that theseitems should be dealt
with in the first month, those in the second;the classshould have completed this
much by the end of the year. A particular preferred approach or methodology to
be usedmay also be defined,evenin a syllabusthat is essentiallycontent-based.
It may list recommendedmaterials - coursebooks,visual materialsor
supplementary materials - either in general, or where relevant to certain items
or sections.
O F A S Y L L A B US
BOX 12.1: CHA RA CTE RIS T I CS
list of:
1. Consistsof a comprehensive
- contentitems (words,structures,topics);
- processitems (tasks,methods).
2. ls ordered(easier,more essentialitemsfirst)
3. Hasexplicitobjectives(usuallyexpressedin the introduction).
4. ls a publicdocument
5. May indicatea time schedule.
6. May indicatea preferredmethodologyor approach.
7. May recommendmaterials.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1995
Application InBox l2.l isasummaryof theitemslistedintheprevioussection.Wttich
of these apply to yonr onrnsyllabus (or one that is commonly used locally)?
Put a tick by ones that apply, a crossby ones that do not. Can you, perhaps,
comment on the signifrcanceof the presence or absence of any of the
items?
A number of different kinds of syllabusesare usedin foreign languageteaching.
A list of theseis provided below; it is not, of course,exhaustive,but includesthe
main typesthat you may come acrossin practiceor in your reading. Each is
briefly explained; some also include referencesto sourcesof more detailed
information on content or rationale.
177
12 The syllabus
Typesof syllabuses
1. Grammatical
A list of grammatical structures,such as the presenttense,comparison of
adjectives,relative clauses,usually divided into sectionsgraded according to
diffi culty and/or importance.
2. Lexical
A list of lexical items (girl, boy, go auay .. .) with associatedcollocations and
idioms, usually divided into graded sections.One such syllabus,basedon a
corpus (a computerizedcollection of samplesof authentic language)is described
in Willis, 1990.
3. Grammatical-lexical
A very common kind of syllabus:both structuresand lexis are specified:either
together,in sectionsthat correspondto the units of a course,or in two separate
lists.
4. Situational
Thesesyllabusestake the real-life contexts of languageusesas their basis:
sectionswould be headedby namesof situations or locations such as 'Eating a
meal' or 'In the street'.
5. Topic-based
This is rather like the situational syllabus,exceptthat the headingsare broadly
topic-based,including things like'Food'or'The family'; theseusually indicate a
fairly clear set of vocabulary items, which may be specified.
6. Notional
'Notions' are conceptsthat languagecan express.Generalnotions may include
'number', for example,or'time','place','colour'; specificnotions look more
like vocabulary items: 'man', 'woman','afternoon'. For an introduction to the
topic of notional syllabusesseeWilkins, L976.
7. Funstional-notional
Functions are things you can do with language,as distinct from notions you can
express:examplesare 'identifying', 'denying', 'promising'. Purely functional
syllabusesare rarei usually both functions and notions are combined, as for
example in Van Ek, 1990.
8. Mixed or'multi-strand'
Increasingly modern syllabusesare combining differenr aspectsin order to be
maximally comprehensiveand helpful ro teachersand learners;in theseyou
may find specificationof topics, tasks,functions and notions, as well as
grammar and vocabulary.
9. Procedural
Thesesyllabusesspecifythe learning tasks to be done rather than the language
itself or even its meanings.Examplesof tasks might be: map reading, doing
178
Using the syllabus
scientific
experiments,
story-writing.Themostwell-knownproceduralsyllabus
is that associated
with theBangalore
Project(Prabhu,1,9871.
10.Process
Thisis theonlysyllabus
whichis not pre-set.
Thecontentof thecourseis
negotiatedwith the learnersat the beginningof the courseand during it, and
(Candlin,7984;Clarke,1997).
actuallylistedonly retrospectively
?bsk
Glassifying syllabuses
Iook at the syllabusesof two or three coursebooks,not necessarilythose
used locally. (Coursebooksyllabuses.rrenormdly defined in the
introduction and/or in a listing of the content prwided at the front or back
of the book.) Which of the types listed above do they belong to?
Assumingthecourseyou areto teachhasa syllabusseparate
from your
composed
coursebook,
or ratifiedby somerecognized
authority- how will, or
would,you useit? For example:will you keepto it carefullSconsultingit
regularly?Or will you referto it only rarelg to checkyourself?Or will you
adaptor evenrewriteit completely?
Task Thinking about how to use the syllabus
In Box l2.Zfrve teachersdescribe hoiv they usetheir syllabuses.Consider
on lrour orrvnor discusswith colleagiues:with whom do you identify most
closelyf
With regard to the teacher you feel you identify with most closely: what is
it about his or her statementthat you feel in sympathy with? What
alterationswould you need to introduce to malceit orpress your o\rvn
position more precisely?With regard to the others:what is it about their
approachesthatyou reject, or that is irrelerrantto your orn teaching
context? If you found yourself in their situation, hor would you use the
syllabus?
Somecomrnentsfollor.
Commentson Box 12.2:Usingthe syllabus
How teachersusethe svllabusvariesverywidelybetweendifferentcountries
on financialresources
aswell ason teaching
andinstitutions,anddepends
approach.
Wherethereis no lack of resources
to investin the drawing-upof very
and the purchaseof a wide varietyof teachingmaterials
detailedsyllabuses
may find it mosteffectiveto work mainlyfrom the syllabusasthe basis
teachers
of their programme,drawingon specificmaterialsastheyneedthem,asAnna
does.
179
12 Thesyllabus
BOX 12.2:USINGTHE SYLLABUS
Anna:fhe syllabusof the languageschoolwhere I teachis very comprehensive:
it
includesgrammar,vocabulary,
functions,notions,situations;
and givesreferences
to materialI can use. I use it allthe time and couldnot do without it. When
preparinga'teachingsessionor seriesof sessionsI go first to the syllabus,decide
what it will be appropriate
to teachnext accordingto its programme,planhow to
combineand schedulethe componentsI haveselected,and takethe relevant
booksor materialsfrom the libraryas I needthem.
Joseph:Thereis a syllabus,but we don't haveto use it; nor is thereany fixed
coursebook,
althoughthe collegerecommendscertainones.Personally,
I simply
ignorethe syllabus,sinceI preferto do my own thing,basedon the needsof my
[adult]students.I use materialsand activitiesfrom differentsources(teacher's
handbooks,
textbooks,enrichmentmaterials,literature)
which areavailable
in my
institution'slibraryin orderto createa richandvariedprogrammethat is flexible
enoughto be alteredand adaptedto studentneedsduringthe course.
Maria'.They
madeus readthe nationalsyllabusin my teacher-training
course,but I
haven'tlookedat it since.What for? ln my [state]schoolwe use a class
which laysout allthe languageI haveto teach,as well as givingme
coursebook
texts,exercisesand ideasfor activities.I assumethe Ministrvwould not have
authorized
the book if it didn'taccordwith the syllabus,so there'sno reasonfor
me to double-check
if l'm teachingthe rightthings.
Lrlip I possessthe syllabus,and lookat it occasionally,
but mostlyI work from the
coursebook
that my schoolchosefor the class.lt's just that sometimesI get a bit
fed up with the coursebookandwant to do somethingdifferent:so then | 'do my
own thing'for a bit, usingthe syllabusas a retrospective
checklist,to makesure
I'm stillreasonably
on targetwith the content. . . afterall,I am beingemployedto
teacha certainsyllabus,I can'tstraytoo far.
David:fhe schoolwhere I work cannotaffordto buy coursebooks
for the children,
so I havethe only book;I alsohavean officiallyauthorized
syllabus.EverythingI
teachI take eitherfrom the syllabusor from the coursebook.I don't add material
of my own; for one thing,the authoritiesdo not approve;for another,I am not
confidentenoughof my knowledgeof the languageI am teaching- | might make
mistakes.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
In other relatively affluent settingsthere may be a policy of allowing teachers
complete freedom in designing their teaching programme; in such a casethe
syllabusmay be non-existentor ignored, and teacherslike Josephmay develop
new, independentprogrammes,basedmainly on the teacher'spreferencesand
learners'needs.'Witha competentand creativeteacherworking with mature
learners,this kind of situation can also generatea unique, exciting and satisfying
teaching/learningexperience.However, in most contextsthe disadvantages
outweigh the advantages:apart from a possiblyprohibitive amounr of work for
the teacher,the abandonmentof a carefully pre-plannedsyllabusmay result in
significant gaps in the languagecontent taught. This may not matter so much in
a situation where the target languageis used predominantly outside the
classroom(if the classis composedof immigrants learning English in Australia,
for example); in other situations, however, it may seriously impair learnirig.
180
Further reading
Also, the lack of clear structure may make it difficult for either teacher or
learnersto feel a senseof pr'ogressor evaluatelearning outcomes.
'S7hen
only one coursebook can be afforded per student, the book often tends
to take over the function of a syllabus,particularly if, as in the caseof Maria,
the book has been recommendedfor use by the sameauthority that drew up the
syllabus.Here the use or non-use of the syllabusto supplementthe book
dependsto some extent on the personality of the teacheqand his or her
willingness to put in extra effort - as exemplified by Lilly.
There are some situations where even one book per student is an unknown
luxur5 as describedby David; in this casethe teachermay basethe course on
the coursebook or syllabusor a combination of the nvo. Note that sometimes,
as here, the syllabushas an extra role to play: as a sourceof information and
reassurancefor teacherswho are not confident of their own knowledge of the
target language.
Further reading
LANGUAGE SYLLABUSESIN GENERAL
Brumfit,C. J. (ed.)(1,984)GeneralEnglishSyllabusDesign,(ELT Docurnents
1.L8), Oxford: PergamonPress.
(A collectionof articleson differentkindsof Englishlanguagesyllabuses:
usefulsummariesby Brumfit and Stern)
Dubin, F.and Olshtain,E. (1985)CourseDesign,Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
(On the planningand development
of Englishlanguageteachingsyllabusand
materialsin different contexts)
Nunan,D. (1988)SyllabusDesign,Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.
(Mostly a seriesof taskshelpingthe readerto engagewith and understand
differentissues)
\(hite, R. V. (1938)TheELT Curriculum:Design,Innouationand
Management,Qxford: BasilBlackwell.
(A fairly detailedand comprehensive
surveyof variouscurrent typesof
syllabusand how theyare used)
Yalden,I. $987) Principlesof CourseDesignfor LanguageTeaching,
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
(Discusses
differentoptionsin courseand syllabusdesign,and the theories
underlyingthem;illustratedby casestudies)
SPECIFIC TYPES OF SYLLABUS
Candlin,C. N. (1984)'syllabusdesignas a criticalprocess'inBrumfit,C. J.
(ed.)(198ab)GeneralEnglisbSyllabusDesign(ELT Documents11-B),
Oxford: PergamonPress.
(Rationaleand descriptionof the 'process'syllabus)
Clarke,D.F. (1991)'The negotiatedsyllabus:what is it and how is it likely to
work?',AppliedLinguistics,12, 'I..,1.3-28.
(Alsoaboutthe 'process'syllabus:somereservations
aboutits applicationin
practiceand practicalsuggestions)
181
12Thesyllabus
syllabus
Long,M. H. and Crookes,G. (1.9921'Three
approaches
to task-based
design',TESOL Quarterly,26, 7, 27-S6.
(Discusses
that
syllabuses
basedon communicative
tasks,and concludes
learningis most effectivewhen theseare combinedwith explicit languagelearning(form-focussed)
tasks)
Prabhu,N. S. (1987)SecondLanguagePedagogy,Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
(Rationaleand descriptionof the procedural(task-based)
syllabus)
(1990)
A.
The
Threshold
Leuel
a
European
Van Ek, J.
in
Unit-CreditSystemfor
Modern LanguageLearningby Adults, Strasbourg:Council of Europe.
(A well-known exampleof a functional-notionalsyllabusin use)
'Willis, (1990)
D.
TheLexicalSyllabus,London:Collins.
(Describesbrieflywhat a lexicalsyllabuswould look like; goeson to discussa
methodologyfor its usein teaching)
'Wilkins,D. A. (19761NotionalSyllabuses,
Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.
(An introductionto notional syllabuses,
ascomparedto 'traditional'
grammaticalJexical)
782
Module
13:Materials
Note: The term 'coursebook' is used here to mean a textbook of which the
teacherand, usually eachstudent has a copg and which is in principle to be
followed systematicallyas the basisfor a languagecourse.
Question
What wonld your own answer be to the question asked in the title of this
unit? Andwhat would be your argruments to support it? T?y answering this
before reading on.
In someplacescoursebooksare taken for granted.In others they may not be
usedat all: the teacherworks accordingto a syllabus,or accordingto his or her
own programme, using textbooks and supplementarymaterialsas the need
arises.A third, 'compromise', situation is where a coursebookis used
selectivelSnot necessarilyin sequence,and is extensivelysupplementedby
other materials.
Task Thinking about adnantages and disadvantages
coursebook
of using a
In Boxes13.l.l and 13.1.2Euesomeof the argruments
for and againstthe
use of a cor:rsebook.Read ttuough them, ticking offthose you agree with,
and noting your criticisms of those you disagrreewith or have resenrations
about.
Question
Were any of the ideas e:rpressedin the 'for' or 'against' argumentsin Boxes
13.l.l and 13.1.2new to you?If they we!e, and if they seemacceptable,
would you nor modify at all your answer to the question asked at the
beginning of this unit as a result? Or do you find your previous opinion
unchanged? Or even reinforced?
Comment
You ma5 of course,find that you agreewith someof the 'against' points while
overall supporting the 'for' position, or vice versa.The questionthen arises:
having establishedyour own position in principle, what will you do to
compensatefor problems or disadvantagesyou have perceived?This issueis
tackled in Unit Three.
My own position on this issueis summarisedin the Notes, (1).
183
13 Materials
B OX 13,1.1:lN FA V OURO F US I NGA CO URS E B O O K
1. Framework
A coursebookprovidesa clearframework:teacherand learnersknow where they
are goingand what is comingnext,so that thereis a senseof structureand
progress.
2. Syllabus
In manyplacesthe coursebookservesas a syllabus:if it is followedsystematically,
a
carefullyplannedand balancedselectionof languagecontentwill be covered.
3. Ready-madetexts and tasks
The coursebookprovidestexts and learningtaskswhich are likelyto be of an
appropriate
levelfor most of the class.Thisof coursesavestime for the teacherwho
would otherwisehaveto preparehis or her own.
4. Economy
A bookis the cheapestway of providinglearningmaterialfor eachlearner;
alternatives,
suchas kits,sets of photocopiedpapersor computersoftware,are
likelyto be more expensiverelativeto the amountof materialprovided.
5. Convenience
A bookis a convenientpackage.lt is bound,so that its componentssticktogether
and stay in order;it is lightand smallenoughto carryaroundeasily;it is of a shape
that is easilypackedand stacked;it does not dependfor its use on hardwareor a
supplyof electricity.
6. Guidance
Forteacherswho are inexperienced
or occasionally
unsureof their knowledgeof the
language,
the coursebookcan provideusefulguidanceand support.
7. Autonomy
The learnercan use the coursebookto learnnew material,reviewand monitor
progresswith some degreeof autonomy.A learnerwithouta coursebookis more
teacher-deoendent.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Whether or not you electto baseyour courseon a coursebook,it is worth
thinking about how you recognizea good one when you seeit, and on what
grounds you might reject or criticize it: in other words, what the main criteria
are for coursebookassessment.
Suchcriteria may be general,applicableto any
language-teachingcoursebook, or specific,relating to the appropriatenessof the
book for a certain courseor learnerpopulation. An exampleof a general
criterion might be: 'clear layout and print', or'provides periodic review or test
sections';whereasa specificone might be: 'attractive and colourful illustrations'
(if it is meant for younger learners),or 'vocabulary and texts relevantto topic'
(if it is for studentsof scienceor technology).
184
Coursebookassessment
BO X 1 3 ,1.2:A GA INS TUS INGA CO URS E B O O K
1. Inadequacy
Everyclass- in fact, everylearner- hastheirown learningneeds:no one
coursebookcan possiblysupplythese satisfactorily.
2. lrrelevance, lack of interest
The topicsdealtwith in the coursebookmay not necessarily
be relevantor
interestingfor your class.
3. Limitation
A coursebookis confining:its set structureand sequencemay inhibita teacher's
initiativeand creativity,and leadto boredomand lackof motivationon the partof the
learners.
4. Homogeneity
havetheirown rationaleand chosenteaching/learning
Coursebooks
approach.
They
do not usuallycaterfor the varietyof levelsof abilityand knowledge,or of learning
stylesand strategiesthat existin most classes.
5. Over-easiness
Teachersfind it too easyto follow the coursebookuncritically
insteadof usingtheil
initiative;
they may find themselvesfunctioningmerelyas mediatorsof its content
insteadof as teachersin theirown right.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
The generalcriteria suggestedin Box \3.2have beenselectedfrom ideas
given in a number of books and articleson the subject;if you would like to
study thesein more depth, look up the referencesgiven under Further reading.
Task Assessingacoursebook
Stagel: Decidingon criteria
Study the list of criteria for assessing language-learning coursebooks
shomr in Box 13.2. In the left-hand column, note hovv important you think
each criterion is: a double tick for 'very important', and a single tick for
'fairly important'i a question mark for 'not su!e'; and a cross or double
cross for'not important' or'totally unimportant'respectively. Then add any
further criteria you feel are sigmificant (either gfeneral, or specific to your
ornmcontext) in the spaces left at the end, and mark in their importance.
Igmore the extreme right-hand column for the moment.
In deciding on the rating of each item, it might help to ask yourself: if this
guality were missingf, wonld I therefore not use the book? If so, then you
obviously think the quality essential or very important. If, however, the
quality is desirable, but its alrsence would not necessarily stop you using
the book if all the other criteria were firlfilled, then perhaps a single tick
may be enough.
If you are working in a group, compare your ideas with those of colleagrues.
My orn ratings may be found in the Notes, (2).
185
13Materials
F O RCO URS E B O OA
B OX 13.2: CRITE RIA
KS S E S S ME NT
Importance
Criterion
Objectivesexplicitlylaidout in an introduction,
and imolementedin the material
to
Approacheducationally
and sociallyacceptable
targetcommunity
Clearattractivelayout;print easyto read
visualmaterialsavailable
Appropriate
Interestingtopicsand tasks
Variedtopicsand tasks,so as to providefor different
learnerlevels,learningstyles,interests,etc.
Clearinstructions
Systematiccoverageof syllabus
Contentclearlyorganizedand graded(sequenced
by difficulty)
Periodicreviewandtest sections
Plentyof authenticlanguage
Goodpronunciation
explanation
and practice
Goodvocabulary
explanation
and practice
Goodgrammarpresentation
and practice
Fluencypracticein allfour skills
Encourages
learnersto developown learning
strategiesand to becomeindependentin their
l e a rn i n g
Adequateguidancefor the teacher;not too heavy
preparation
load
Audiocassettes
locally
Readilyavailable
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
Sfage 2: Applying
criteria
Nor take a locally-used coursebook and examine it, applying the criteria
you have in your list; note your ratings in the extreme right-hand column of
the table. You might use a similar code to the one employed in Stage l: a
single or doulrle tick indicates that the book scores high, or very high, on
this criterion; a cross or double cross that it scores lor or very lor; and a
18 5
Using a coursebook
question mark shovrrsthat you are not sure, or that the criterion applies only
partially.
Again, you might compare notes with colleagiues who have looked at the
sarne materials, and see if you can come to a consensus on most or all of the
items.
Slage 3: Summary
Can you norr make some orrerall evaluation of the coursebook? Note that
for this y'ou need to compare the two columns you have frlled; it is not
enough simply to 'add rrF' th€ right-hand column. For example, if the book
has scored very high on a criterion which you rated unimportant, this is
less in its favor:r than a fairly high rating on a criterion ]rou see as essential.
If youhave beenworking on the same coursebook as other teachers in
doing this unit, then it is probably most usefirl and enjoyable to work on this
summary together.
A coursebookshould be relatedto critically: we should be aware of its good
and bad points in order to make the most of the first and compensatefor or
neutralizethe second.Somegeneralcritical questionsto be askedabout the
coursebookas a whole will already have emergedif you have done the previous
unit; in this one we shall be looking at more specific,detailedaspects:the
componentsof a singleunit, or chapter,and what we might needto do in order
to make the best useof it.
Below are somecritical questionswhich might be askedabout the material,
with following comments.Theseare grouped under the headings:Couerage,
Texts, Tasks (actiuiti es, ex ercises), Admini stration.
Coverage
Any single unit of a coursebook should cover a fair range of language content
and skills. Somecategoriesof content are shown in Box 13.3.
Questions
Vtltrich categories in Box 13.3 do you think are most important? Does your
coursebook cover these satisfactorily? Arc there some that are neglected?
Are there others that it spends too much time or space on in your opinion?
You niay needto provide content that is missingusing supplementarymaterials;
or deliberatelvomit sectionsthat vou feel are redundant.
Texts
Quesfions
Are the (reading or listening) texts of an appropriate level? Are they
interestingl?Varied?
L87
13 Materials
B OX 13.3: COURS E B O OCO
K V E RA G E
-
pronunciation
practice
introduction
of new vocabulary
and practice
grammarexplanations
and practice
recordings
for listeningpractice
listeningand speakingcommunicative
tasks
readingand writingcommunicative
tasks
mixed-skills
communicative
tasks
shortand long readingtexts
dictionarywork
reviewof previouslylearntmaterial
some entertaining
or f un activities
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
If the texts are too easy,you may need to substitute, or add, further texts. If, on
the other hand, they are too difficult you may still be able to usethem: by
careful pre-teachingof vocabularS by introductory discussionof the topic, by
preliminary explanation of key sections,by careful omission of difficult bits.
The texts may be unsatisfactory, even if of the right level, becausethey are
boring or trivial in content; or becauseall the texts in the book seemto be the
samegenre,style and overall topic. Interestmay be addedby challengingor
original tasks; but the problem of samenessof genrecan only be solvedby
providing supplementary texrs.
Tasks(activities,exe rcises)
Questions
Do the tasks provide opportunities for plenty of use of the target language?
Are they heterogeneous, allowing for responses at different levels? Do they
cover a satisfactory range of langruage items and skills? Are they
interesting? Arc they relevant and usefuI for your class(es)? Is there a
balance between accuracy and fluency practice: that is to say, activities
whose objective is the production of correct language forms, and those
whose objective is communicative langruage use?
Somecoursebookexercisesare more like tests:brief checksto seewhether the
learner knows something or not, rather than frameworks for extended and
interestingrehearsalsof different aspectsof language(seeModule 2: Practice
actiuitiesfor the characteristicsof good practiceactivities;seealso the table on
p. 336 for a summary of someof the differencesbetweentestsand practice
activities).
If the tasks are too short and do not provide for very much learner activiry
they can be extended by, for example, adding further similar items, or by
making items open-endedinsteadof closed-endedso that eachcan trigger a
number of learner responses;or by simply supplementing with further activities
of your own. You may needto supplementalso in order to provide more
heterogeneousor interesting tasks for your classl or in order to provide material
which is more relevant to their individual or group needs.
188
SuppIementary materials
Administration
Questions With regard to a specific component of the coursebook: would this be most
effectively administered through teacher-led question-and-answer? Or
perhaps learners shonld tackle it individually; through reading and
writing? Or might it be most effective if they work on it collaboratively, in
pairs or groups? Or use a combination of these strategies? Does the
coursebook provide you with guidance on these questions?
'Whenpreparing
to teachcoursebookmaterial, it is worth devoting a limle
thought as to how bestto activatelearnersin a particular task in order to get
optimum learning benefit out of it and make it interesting; and this is a point on
which many coursebooksfail to provide guidance.For a more detailedstudy of
this issue,seeModule 1,6:Classroominteractioz, Unit Five..
Application
Select one unit from a coursebook you are familiar with, and make a copy of
it. Study it, using the guestions and comments suggested in this unit, and
note in the margins of your copy which components you might omit,
change or supplement, and why; and how you think those you have
retained would be most effectively administered in class. If there is a
Teacher's Book, look at what it says after you have done the above, and
compare its ideas with yor:"rown.
Most language-teaching
coursebooksprobably needsupplementingto some
extent, if only in order to tailor them to the needsof a particular classor to offer
richer options. This unit describesbriefly various types of supplementary
materials, their contribution to languagelearning, advantagesand disadvantages,
and invites you to considerwhich are most usefuland important to you.
Task Simulation
Imagine that you are to be given a grrant of enough money to buy a
'package' of supplementary materials for yor:r institution out of the
catalogue given in Box 13.4, assuming, for the sake of argument, that each
package costs about the same. You will be given a similar grant every halfyear, so eventually you will be able to buy all the packages. The question
is: in what order will you buy them, and hornrwill you decide? Work out for
yourself an order of priority, or do so together with colleagues. (You may, of
course, add further packages if you wish, or alter the contents of the
present ones, before beginning the task.)
It is assumed that the institution has a reasonable supply of standard
stationery and offrce eguipment, such as paper, pencils, felt-tippedpens,
1.89
13Materials
staplers, scissors, etc., and that classroonrs are eguipped with black- or
whiteboards.
Some comments on the contents of the packages follovrr;]rou may futd it
helpful to read these before making your decisions about priorities.
My orn priorities are described in the Notes, (3).
B OX 13.4: P A CK A GES
MA T E RI A L S
O F S UP P L E ME NT A RY
Package1: A set of computersfor learners'use,with accompanying
languagelearningprogramson floppydisk.
Package2: A set of referencebooksfor the teachers,including:grammars,
variousspecialized
textbooks;handbooksof activities;and a
dictionaries;
to a teachers'journalof your choice.
subscription
Package3: A numberof overheadprojectorsand slideprojectors,
with all necessary
film. slidesand markers.
Package4: Videoequipment,with assortedcassettes,includinglanguage-learning
materialand films in the targetlanguage.
Package5: Computersand printersfor teachers'use;eachcomputerhasa harddisk
with the latestword processorandvariousprogramsthat enableyou to compose
your own computertasksfor learners.
Package6: Severalcassetterecorderswith accompanying
earphones(sothat
severallearnerscan listenquietlyto one rnachine);
a selectionof accompanying
cassettesfor languagelearning.
Package7: A wide varietyof postersand sets of colouredpictures,plus boardand
cardgamesfor languagelearning,
Package8: A libraryof simplifiedreadersin the targetlanguage,rangingfrom very
simpleto advanced.
Therewould be enoughbooksin this libraryto enableall
studentsto borrow freelV.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Comments
Gomputers
Computers are seenby many as an important teachingaid. Thesedays learners
need to be 'computer literate', and sincecomputersuse languageit would seem
logical to take advantageof them for languagelearning. They enableindividual
work, sincelearnerscan progressat their own pace,and many programs
include a self-checkfacility. Also, younger and adolescentlearnersin particular
find the use of computersattractive and motivating. However, it takes time to
train both teachersand studentsin their use;and in practice a lot of time in a
computer lessonoften goeson setting up programs, getting studentsinto them,
and then solving problems with moving from one stage,or one program, to
another.
For teacherswho are familiar with their usecomputerscan be invaluablefor
preparing materialssuch as worksheetsor tests.
Books
Books are very.user-friendly'packages'of material: they are light, easily
scanned,easilystackedand do not needhardware or electricity.They are still
the most convenientand popular method of packaginglarge texts, and a library
190
Supplementary materials
of them is arguably the best way for learners to acquire a wide experienceof
foreign languagereading.
It is very useful to have a collection of referencebooks, extra textbooks and
teachers'handbooks easilyavailableto the teachingstaff; and regular reading
of a professionaljournal can inject new ideasand update teacherson current
thinking.
Overhead projectors
Theseare useful for presentingvisual or written material to classes:they are
more vivid and attention-catchingthan the black- or whiteboards.They also
savelessontime, sinceyou can prepare the displaysin advance.However, this
doesmean added work in preparation! Another disadvantageis the need to
carry the OHP from classto class,unlesseachclassroomhas its own - which is
true only of the more affluent institutions. And of course, like any other
electricalequipment, OHPs are vulnerableto breakdowns:electricity failure or
bulbs burning out.
Video equipment
Video is an excellentsourceof authentic spoken languagematerial; it is also
attractive and motivating. It is flexible: you can start and stop it, run forward or
backr'freeze' framesin order to talk about them. And there are many good
programmeson the market. A disadvantageis their lack of mobility: few video
setsare portable, which meansthat classesneed to be speiially scheduledfor
video rooms; and of coursethere is the problem of occasionalbreakdowns and
technicalproblems.When planning a video lesson,always have a 'back-up'
alternativelessonreadv!
Audio equipment
Cassetterecordersand cassettesare relatively cheap,and easyto use;and they
are the main source(other than the teacher)of spoken languagerexrsin most
classrooms.They are more mobile and easierto usethan video recorders,but
lack, of course,the visual content. Again there may be problems with electricity;
on the other hand, most portable cassetterecorders- unlike video and most
'When
computers- also work on batteries.
buying cassetterecorders,make sure
that there is a counter,and then use it to identify the desiredentry-point;
otherwise,if you want to replay during the lesson,you may waste valuable time
running the tape back and forth to find it.
Posters, pictures, games
Materials of this kind are invaluable particularly for younger learners,and
teachersof children find that they constantly usethem. However, if you have
time, this type of material can be largely home-made:glossymagazinesin
particular are an excellentsourceof pictures.
1.97
13 Materials
Unit Five: Teacher-madeworksheets and
workcards
Even with an excellentcoursebookand a wide variety of other materials
available,there comesa point at which many teachersfind they have to make
their own occasionalsupplementaryworkcards or worksheets:becausethey can
find what they neednowhere else,becausethey want to provide for the needsof
a specificclass,or simply for the sakeof variety.
Good teacher-madematerialsare arguably the bestthere are: relevantand
personalized,answeringthe needsof the learnersin a way no other materials
can.
Differencesbetween worksheetsand workcards
A worksheetis a page (or two) of tasks,distributed to eachstudentto do either
in classor at home, intendedto be written on, and usually taken in by the
teacherto be checked.Teacher-madetestscan be seenas a specifickind of
worksheet. Workcards are made in sets,each card offering a different, fairly
short task (see,for example,the set of tasks in the Notes to Module 10:
Teachingreading).They are not written on: a student doesone card, writing
answerson a separatepieceof paper or in a notebook, and then exchangesit for
another,working through as many of the set as there is time for. Answersare
often availablefor self-checkingat somecentral location in the room, or on the
'Workcards
back of the card itself.
are permanentand re-usable;worksheetsare
disposable- though of coursefurther copiescan be made.Workcards take more
effort and time to produce, but they are also more attractiveto look at and
work on (coloursand cut-out picturescan be used),and more individualized:
studentshave a choiceas to which cards they do, and in which order; and the
range of tasks availablecan be much more varied. In fact, the workcard lesson
is a rudimentary self-access
session,and can be developedinto a fully
individualizedprogramme by varying the number and type of tasksprovided.
For someexamplesof simple workcards and worksheetsseethe first section
of the Notes to Module 10 on p. 156.
Task Making materials
Stagel: Preparation
Choose a language point for which you want to make your own learner
tasks, preferably having in mind a course or class you lcror. If you wish to
make workcards, prepare cards, coloured pens and perhaps magazine
pictures, scissors and glue. Worksheets may be written by hand, or on a
typewriter or word processor.
Sfage 2: First draft
Make a sample worksheet or workcard, preferably for a class you know on
Iangruage they are learning.
192
Notes
Stage3: Feedback
If you are working in a group, exchange your resulting materials and
discuss.You may find the points listed in Box 13.5helpful as a basis for
feedback.
BOX 13.5: GUIDELINES FOR TEACHER-MADE MATERIALS
Worksheets
andworkcards
should:
- be neat;clean,with levellinesof neatwriting,clearmargins,
different
components
wellspaced;
(ifappropriate,
in the learners'
mother
- beginwith shortandclearinstructions
tongue),
usuallyincluding
anexample;
to lookat: havea balanced
andvariedlayout,using
- be clearandattractive
items;
underlining
andotherformsof emphasis
to significant
to drawattention
possibly
usingcolourandgraphicillustration;
bythe learners
on theirown;
- be clearlydo-able
includea self-check
facility.
- (optionally)
University
Press1996
@Cambridge
Stage4: Seconddraft
Remake your worksheet or workcard - or make a totally new one implementing ideas you received from feedback on the first draft.
Notes
(1) How necessaryis a coursebook?
The answer to this question necessarilydependson your own teaching style, the
resourcesavailable to you and on the acceptedway of doing things in your
institution.
Personally,I very much prefer to usea coursebook.I find that a set
framework helps me to regulate and time my programmel and, perhaps
paradoxicallg provides a firm jumping-off point for the creation of imaginative
supplementaryteaching ideas.Moreover, in my experiencelearnerstoo prefer
to have one; those classeswhich I have tried to teach on the basisof a selection
from different sourceshave complained of a senseof lack of purpose, and,
interestingly, that they feel that their learning is not taken seriously. [t seems
that the possessionof a coursebook may caffy a certain prestige.
(2) Coursebook assessment
The following are my ratings of the criteria, relevant, of course, to my own
teaching situation.
1,93
13 Materials
lmportance
Criterion
,/,/
Objectivesare explicitlylaidout in an introduction,
and implementedin the material
/
Approachis educationally
and sociallyacceptable
to targetcommunity
,/,/
Clearattractivelayout;printis easyto read
,/
Appropriate
visualmaterialsareavailable
,/,/
Interestingtopicsandtasks
,/,/
Variedtopics and tasks,so as to providefor different
learnerlevels,learningstyles,interests,etc.
/,/
Clearinstructions
,/,/
Systematiccoverageof syllabus
,/r/
Contentis clearlyorganizedand graded
(sequenced
by difficulty)
,/
Periodicreviewand test sections
x
Plentyof authenticlanguage
?
Goodpronunciation
explanation
and practice
./,/
Goodvocabulary
and practice
explanation
/,/
,/,/
Goodgrammarpresentation
and practice
Fluencypracticein all four skills
./
Encourages
learnersto developown learning
strategiesandto becomeindependentin their
learning
/
Adequateguidancefor the teacher;not too heavy
preparation
load
,/
Audiocassettes
,/,/
Readilyavailable
locally
(3) Priorities in acquiring supplementary materials
The following is the order in which I would buy the packages;but remember
that my decisionsare dictated at leastpartly by
specificteaching
-y
environment (teachingadolescentsa foreign language
in a statesecondary
school),and I might make different choicesin a different situation.
I would buy first a library of readersfor students(Package8): there is, I think,
no substitutefor extensivereading of books personallychosenby studentsfor
enriching languageand advancingreading skills. Then I would indulge the
teachersin a library of our own (Package2): an important professional
resource.
1.94
Fufther reading
Audio materials (Package5) would come next: video arguably provides better
languagedata (visual,attractive, etc.), but this is offset by the portabiliry
relative reliability and simple operation of cassetterecorders, not to mention
their cheapness.
Next on my list would be overheadprojectors (Package3), provided I can
buy enough so that teachershave no trouble getting and using one whenever
they want. OHP displaysare attention-catching,the preparation of
transparenciessavesteacher writing time during a lesson,and the classroom
doesnot have to be darkenedin order to usethem. This last condition is not
true of most slide projectors;also, slidescannot be written on during the course
of a lesson.I would thereforeprefer to spendmost of this budget on OHPs.
I would then buy computersand printers for teachers'use (Package5): a
computer is an excellentmeansof preparing neat and professional-lookingtests
and worksheetsand a convenient,space-savingway of storing them later.
Video equipment (Package4)would be next on my list: I think it provides
richer and more readily absorbedlanguagedata than, say,computers,and can
be usedvery flexibly in a lesson.Computersfor learners(Package1) - the next
item - are fun, but my experienceusing them in classeshas not (yet?)convinced
me that they are as cost-effectiveas audio and visual equipment,in terms of the
learning outcomesas againstinvestmentin money and time.
The last package(Package7)would be pictures,postersand games:I use
pictures in the form of magazinecut-outs backed on card, and find thesequite
adequate for my needs;published materials would be a luxury. However, when
I was teachingyounger learnersI usedposters,published setsof picture cards
and board gamesextensively:if I were in such a situation todag this item would
probably come a good deal higher in my list.
Further reading
Allwright, R. L. (1981) ''What do we want the teachingmaterials for?', ELT
Journal,36, l-r 5-18.
(A challenging,unconventionalapproachto materials,suggestingneedsand
purposesother than thoseimplementedby most coursebooks)
Cunningsworth, A. (7984) Eualuating and SelectingEFL Teaching Materials,
London: Heinemann.
(Discussionof what we want from a coursebook,with analysisof examples)
O'Neill, R. ( 1982)' Why usetextbooks?', ELT I ournal, 36, 2,'1,04-1,1,.
(Partly a reply to Allwright, a rationale for the use of the conventional
coursebook,and suggestionsfor improvement of coursebookdesignand use)
Madsen, H. and Bourn, J.D. (1,978)Adaptation in LanguageTeaching,
Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
(Seearticlesby Burden and Tucker on criteria for coursebookevaluation)
VISUAL MATERIALS
Bowen, B. M. (1982) Look Here!: Visual Aids in LanguageTeaching,London:
Macmillan.
(A brief, very practical overview of different kinds of visual materialsand
their use in languageteaching)
795
13Materials
'Wright,
A. and Haleem, S. (1991) Visuals for the Language Classroom,
London: Longman.
(A more thorough discussionof the topic, exploring classroom techniques
associatedwith the various types of materials)
Gerngross,G. and Puchta, H. (7992) Pictures in Action, Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall.
(A set of recipes on how to use various kinds of pictures for different
language-teachingobjectives: simple and practical)
VIDEO
Allan, M. (1988) TeachingEnglish u.,ithVideo, London: Longman.
(Basictechnical information, and different ways of using video recordings:
very practical)
Cooper,R., Lavery,M. and Rinvolucri, M. (1,991)Video, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
(Useful classroom activities for language learning using video)
COMPUTERS
Fortescue,S. and Jones, C. (1987) Using Computers in the Language
CIassroom, London: Longman.
(Clear, basic guidelines on different computers and programmes; organizing
computer rooms; training students and teachersin computer use)
Kenning, M. J. and Kenning, M.-M. (1983) An lntroduction to Computer
Assisted Language Teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(A comprehensiveintroduction to the subject, including some guidance on
writing your own programs)
Leech,G. and Candlin, C. (1985) Computersin English LanguageTeachingand
Research,London: Longman.
(A selection of articles on different aspectsof the use of computers in
languageteaching)
196
Module
content
14:Topic
The topic content of courses(topicsthe languagetalks about, as distinct from
the languagecontent itself) may be of various types.Somemain onesare shown
in Box 14.1.
rU7hydifferent coursestend to stresssome types of content and not others
dependsvery much, of course,on the objectivesof the course.If your students
are immigrants whose purpose in learning is to integrate into the target culture,
then topics that are based on the latter will be very important. If, on the other
hand, they are learning a foreign languagein their home environmentin order
to function better in commerceor the tourist industry you will probably find
topics that have to do with their own cultural background more appropriate.If
you are teachinga classof mixed ethnic and religious backgrounds,you may
feel saferwith neutral 'zero-content'topics. As a teacherof schoolchildren,
however,you may seeyourself as educator at leastas much as languageteacher,
and will wish to include generalcultural knowledgeand materialsand activities
that encourageintellectualor moral development.
Task Thinking a.bout different kinds of content
Stagel: Decidingon relativeimportance
Look through the list in Box I 4. l, and decide which of the types of subject
matter you think it is more, or less, important to include in the langruage
course(s) you teach or may teach in the future. Some comments of my ornm,
relating to my own teaching environment, may be found in the Notes, (I).
Sfage 2 (optional): Inquiry
Ask some learners what kinds of content they would like to see included in
an ideal language course. Do their ideas agree, on the whole, with yours?
(See Prodromou, 1992a for a description of a similar inquiry.)
Stage 3: Application
Look at a local syllabus or a coursebook commonly usedin the course(s)
you have been thinking of. Does it include the kinds of content you think it
should? Does it have too much of some other kinds which you consider
inappropriate? In either case, what might you do in teaching to improve the
balance?
797
14 Topiccontent
B OX 14.1: TY P E SOF NO N-L I NG UI S T ICO
C NT E NT
1.Zero or trivial content
Bland,fairlyneutralcharacters
and events,or superficially
interesting
topicswith no
culturalor otherinformationor engagementwith real-worldissues.Forexample:
sentencesaboutfictional'Johnand Mary'doingeverydayactivities;stereotype
familystories;manypop songs,trivialanecdotes,'soap-opera'
stylenarrative
or
video.
2. The language
Aspectsof the targetlanguagetreatedas topicsof studyin themselves:its history,
for example,etymologyor morphology.
3. Another subject of study
Othersubjectson the schoolor universitycurriculum,suchas scienceor history,
taughtthroughthe mediumof the foreignlanguage.
4. Home culture
people,places,events,writing,etc. pertaining
Discussion
of institutions,
to the
learners'own culture.Forexample,Greeklearnersmight discussplacesthey would
recommendthat touristsshouldvisit in Greece.
5. Culture associated with the target language
Discussion
of institutions,
etc. pertainingto the cultureof the targetlanguage.
Materialsfor learnersof Englishmighttakeas topicsthe AmericanCivilWar,or
Britishsocialcustoms.
6. Literature of the target language
In a sensea partof (5)above,but importantenoughto warranta separateheading:
stories,novels,plays,poetrywritten in the targetlanguage.
7. World or general knowledge
Cultureor literaturethat is known in manycountries,suchas some folk tales,the
Bible;geographical,
historical
or politicalinformationaboutany partof the world;
generalscientificor philosophical
topics.
8. Moral, educational, political or social problems
Contentthat presents,or requiresparticipants
to take,a stanceon some issue:for
example,a dilemmato which learnerssuggesta solution.
9. The learners themselves
Exploration
of learners'ownexperiences,
knowledge,opinionsand feelings:for
example,activitiesthat ask learnersto write aboutsomeonethey know,or compare
tastesin food and drink.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
198
Underlying messages
Course content often conveysa 'hidden curriculum': underlying messagesthat
go beyond factual information. Thesemay have to do with religious or political
beliefs,or with attitudes towards certain kinds of people, nationalities, or
cultures. It is very important for you to be aware of such 'subtext', for two
major reasons.First, for the sakeof your own professionalintegrity: you want
to be sure you are teaching what you want to teach, and not unconsciously
expressingsuppoft for attitudes you do not approve of, or denigrating those
you do. Second,becauselearnerswho identify with groups who are
discriminated againstin coursecontent may actually feel disadvantagedano
learn lesswell: for example, female learnersusing materialswhich consistently
presentthe male as superior.
Favourable or unfavourable attitudes may be expressedthrough various
means.One is insidious slanting of coursebook content: for example, if the
characterslearnersare askedto identify with in a book belong to a particular
ethnic group, or expressopinions that reflect a particular political stance.
Another is sheerinvisibility: of opinions that are disapprovedof, or of a
discriminated-againstgroup; for example, if your samplesof languagein the
classroomare consistentlybasedon male protagonists (checkyourself! - it can
happen to all of us). A third - rarer, but easierto detect- is explicitly
discriminatory remarks: for example, statementsthat imply that one languageis
'superior' to another (seePhillipsonr T992 for some interestingcomments on
what he calls 'linguicism' applied to English).
Many prejudiceswhich intellectually we reject arcvery deeply ingrained in
our thinking: so much so that we may betray them without even realizing it (as
in the example of using male subjectsin languagesamples,mentioned above).
Thus it often actually takes a consciouseffort to counteract them; and indeed
both teachersand coursebook writers these days are far more aware of the
hidden curriculum of coursecontent, and make efforts to seethat the messages
coming acrossare ones they feel comfortable with.
Task Ghecking out underlying messages in a coursebook
Take a coursebook - preferably one you are fairly familiar with - and try
some or all of the following experiments.
l. Sexism
a) If your book is illustrated, look at the first 30 pictures. Count the number
of men and the number of women featured in them. If there are no
pictures, look at the gramrnar or vocabulary exercises, and do the same
count on pronouns or nouns with clear gender. In either case, was there
a significant difference? If so, what is the implication?
b)Again, using either illustrations or texts, look at the occupations which
are assigned to men and women. Was there a consistent 'type' of
occupation assigned to either? If so, do you find such a division
acceptable?
799
14 Topic content
2. Ageism
If your book is illustrated, look ttuough the pictures and count the number
of adr:Itsclearly over the age of 40 as compared with 'young' adults (not
counting pictu.resof children). Does the division reflect what you would
estimate to be the proportion of yor:nglolder adults in society? If not, do
you approve or disapprove of the book's distorted picture? If you approve,
can you justify your approval?
3. Socialorientation
Read a selection of texts and exercises.\Mhatkinds of people are shown in
them? Look at aspectssuch as wealth, social class, ethnic affiliation,
occupation, cultural background. Do the kinds of people shown in these
texts reflect more or less the social background of most of your students?If
not, is the picture shown misleading or disturbing? Or positive, in that it
presents acceptable role models for your students?
4. Values
Again look at texts and try to assessthe kinds of things seen as desirable by
the characters or writer. For example, are the characters mainly interested
in material benefits (travel, cars, clothes, entertainment)? Or are they
mostly concerned with personal relationships?Or do they care about social
or moral issuessuch as the environment, peace, justice/injustice? Or do
they have some other consistent dominant aspiration? (In some casesyou
may even be able to discern a clear political orientation.) Whatever you
find: ask yourselfifyou approve ofthe values the book conveys and particularly if you are a schoolteacher- if the educational messageis an
acceptable one for your students.
Unit Three: Literature (1): should it be included
in the course?
Question What would be your own answer to the question asked in the title of this
unit?
This will, of course, dependto some extent on the kind of classesyou are
teaching and what the courseobjectivesare; but not only. There are certainly
some overall advantagesand disadvantagesto the teaching of the literature of
the target languagein any coursewhose main objectiveis proficiency in the
languageitself.
Task Gonsidering adrrantages and disadvantages of literature
teaching
Look at the lists of advantages of literature teaching listed in Box I 4.2. l, add
any further items you can think of in the space provided, and then put a tick
by those you consider most significant and inlluential. Then do the same for
the list of disadvantages orproblems shovuninBox L4.2.2.
200
Literature (1): should it be included in the course?
B O X 14 .2 .1 : AD VA N T A G E S
-
OF LITE R A TU R E TE A C H IN G
Literaturecan be very enjoyableto read.
lt providesexamplesof differentstylesof writing,and representations
of various
authenticusesof the language.
lt is a good basisfor vocabulary
expansion.
lt fostersreadingskills,
lt can supplyan excellentjumpoff pointfor discussionor writing.
lt involvesemotionsas well as intellect,which addsto motivationand may
contributeto personaldevelopment.
lt is a partof the targetcultureand hasvalueas partof the learners'general
education.
lt encouragesempathetic,criticaland creativethinking.
lt contributesto world knowledge.
lt raisesawarenessof differenthumansituationsand conflicts.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
BOX 14.2.2: DISADVANTAGES
OF, OR PROBLEMSWITH
LITE RA TURE
TE A C HI NG
-
Much literatureis written in languagethat may be difficultfor foreignlanguage
learnersto read.
We can use simplifiedversions,but theseare a poorrepresentation
of the
or igin a l .
Many literarytexts are longand time-consuming
to teach.
The target-language
cultureon which the literatureis basedis aliento learners
and may be difficultfor them to relateto.
By usingtexts as a basisfor languageteachingwe may spoillearners'en.joyment
of them as literature.
and appreciation
Studentsof scienceand technologymay find literatureirrelevantto their needs.
@CambridgeUniversityPress 1996
Task Sumrnanizing discussion or writing
Could you no\rvsummarize in more detail ]tour own approach to literature
teaching in a langua(te course, either through discussionwith other
participants in your €Foup or through writing on your ovm? Think about
which were the main considerations that led you to decide whether ]rou are
for or against literature teaching, and also hor you would anwver some of
the opposing arguments. My orrvnapproach is summarized belovr.
An approach to literature teaching
I am, in principle, in favour of including literature in courses,not only as a rich
sourceof language,but also becauseof its intrinsic educationaland aesthetic
207
Topic content
value and its contribution to motivation and enjoyment.The problems of
length, difficulty and alien content are very real ones:I attempt to solvethem by
careful selection of texts or, occasionallg by using only part of a long text. In
somecasesI usesimplified or abbreviatedversions,in spite of the 'watereddown' quality, if I think that enough of the literary value of the original is
preservedand that my studentswill get worthwhile learning from them.
It is true that there is a danger of spoiling literature by 'over'-teachingit.
However, if we take care not to over-emphasizethe language teaching aspect
but focus on enjoyment and appreciationof the composition itself, on the whole
the gain is likely to be greaterthan the loss.
Finally: literature may be strictly speakingirrelevant for the learning of
scienceand technology,but studentsof those subjectsmay sdll enjoy and
ultimately benefit from studying it.
It is helpful to think of the learning and teaching of a piece of literature as a
processcontaining three main stages:
1. encounterand impact;
2. understandingand familiarization;
3. analysisand interpretation.
Encounterand impact
The teachingobjectivehere is to get learnersto perceivethe basicform and
meaning of the text, and for it to make somekind of real impact on them, both
intellectually and emotionally.It doesnot matter at this point if they do not
understandevery singleword; but they do have to understandenough in order
to have an overall perception of mearungs.
Task Thinking about how to introduce a literary text
Some questions are shovtmin Box 14.3. Try to decide, preferably in
negotiation with other teachers, what your answers would be. My orn
answers follor.
Some answersto the questionsin Box 14.3
1. As a rule, I pre-teachall new words that areessentialfor basic understanding.
My priority is that the text should be understoodand make a real impact on
the learners:and I am not preparedto risk theseobjectivesfor the sakeof
extra practicein inferencingskills.
2. and 3. Many teacherssee'warm-up' activitiesas an essentialpreliminary to
the teachingof any literature: they raise curiosity and motivation, and
provide someorientation of thinking and mood. But such activitiescan also
have negative effects: they may dilute the direct impact of the literature itself,
202
Literature (2): teaching ideas
BO X 14 .3: FIRS TE NCOUNTE R
WI T H A L I T E RA RY
T E X T :S O ME
OUE S TIONS
1. Shouldyou pre-teachnew words or let learnerstry to guess them from context?
work on contentor atmospherebefore
2. Shouldyou do some preparatory
presentingthe text itself?
3. Shouldyou providesome informationaboutthe authoror the culturalor historic'
backgroundbefore presentingthe text itself?
4. Shouldyou try to get throughas much of the text as possiblefirst time for the
sakeof immediateimpact,or take it more gradually,makingsureone bit is
thoroughlystudiedbeforegoingon to the next?
5. ls the bestway to managelearners'first encounterwith a text by gettingthem to
readit silentlyon theirown? Or by askingthem to readit aloudroundthe class?
Or by readingit aloudyourself?
6. How canyou checkinitialunderstanding?
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
which is a pity; and, possibly prejudicethe learnersso that their perceptionof
it is coloured by what they have beenled to expect.
Usually,I prefer to do only so much introductory work as is neededto
ensure understanding, such as an indication of the general topic, or any
necessarycultural information; from then on, I prefer to let the literature
speak for itself. Further background information and exploration come later.
4.1try to get through as much text as possibleas quickly as possible,for the
sakeof the impact, momentum and enjoyment:after all, most literature is
meant to be read, heard or seenas continuous text. It may be necessaryto
pauseoccasionallyto explain, or check that everyoneis 'with' me and
understanding; but detailed study I postpone until we have finished a first
reading.
5. Usually I read aloud literary texts to the classthe first time (with the learners
following in their texts), unlessthe text is too long for this to be practicable;
on the whole this seemsto be the best way to convey a clear first impression
of the content and 'shape'of the literature. Learners'reading aloud is usually
lessclear; and texts may be more difficult to understandthrough silent
reading,especiallyfor the lessproficient. I7ith more advancedclasses,
however,silent reading, or well-preparedreading aloud by learnersmay be
satisfactoryoptions.
6. The most usual techniqueis to ask closed-endedcomprehensionquestions:
who is speaking,what are they saying,where is this happening,and so on. I
prefer more open-endedideassuch as: ask learnersto give a quick summary
in their own words, possibly in their mother tongue; to ask them to tell me
anything they understood, in any order; to ask for 'gut' reactions, anything
they would like to say in responseto the first reading, and develop brief
discussions,focussing on content; to invite questions, to be written on the
board and discussed.
203
14 Topic content
Understanding and fami Iiarization
The next stageis to get learners to interact with the text thoroughly and
repeatedlyso that they becomefamiliar with the words and ideas,are confident
they know the sequenceof eventsand characters; and to help them to
- understandand appreciatethe text in more depth and detail. How can we
provide opportunities and motivation for repeatedpurposeful interaction with
the text? And how can we check that the desired understanding and
appreciationhave in fact occurred?
Task Studying and suggesting ideas for familiarizing
a text
learners with
Some ideas are shovvnin Box 14.4. Read tluough and tick ones that seem
usefnl to you; canyou addmore?
B OX 14.4: UNDE RS T A NDI NG
A ND F A MI L I A RI Z A T I O N:
TE A CHINGI DE A S
1. Reread,differentlyfrom the first time (if the first time was readingaloud,then
this time silently,or viceversa).
2. Readthroughlookingfor bits you didn't understand:
notethem for later
discussion.
3. Lookthroughthe text, pickout bits you particularly
liked,or that stickin your
memory; copy them out if they are short, otherwisejust note the page
reference.Thenshare.
4. Lookthroughthe text for a quotationwhich couldserveas an alternative
title.
5. Rewritesome or all of the text from someoneelse'soointof view.
6. Rewritesome or all of the text in a differentgenreor style:for example,report
the events of a short story for a newspaper.
7. Presentthe text, or particular
aspectsof it in a differentvisualformat:as a
flowchart,as a diagram,as a graph,as a list of events,as a grid . . .
8. Draw an illustration;
or designa book-cover
or advertisement
for the text.
IU.
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
An alysis and i nterpretation
Not all classesgo very deeplyinto the interpretation of a text: not all teachers
feel confident they can lead discussionson literary analysis.A deeperprobing
into the meaningsand implications of a text doesnot necessarilydemand a
knowledge of the terminology of literary criticism, though this can help; it is
essentiallyan attempt to discovernew levelsof meaningor perspectives,or to
deepenappreciation of style or structure. Usually the main tool for such probing
is the classdiscussion,initiated by an open-endedstimulus cue such as 'Let's
compare . . .', .What would have happenedif . . .', ''Why do you think . . .?'
Different teachershave different ideasabout their own role in such
discussions.In Box 14.5 aresometeachersratements.\fhich do you identify
with? Which do you find problematical? My own comments follow.
204
Literature (2): teaching ideas
ES CUS S I O N:
T HE
BO X 14.5: LE A DINGINTE RP RE T A T I VDI
TE A CHE R'S
ROLE
Miri: 'l readthis poem often, love it, and havea clearideaof its underlyingmeanings:
I try to leadthe studentstowardsa similarunderstanding,
sometimesexpressing
mV own ideasaboutit '
on literature,only pose
Bella:'l interveneas littleas possiblein discussions
questions;I would certainlyneverexpressmy own opinions.'
Ali: 'l try to encouragestudentsto developtheirown interpretations,
even if I think
t heya re " w ro n g " .'
Mat: 'On the whole, I standasideand let the studentsbuildtheirown ideas;but if I
see them goingwildlywrong, l'll step in and show them why.'
gettingstudentsto
Sylvie:'l see my functionin the discussionas prober,challenger,
examineideascritically,bringevidence.Sometimesl'll throw in outrageousideas
for the sakeof orovocation.'
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Commentson Box 14,5:The teacher'srole in discussionson
literature
The advantagesof Miri's approach are that she is very likely to infect her
studentswith her own love for the literature, and leavethem with a clear and
coherentconceptionof what it is sayingand how. A disadvantageis that she
may inhibit their own spontaneousresponsesand original interpretations.Bella
is the opposite:learnersmay developtheir own independentinterpretations;but
thosewho have no particular interestin the literature may be left 'cold'; she
doeslittle to raise their enthusiasmor help them to developappreciation.
Perhapsa compromiseis possible,where you communlcateyour own
enthusiasmand make your ideasavailableto the learnerswhile allowing them
room to disagreeand developdifferent perspectrves.
The differencebetweenAli and Mat focusseson one aspectof teacher
intervention in discussions:what happensif the learnersconstruct an
interpretation that, it seemsclear to you, is in total disagreementwith the
author's intention? If you are pafticularly attachedto the pieceof literature in
question,you may find it extremelydifficult, if not impossible,to allow learners
to get away with such 'wrong' conceptions;you will find it easierif you are less
involved with the literature, or if you are more committed to allowing free
learner interpretationson the grounds that this resultsin ultimate personal
enrichmentand more valuable learning. One approach that can help is that
expressedby Sylvie,sincemistaken interpretationsare very often exposedas
such when examinedcarefully in the light of textual evidence.
205
14 Topic content
Unit Five: Literature (31:teaching a specific text
In this unit you are askedto think about the teachingof a specificpieceof
literature, and if possibleto try out your ideasin practice.You may like to work
on one of the examples shown in Box 1.4.7,or on a different one of your own
choosing.
Task Teaching a text
Stagel: Planning
Prepare a lesson or two on the text, having in mind a specific class you
knovrr.Some points you may need to relate to are shown in Box 14.6.
TEXT
T O T E A CHA L I T E RA RY
B OX 14.6: P RE P A RIN G
-
Will I do any pre-textteachingof languageor content?lf so, what?
Will I do any other'warm-up'activities?lf so, what?
How will the text be oresentedthe first time?
What shouldI do immediatelyafterthe first readingto encourageand check
comorehension?
and engagementwith the
What activitiesor tasksmight encourageinteraction
text?
What sorts of questionsor tasks might get studentsto probeand exploremore
subtlemeanings,aspectsof styleor structure?
What might be a good way to 'round off' the study of this text?
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Stage 2 (optional): Experience and reflection
If feasible, try teaching the literature to a class, using your plan as a basis.
Imrnediately afterwards, note dorn for yourself hour things went, which
ideas seemed to succeed and which not, and why.
Stage 3: Sharing and summarizing
If you are working with other teachers, share and compare your ideas and
(if relerrant) yor.rr e:<periences trying them out. Finally, summarize for
yonrself the main conclusions from the e:rperience, as you may have done
at the end of Stage 2, but taking into account also what you have learned
from exchanging ideas with others: what kinds of literature{eaching
techniques seemed to work well, which not so well, and why.
My ideas on the teaching of the texts shown in Box 74.7 are shown in the
Notes, (2); if you worked on one of theseyou might find it interestingto
compareyour ideaswith mine.
206
Notes
B O X 14. 7 :
SA M PL E T E XT S F OR TE A C H IN G
Teevee
ln the house
of Mr and Mrs Spouse
he ands h e
wouldwatchteevee
and nevera word
betweenthem sooken
untilthe day
the set was broken.
Then'How do you do?'
saidhe to she,
'l don't believewe've met vet.
Spouseis my name.
What'syours?'he asked.
'Why,mine'sthe same!'
saidsheto he,
'Do you supposethatwe couldbe -?'
Butthenthe set camesuddenlyrightabout
And so they neverdidfindout.
Eve Merriam
He Treats them to lce-cream
EverySundaythey went for a walk together
He,she
And the threechildren.
Onenight
when shetriedto stophim gorng
to hisotherwoman.
he pulledout a flick-knife
from underthe mattress.
Theystill go for a walk
everySunday,
he,sheandthe threechildren.
He treatsthemto ice-cream
andtheyalllaugh.
Shetoo.
Anna Swirszcrynskia
Notes
(1) Typesof topic content
I teach schoolchildren English as a foreign language, which they may use when
travelling in English-speaking countries, in their own country for purposes of
studg tourism or business,or in any country as a languageof international
communication.
The only type of nonJinguistic content I have no personal experience of
teaching is other school subjectstaught through the medium of the foreign
207
14 Topic content
language,sincethis is not acceptedpracticein the schoolswhere I am employed.
However, it has beenfound a useful and productive method, particularly where
the studentsare likely to needthe languagefor the subjectin question (in
schoolsoriented towards academicstudy for example)or for immigrants.
'Zero content' material is often seenas pointlessand boring by students,
though somesuperficiallyattractive songsand storiesmay engagetheir
attention. I do not like using such material as a basisfor extendedlanguage
work, sinceit lacks substantialcontent and wastesopportunities for engaging
with real information or issues.However, as a schoolteacherI am perhapsmore
concernedwith the educationalaspectsof my material than colleaguesteaching
in other situations.And we all probably usethis type of material sometimes,as
a basisfor short improvised samplesof languageitems!
Home-culture content is acceptable,not only becausemy studentsmay need
to know how to talk about it in the future, but also becauseit suppliessubjects
for discussionthat are familiar, interestingand motivating. The target-language
culture and literature, other countries' culture and generalknowledgeI think
are important for my students'educationin principle, as is sometreatment of
generaland specificcontroversialissuesleading to values'clarification.The
languageas a topic of study itself is not appropriate to most of my students,but
can be usedoccasionallywith someof the older classeswho may find it
intellectuallychallenging.I occasionallyusethe studentsthemselvesas a focus: I
am interestedin their ideasand experiencesand want to show it, and they
usually find thesetopics motivating, up to a point. However,I find caution and
sensitivityare neededhere:somestudentsobject to what they seeas an invasion
of privacy or feel uncomfortablewith 'touchy-feely'activities.
(2)Teachinga text
Teevee
This is a fairly easypoem, both in languageand content, suitablefor not too
advancedclasses;and it can be enjoyedboth by adults and children. The only
words I would pre-teachwould be spouseand set (asa synonym for
'television').
For warm-up activities,it is tempting to do somethingon the influenceof
televisionon people'slives, and how it affectstheir ability to communicatewith
one another - but$ris is 'giving away'the main messageof the poem, and I
would rather have-studentsdiscoverthis for themselvesfrom direct interaction
with the text. I might, however,do somecasualdiscussionof televisionin
generalwhile eliciting or teachingvarious synonymsfor it (T% the set, the box,
thetelly...l.
The text is easyenoughto be read silently for the first time and understoodby
the students;but I think they will enjoy and appreciaterhe humour more if I
read it aloud, while they follow it in their own texts. I would then ask them to
recap the situation and eventsin their own words to check they have
understood.
S7ith younger students,I might ask them in threesto act out, or evenmime,
the eventsof the poem (the third actor being the television);or to draw a
picture, or seriesof pictures,to illustrate it. Older studentsmight discusswhat
208
Nofes
style of illustration (e.g.photograph?/drawing?monochrome?/coloured?)
would be appropriate to the poem and why. For any age.students might be
asked to prepare and perform a 'dramatic reading' in small groups, possibly
having previouslylearnt the text by heart.
For further study: studentscan be askedto divide the poem into three
sectionsor chapters,and to comparethe middle sectionwith the first and third:
from the point of view of content, rhythm, rhyme, punctuation - whateverthey
can find.
If they seeit as a humorous poem, why is it funny? Can they find a serious
sideto it? If the poet has a seriousmessage,what is it? Do they have any
experiencesor ideasof their own on the subject?Older studentsmight get into a
generaldiscussionof the use of humour tgmake a point in literature: wit, satire,
parody.
I would finish with another reading, either of my own or of a good student
reader: the main experienceI want them to be left with is the literature itself,
not what we said about it.
He Treats them to lce-cream
This poem is also basedon simple language,and could be taught to various agegroups; but it is rather more seriousin content.
The impact of the poem is basedlargely on the unexpected shifts in mood and
action; hencea good way to presentit might be, as suggestedby Lazar (1993:
'1,1,2-I3),to exposethem only to the first three lines, and elicit expectations
about what is to follow; read the next stanza,think about it and, again,predict;
and finally read the ending.
A brief recap of who the charactersare and what actually happenscould be
followed by more detailedspeculationon suchtopics as: how long do you think
this story really took? How old were the children?Did the man stop seeingthe
other woman or not? What were the relationshipslike within the family?
As a follow-up to the discussion,studentscould tell, in writing or orallS the
story from the point of view of any of the characters;the husband,the wife, one
of the children, the other woman. Then, returning to the poem' you might ask
the key question: why does the poet in fact give none of the detail which one
would expect in such a story?
At a more sophisticatedlevel,it might be interestingto look at aspectsof style
punctuation and so on
and structure:in what ways do the sentence-structure'
reflectthe dramatic developmentof the poem? Or to discussethical or social
questions:what is the 'message'of the poem?IThat doesit say about family
llte /
Again, I would like to wind up study of the poem with a final rereading.
An additional possibility is of courseto study'Teevee'and 'He Treatsthem to
Ice-cream' one after the other, and then compare them: often further insights,
learning and pleasureresult from comparing both content and form of texts
which are, like these,of similar length, structureand generaltopic.
209
14 Topic content
Further reading
.
BACKG RO UND AND TEACH E R 'S H A N D B o o K S
Alptekin, C. (1993)'TargetJanguageculture in EFL materials', ELT lournal,
47,2,13643.
(A discussionof the problems inherent in basinga foreign languagecourseon
target-culturecontent: pleads for an open, intercultural approach)
Cook, V. J. (1983) .What should languageteachingbe about?', ELT Journal,
3 7 ,3 ,2 2 9 -3 4 .
(A more thorough treatment of the subjectof Unit One: doesnot actually
answer its own title question,but explorespossibilities)
Harrison, B. (ed.) (1990) Culture and the Language Classroom,Hong Kong:
Modern English Publicationsand the British Council.
(Various articles on aspectsof the teaching of culture in the foreign language
classroomlseeparticularly articlesby Barrow and Harrison)
Kramsch, C. (L993) Context and Culture in Language Teaching, Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
(Edifying and exciting, though not easy,reading: discussesthe encounterwith
foreign culture in languagelearning, seenas an exploration of differencesand
diversities rather than acquisition of information)
Prodromou,L. (1992a) .What culture?Vhich culture? Cross-culturalfactors in
languagelearning', ELT J ournal, 46, 1.,3 9-5 0.
(An interestingsurvey of the opinions of Greek learnersof English as a
foreign language)
Tomalin, B. and Stempleski,S. (1993) Cubural Awareness,Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
(Ideasfor teachingcultural awareness:examplesare basedon Englishspeakingcultures, but can easily be adapted for others)
UNDERLYING MESSAGES
Clarke, J. and Clarke, M. (1990) 'Stereotypingin TESOL materials', in
Harrison, B. (ed.), Culture and the Language Classroom,Hong Kong:
Modern English Publicationsand the British Council.
(Interestingand readablediscussionof stereotypingof various kinds in
(English)languageteachingmaterials)
Phillipson, R. (1992) Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(Shows how the spread of English is contributing to the dominance of the
culture and generalinfluenceof English-speakingnations)
Sunderland,J. (ed.) (1.994)Exploring Gender: Questionsand Implications for
English Language Education, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International.
(Relevantto the teachingof all languages,not just English! A collection of
articlesand casestudieslooking at various gender-relatedtopics in language
learning)
TEACHING LITERATURE
Bassnett,S. and GrundS P. (L993) Language tbrough Literature, London:
Longman.
270
Furtherreading
(Imaginative ideas for getting studentsto engagewith literary languageand
texts and to createtheir own)
Brumfit, C. J. and Carter, R. (eds.) (1,986)Literature and LangwageTeaching,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(A collection of articleson various aspectsof approach and practice:no
recipes,not light reading, but interestingbackground)
Carter,R. and Long, M. N. (1991) TeachingLiterature, London: Longman.
(Variousways of approachingthe useof literature, with examplesof texts
and activities;for background study rather than useas a resourcebook)
Collie, J. and Slater,S. (1987) Literature in the LanguageClassroom,
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.
(Discussionof somegeneralissuesfollowed by a variety of practical
literature-teaching techniques,relating to various literary genres)
Duff, A. and MaleS A. $992) Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(A collection of interesting and challenging activities for engagingwith
literary texts and learning languagefrom them)
Ellis, G. and McRae,1. $991) The ExtensiueReadingHandbook for Secondary
Teachers, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
(Misleadingtitle: actually consistsof plenty of good ideasfor teaching
literature at both primary and secondarylevels:examplesbasedon wellknown English texts)
Hill, J. $9861 Using Literature in Language Teaching,London: Macmillan.
(A compact, basic introduction to the subject, including practical classroom
procedures;examplesrefer tb English literature)
Lazar, G. (1,9931Literature and Language Teaching,Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
(A good text to use to teach yourself how to teach literature: comprehensive,
readable,with plenty of illustrative tasks accompaniedby suggestedanswers)
211
Up to now the topic of foreign languageteachinghas beenapproachedmainly
from the perspectiveof languageas a subjectof study: how to teachvarious
linguistic contentsor skills, aspectsof (language)coursematerialsand structure.
However,this direction of thought can result in neglectof someessentialtopics:
specificallgthosethat are relevantto all classroomteaching,not only that of
foreign languages.This and the next part, therefore,take as their point of
departureaspectsof instruction and educationin generaland apply theseto
languageteaching,rather than the other way round. Part V dealsmainly with
the lesson:planning, interaction and management.
Module 15 focusseson the lessonitself: what it is, how it may be most
effectivelyorganized,preparedand evaluated.Module l5looks ar classroom
interaction: how teachersactivatestudents.or studentsactivatethemselves.and
what kinds of interactionare conduciveto what kinds of learning.Module 17
has to do with giving feedback, whether in speechor writing: what its purposes
are and how it may be usedto promote learning and learnermorale. Finally,
Module 18 dealswith the topic of classroomdiscipline;lessimportant, perhaps,
for those (relativelyfew, perhapslucky) teacherswho work with highly
motivated adults in small groups, but a central causeof concernfor the many
who teachlarge classesof adolescentsin schools.
2L2
planning
Module
15:Lesson
The lessonis a type of organizedsocial event that occurs in virtually all cultures.
Lessonsin different places may vary in topic, time, place, atmosphere,
methodology and materials,but they all, essentiallyare concernedwith learning
as their main objective,involve the participation of learner(s)and teacher(s),
and are limited and pre-scheduledas regardstime, place and membership.
There are additional characteristicsor perspectivesto a lessonwhich may be
lessobvious, but which are also significant.One way to becomeaware of these
is to look at metaphorsthat highlight one or another of them.
BO X 1s.1: ME TA P HORS
FORA L E S S O N
a varietyshow
climbinga mountain
eatinga meal
a wedding
a m en u
a conversation
doingthe shopping
a footballgame
a sympnony
consultinga doctor
@ CambridgeUnivercity Press 1996
Group task
Exploring
metaphors
Stage1: Choosing a metaphor
\Mltich of the metaphors shownin Box 15.l e:rpressesbest, in your opinion
as a teacher,the essenceof a lesson?There is, of course, no 'right' answer,
but your choice will reflect your own conception. If you can find no
metaphor here which suits you, invent your own.
Sfage2: Comparing choices
If you are working in a grroup,get together inpairs or threes and shareyour
selectionsand reasonsfor making them. Sinceany one choice is as valid as
any other, there is no need to try to reach any kind of group consensusas to
which is the 'best'; the aim of the discussionis simply to become more
awareof the different attributes different people feel are significant. If you
are on your ovvn,go straight to Stage3 below.
Sfage 3: Analysis
Someof the main elementsthat may have come up in your thinking and
discussionabout the various metaphorsare discussedin the section
213
15 Lessonplanning
.Aspectsof theJessonbelourr.Have a look at this section and try to relate it to
]rour ovenchoice(s).
Sfage 4: Optional follow-up
In the Notes, ( l) you will find analysesof each metaphor in terms of the
interpretation of the concept of a lessonwhich it seemsto embody. These
are not necessarily the only possible interpretations, but you may be
interested in looking up '1rour'metaphor, and seeing if the analysis fits your
orn approach.
Aspectsof the lesson
1. Transaction,or seriesof transactions.This is expressedin the metaphorsof
shopping,a wedding and a meal, with the emphasison somekind of
purposeful give-and-takewhich resultsin a product: an acquisitionor a
definable mental or physical change in the participants. If you care about the
transactional element, then what is important to you is the actual learning
which takes place in the lesson.
2. Interaction. This is most obvious in the metaphor of conversation,but is also
expressedin the wedding, the variety show, and, in perhapsa rather different
wa5 in the football game.Here what is important are the social relationships
betweenlearners,or betweenlearnersand teacher;a lessonis seenas
somethingwhich involvesrelaxed,warm interaction that protectsand
promotes the confidenceand happinessof all participants.
For a more detaileddiscussionof the transactionaland interactional
aspectsof a lesson,seePrabhu (1992).
3. Goal-oriented effort, involving hard work (climbing a mountain, a football
game).This implies awarenessof a clear,worthwhile objective,the necessity
of effort to attain it and a resultingsenseof satisfactionand triumph if it is
achieved,or of failure and disappointmentif it is not.
4. A satisfying, enioyable experience(a variery show, a symphony, eating a
meal). This experiencemay be basedon suchthings as aestheticpleasure,fun,
interest,challengeor entertainment;the main point is that participants
should enjoy it and thereforebe motivated to attend while it is going on (as
distinct from feeling satisfiedwith the results).
5. A role-basedculture, where certain roles (the teacher) involve responsibility
and activiry others (the learners)responsiveness
and receptivity (consultation
with a doctor, a wedding, eating a meal). All participants know and acceptin
advancethe demandsthat will be made on them, and their expected
behaviours.This often implies:
A
6. conventional construct, with elementsof ritual (a wedding, a variery show,
a performanceof a symphony).Certain set behavioursoccur everytime (for
example,a certain kind of introduction or ending),and the other components
of the overall event are selectedby an authority from a limited set of
possibilities.In contrast, there is:
7. A seriesof free choices(a menu, a conversation).Panicipantsare free to 'do
their own thing' within a fairly loose structure, and construct the event as it
progresses,through their own decision-making.There is no obvious authority
figure who imposeschoices.
274
Lessonpreparation
How should a lessonbe prepared?Is there a bestmethod to do so?
One way of looking for answersto thesequestionsis to ask competent
professionals,and then try to discoversomegeneralprinciplesthat seemto be
acceptedby all, or most, of them.
Inquiry
Lressonpreparation
StageI : Preliminarystudy
In Box15.2aresevenquestionsaboutlessonpreparation.Startby
anrswering them yourself, in writing. (If you are a trainee with limited
e:rperience, then note hour you hope to prepare lessons yourself, or how
you have done so in teaching practice.) After writing each response, leave
two or three lines empty before going on to the next.
BOX 15.2: OUE S TIONS
ON L E S S O NP RE P A RA T I O N
1. How longbeforea specificlessondo you prepareit?
2. Do you write down lessonnotesto guideyou?Or do you relyon a lessonformat
providedby anotherteacher,the coursebook,
or a Teacher'sBook?
3. lf so, arethese notesbrief(a singlepageor less)or long(morethanone page)?
4. What do they consistof ?
5. Do you note down yourobjectives?
6. Do you actuallylookat your notesduringthe lesson?lf so, rarely?Occasionally?
Frequently?
7. What do you do with your lessonnotesafterthe lesson?
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Stage 2: Interview
Nour interview at least two language teachers who are e:rperienced and (as
far as you c.rn tell) conscientious and competent professionals. Ask them
the same questions, stressing that what you want to know is what they
actually do in daily practice, not what they think they ought to do!
My omr answers to these questions may be found in the Notes, (2). If you
cannot find (enough) teachers to interview, lrou may frnd it helpfirl to refer
to these at Stage 4 (Conclusions) below.
Sfagre 3; Resu/fs
If you are working in a group and have each interviewed different teachers,
share your results; if not, put together the different ansrers you got from
]rour own interviewees. Can you make any generalizations, or does lesson
preparation seem to be entirely idiosyncratic?
Stage 4: Conclusions
Think about or discuss the evidence lfou have gathered from interviews,
and/or from my responses in the Notes. What conclusions can you draW?
215
15 Lessonplanning
T?y to assesscritically the relevanceand usefulnessof these conclusions
foryour ovmpractice.
Sfage 5: Personal application
Finally, revert to the answers you wrote yourself at the beginning of this
task, and add notes belorr each one, recording ideas you have learned
from this inquiry that may be helpfuI to you in future lesson planning.
The teaching/learning tasks and topics which form the basis of different
componentsof a languagelessonhave beendiscussedin earlier modules:
presentationof new material, practiceactivitiesor tests;accuratereceptionor
production of the language'spronunciation, vocabulary or grammar; or more
fluency-orientedwork such as discussingor writing essays.In this unit we shall
be looking at the 'packaging' of such components:how they may be combined
with eachother and presentedas a varied and effectivelessonprogramme.
In a lessonwhich is entirely taken up with one kind of activity, interestis
likely to flag: learners will find it more difficult to concentrate and may get
bored and irritable which will detract from learning and may produce discipline problems in someclasses.A varied lesson,besidesbeing more interesting
and pleasantfor both teacherand learners,is also likely to cater for a wider
range of learning styles and strategies,and may delay onset of fatigue by
providing regular refreshingchangesin the type of mental or physical activity
demanded.
Task Brainstorm
Hor many different ways of varying language-learning activity within a
lesson can lrou think of? It helps to think in terms of contrasts: for example,
rapid-moving versus leisurrely activities; or individuals versus pair/group
versus full-class organization. Write dourn, or pool ideas in grroups; then
checkwithBox 15.3 to see if it adds any further suggestions.
Selectionand organization
Variation of componentswithin the programme of a lessonis a good principle,
but it is not enough. Varied activities flung together in random order can result
in a feeling of restlessnessand disorder; it is therefore worth defining some
principles of selection and organization of components to construct a smooth,
coherent programme. rilThichcomponents should come earlier, which later in a
lesson?Ifhich are likely to fit togetherwell to form a coherentsequence?
And
so on.
Below are some guidelines for the combination of different components that I
have found useful and relevant in my own teaching.
21,6
Varying |essoncomponents
B O X 1 5 .3 :
WA YS O F V AR YIN G A LE S S ON
1. Tempo
Activitiesmay be briskand fast-moving(suchas guessinggames)or slow and
reflective(suchas readingliteratureand respondingin writing).
2. Organization
The learnersmay work on theirown at individualized
tasks;or in pairsor groups;or
as a full classin interaction
with the teacher.
3. Mode and skill
Activitiesmay be basedon the writtenor the spokenlanguage;
andwithin these,
they may varyas to whetherthe learnersare askedto produce(speak,write)or
receive(listen,read).
4. Difficulty
Activitiesmay be seenas easyand non-demanding;
or difficult,requiring
concentrationand effort.
5. Topic
Boththe languageteachingpointandthe (nonlinguistic)
topicmay changefrom one
activitvto another.
6. Mood
Activitiesvaryalsoin mood:lightandfun-basedversusseriousand profound;happy
versussad;tenseversusrelaxed.
7. Stir-settle
Someactivitiesenlivenand excitelearners(suchas controversial
discussions,
or
activitiesthat involvephysicalmovement);others,likedictations,havethe effectof
c alm i n gth e m d o w n (s e eM a c l e n n a n1987).
,
8. Active-passive
Learnersmay be activatedin a way that encouragestheir own initiative;or they may
only be requiredto do as they aretold.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Guidelinesfor ordering componentsof a lesson
1. Put the harder tasks earlier
On the whole, studentsare fresherand more energeticearlier in the lesson,and
get progressivelylessso as it goeson, particularly if the lessonis a long one. So
it makes senseto put the tasks that demand more effort and concentration
earlier on (learning new material, or tackling a difficult text, for example) and
the lighter ones later. Similarly tasks that need a lot of student initiative work
better earlier in the lesson,with the more structured and controlled ones later.
2.Have quieter activities before lively ones
It can be quite difficult to calm down a class- particularly of children or
adolescents- who have beenparticipating in a livelS exciting acriviry.So if one
of your central lessoncomponentsis somethingquiet and reflectiveit is better
217
15 Lessonplanning
on the whole to put it before a lively one, not after. The exception to this is
when you have a rather lethargic or tired classof adults; here 'stirring' activities
early on can actually refresh and help students get into the right frame of mind
for learning.
3. Think about transitions
If you have a sharp transition from, sa5 a reading-writing activity to an oral
one, or from a fast-moving one to a slow one, devote some thought to thg
transition stage.It may be enoughto 'frame' by summing up one component in
a few words and introducing the next; or it may help to have a very brief
transition activity which makesthe move smoother (seeUr and I7right,7992,
for someideas).
4. Pull the class together at the beginning and the end
If you bring the classtogetherat the beginningfor generalgreetings,
organization and introduction of the day's programme, and then do a similar
full-class'rounding-off' at the end: this contributesto a senseof structure.On
the whole, group or individual work is more smoothly organizedif it takes
place in the middle of the lesson,with clear beginning and ending points.
5. End on a positive note
This doesnot necessarilymean ending with a joke or a fun activity - though of
courseit may. For someclassesit may mean somethingquite serious,like a
summary of what we have achievedtoday or a positive evaluation of something
the classhas done. Another possibility is to give a task which the classis very
likely to succeedin and which will generatefeelings of satisfaction. The point is
to have students leave the classroom feeling good.
Drscussjon Think about or discuss the questions:
task - Hovr far do you agEee with these guidelines?
- fue they appropriate for your own teaching context as they stamd, or
wonldlouwishto omit, addto orchange anyof them?
Follow-up
Obsenre one or two foreigm langruage lessons, noting dolwr in detail what
the
components are and ho,r they are organized. fire lessons should
observation
preferably
be given by a teacher you do not knovy, or a video rrecording canr
fask
If
be used. these options are not available, use the lesson description given
inBox 15.5.
Aftenrard.s, think about 1rcur notes, or discuss themwith colleagrues,
andysing the way the lesson was constructed. You may frnd it useful to refer
to the points listed in Box 15.3. What possible alternatives, or
improrrements, carr you think of?
218
EvaI uati n g I esson effective n ess
It is important to stop and think after giving a lessonwhether it was a good one
or not, and why. This is not in order to indulge in self-congratulation or vain
regrets, but in order to have a basisfor your own learning from reflection on
experience:this lessonwas unsatisfactory what could I have done to improve
it? Or: this lessonwas good, what was it exactly that made it so? Other units in
this module have dealt with criteria that can be applied to the design or
assessment
of particular procedures;this one concentrateson overall evaluation
of the lessonevent: effective, or hot?
Task Enaluating criteria
Imagine you have just come out of a lesson - whether your own, or one that
you have observed - and wish to assess how effective it was. By what
criteria will you evaluate it?
In Box 15.4 is a list of criteria I have heard suggested by teachers; lrou
may wish to add more. Can you put them in order of priority: the most
important, in your opinion, first, the least important last? You may, of
course, put two or more at the same level if you think they are of the same
importance.
Belovv are some notes on the criteria that you may find useful; and my
own solution to the task, with e:rplanations, is given at the end of the unit.
BOX 15.4: CRITE RIA
FORE VA L UA T I NGL E S S O N
EFFECTIVENESS
a) The learnerswere activeallthe time.
b) The learnerswere attentiveallthe time.
c) The learnersenjoyedthe lesson,were motivated.
d) The classseemedto be learningthe materialwell.
e) The lessonwent accordingto plan.
f) The languagewas usedcommunicatively
throughout.
g) The learnerswere engagingwith the foreignlanguagethroughout,
h)
tl
i)
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
Nofes on the criteria
1. The learners were active, attentive, enjoying themselves
If learnersare active, attentive,enjoying themselvesand motivated they are
likely to be learning better. On the other hand it is very possible to activate
learnerseffectivelyand enjoyably and hold their attention for long periods of
time in occupationsthat have little learning or educationalvalue.
219
15 Lessonplanning
2. The class seemed to be learning the material well
The main goal of a lesson,when all is said and done, is to bring about learning:
the problem is how to judge whether learning is in fact taking place.
3. The lesson went according to plan
On average,I would guessthat a lessonthat went on the whole according to
plan is more likely to have beeneffective;but this doesbeg the questionof
whether the plan was a good one in the fust place! Also, a sensitiveand flexible
teacher may well deviate from an original plan in responseto changing
circumstancesor learnerneeds,with positive results.
4. The language was used communicatively throughout
It is certainly important to do activities that involve communication; but noncommunicative activities (for example, grammar explanations) also have their
place and assistlearning.
5. The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout
The engagingwith the material to be learnt (in this casethe language)is surely a
prerequisitefor learning that material. Learning, however,will result from this
processonly if the material and task are of appropriate level.
Suggestedorder of priority
My order would be the following:
1. c) The classseemedto be learning the material well.
2. g) The learnerswere engagingwith the foreign languagethroughout.
3. b) The learnerswere attentive all the time.
4. d) The learnersenjoyedthe lesson,were motivated.
5. a) The learnerswere active all the time.
5. e) The lessonwent accordingto plan.
7. f) The languagewas used communicatively throughout.
Comments
This order will quite probably be different from yours; and I found some
decisionsabout the ranking - as I am sure you will have done - very difficult to
make! Here are someof my considerations.
The first criterion has to be the learning;that is the main objectiveof a lesson.
The fact that it is difficult to judge how much learners have learned does not let
us off the duty of trying our bestto do so! We can usually make a fairly good
guess,basedon our knowledgeof the class,the type of activity they were
engagedin, and someinformal test activitiesthat give feedbackon learning (see
Module 3:Tests).
The amount of learning is very likely to correlarehighly with the amount of
the foreign languagethe classengageswith in the course of a lesson.If the
foreign language material is too difficult, or the task too slow, or too much time
is spent on organization or mother-tongue explanation, the amount of learning
will lessen.
220
Evaluating lessoneffectiveness
Learnerswho are really engagingwith the languagemust be attentive;loss of
attention meanslossof learning time. However, this attention may be directed
at activitieswhich produce little learning! - which is why this item is not higher
up the list.
Enjoyment and motivation are important becausethey make it more likely
that learnerswill attend; they also contribute to learners'holding a long-term
positive attitude towards languagelessonsand learning in general.But it is, of
course,possibleto have participantsthoroughly enjoying a lessonwithout
learning anything.
Active learning is usually good learning;however,learnersmay be apparently
passive(quietly listeningor reading)and actually learning a lot; and, converselS
may be very activeand learning nothing. It is common - and dangerous- for
teachersto over-estimatethe importance of learnersbeing active all the time.
Most teachersplan carefullS and if the plan was a reasonablygood one, then
a lessonthat accordedwith it was probably also good. However, a specificplan
may turn out to be not so good; in such a casefollowing it may be disastrous,
and inspired improvisation more successful.Also, occasionally unexpected
circumstancesor learner demand may result in changes,with similarly positive
results.tIn summary:yes, a criterion that has someuse,but too dubious to be
put very high.
Communication is important for languagelearning, but non-communicative
activitiescan also teach;for somelearnerslessontime spenton the latter may
actually be a better long-term investment.The higher you rank this criterion,
the more crucial you feel the communicativecharacterof the lessonto be;
obviously I personallydo not feel this to be as important a factor as the others.
Follow-up Practice and/or observation
task
this
is to try to evaluate the effectiveness of a lesson. The
The aim of
task
lesson itself could be one of the folloring
possibilities:
l. Most usefully: one ]rou yourself have planned and taught, based on a unit
in a coursebook or syllabus you use or are familiarwith.
2. One taught by a colleague or another teacher.
3. Less effective: avideo recording of a lesson.
4. As a final resort: the obsenration notes shovvnin Box 15.5.
(My commentson this version are given in the Notes, (3).)
Try to evaluatehow good the lessonwas, using the criteria and priorities you
have worked on in this unit. If you have observedtogetherwith other teachers,
come togetherafter the lessonto comparenotes.
1But an interestingpieceof researchon pupil appraisalsof teachersindicatesthat school-age
pupils considerthe description'This teacherwould do somethingelseif that's what the class
wants' asa characteristic
of the bad teacher!(IUragg,E. C. and Vood, E. K. (1984)'Pupil
appraisalsof teaching'in 'Wragg,E. C. (ed.) Chssroom TeachingSkil/s,London and
Svdnev:Croom Helml.79-9 6l
22r
15 Lessonplanning
B OX 15.5: DE S CRI P T I OO
NF A L E S S O N
This was a heterogeneousclassof 35 fifteen-year-olds.
9.15 The teacher(T)enters,students(Ss)graduallyquieten,sit, takeout books9.20 T elicitsthe topic Ss had beenaskedto preparefor today('conformism'),
elicitsand discussessome key words,does not write them up.
9.25 f distributescartoons,asksSs to work in pairsand suggestcaptionsthat
haveto do with the topic.SomeSs work, most do not.
9.30 T elicitsresults:onlythree pairsare willingto suggestideas.T suggests
they carryon for homework.
9.32 T tells Ss to open booksat p.35:an articleon conformism.T: 'What would
you do if you wantedto get the generalideaof the article?'Suggeststhey
readonlyfirst sentenceof eachparagraph.
9.35 Silentreading
9.38 T doestrue/falseexercisefrom book basedonly on thesefirst sentences,
usingvolunteerrespondersfor eachitem,correctingand commenting.
Somequestionsare not yet answerable.
9.45 T giveshomework:readthe entirearticle,finishfindingthe answersto the
T/F questions.
9.47 T invitesindividual
studentto performa preparedmonologue(aboutStalin)
beforethe class.The classapplauds.T approveswarmly,refrainsfrom
commentingon languagemistakes.
9.52 f initiatesdiscussionon the topicof the monologue;aboutsevenstudents
participate,
most of the rest are listening
10.00 The lessonends,some Ss come up to talkto T.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
'If only you'd told me before,' complaineda young teacherto me recently.She
had found herselfwith extra time on her hands at the end of a lesson,and
nothing with which to fill it, and I had suggestedthat sheshould make a habit
of having a reserveactivity ready as part of her regular lessonplan. Sheadopted
the idea gladly, but reproached me - perhaps rightly - for not having suggested
it earlier.
In Box 15.5 is a set of suchhints, which you may find useful- and which
may, hopefullS help to prevent you finding yourself in a similar situation! If you
are yourself experienced,you may be able to add more.
Discussjon If you are yourself experienced, find an ine)q)erienced colleague to sit
fask with, and vice versa; or form mixed groups of more and less experienced
participants. The e:<perienced teacher(s) should first talk their
inorperienced colleague(s) through the list in Box 15.6, adding further
comment and illustration, and answering questions; and then add any other
practical advice that they feel can be helpfi:I.
222
Notes
BO X 15.6:HINTSFORLE S S ONMA NA G E ME NT
1. Preparemore thanyou need:it is advisableto havean easilypresented,light
'reserve'activityreadyin caseof extratime (seeUr andWright, 1992for some
ideas).
of the lessonyou will sacrificeif
2. Similarly,note in advancewhich component(s)
you find yourselfwith too littletime for everything!
3. Keepa watch or clockeasi[ visible,makesureyou are awarethroughouthow
time is goingrelativeto your programme.lt is difficultto judge intuitivelyhow
time is goingwhen you are busy,and the smoothrunningof your lessondepends
to some extenton propertiming.
4. Do not leavethe givingof homeworkto the lastminute!At the end of the lesson
learners'attentionis at a low ebb,and you may run out of time beforeyou finish
Explainit earlieron, and then give a quickreminderat the end.
explaining.
5. lf you have papersto distributeand a largeclass,do not try to give every paper
yourselfto everystudent!Givea numberof papersto peopleat differentpointsin
the class,ask them to take one and passthe rest on.
6. lf you are doinggroupwork, give instructionsand makesurethese are
handingout
understoodbefore dividinginto groupsor even,if practicable,
materials;if you do it the otherway round,studentswill be lookingat eachother
and at the materials,and they are less likelyto attendto what you haveto say.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Postscript
The problem is, of course,that the young teachermentioned at the beginningof
this unit may well have in fact beentold previouslg by me or by someoneelse,
to prepare reserveactivities. But frequently such advice is not in fact
rememberedand useduntil you actually experiencethe needfor it - more often
than not, as here,through encounteringa problem which its implementation
could have prevented!Perhapseachof us has to discoverthe usefulnessof such
hints for ourselves?But at leasttheir provision in advancemay accelerateand
facilitate such discoverywhen the time comes.
Notes
(1)Metaphors
a) A variety show is essentiallypleasing and involves mixed, stimulating
components;if you choseit you seevariety and enjoyment as key factors in a
lesson.You probably seethe learnersas an audienceto be motivated and
stimulatedrather than made to work.
b)Climbing a mountain is essentiallya challenge.The correspondinglesson
involves, therefore, an investment of effort on the part of learners and
teacher,may not be particularly pleasurablewhile in process,but provides
rewards in the form of successfulachievementof the aim. However, there is
the correspondingdanger of failure and disappointmentif this aim is not
attained.
223
15 Lessonplanning
c) Eating a meal is like a lessonif the latter is seenbasicallyas the performance
of someimportant or necessaryfunction, combined with somefeelingsof
satisfactionand pleasure.Learning is perhapsseenas essentiallyreceptive,a
matter of intake rather than of effort and initiative.
d)A wedding is a largely ritual, though meaningful,event.The corresponding
lessonis thereforeto someextent structured,with certain set routines and
conventions;the roles and relationship are also predeterminedand fairly
rigid. It is to a large extent the adequateperformanceof theseroutines and
maintenanceof roles which determinesits success.
e) A menu, in contrast, involveschoice and flexibility; it is not, however,
concernedwith outcomes.If you chosethis one, you are more interestedin
possibilities,options and processthan in the final product in terms of
successfullearning.
f) If you choseconversation,you probably seethe lessonas a rather informal
social event,where what is important is communication, and the formation
and maintenanceof good relationshipsbetweenparticipants.The teacher
would be seenas the facilitator of interaction, and much of the initiative
would be taken by the learners.
g) Doing the shopping is the successfulperformance of a seriesof necessary
businesstransactions,where the shopperhas usually pre-planneda list of
things to do and an itinerary. The lesson,therefore,would be essentiallya
systematicand goal-orientedprogressionthrough a preparedset of items,
with the emphasison efficiencyand completion of tasks.
h)A football game,like a mountain climb, involvesthe investmentof effort in
order to achievea defined aim; but here the effort is made as a team, and
social interaction, whether cooperative or competitive, is important. There
are also elementstypical of such games- such as the existenceof rules and a
referee,challenge,tension- which you may find applicable.
i) If you seea lessonas a symphony,then what interestsyou perhapsis the
aspectof aestheticvariation and order: the combination of different themes,
tempo, volume, tone and so on that go to make a full and balanced
programme and make it likely that learnerswill enjoy the lesson.There is also
the aspectof harmonious cooperation,of working togetherto createa
shared,satisfyingresult.
j) The lessonseenas a consultationwith a doctor implies a certain relationship
between teacher and learner that parallels that between doctor and patient,
where the first is authoritative and takes most of the responsibility and
initiative in interaction, and the secondis mainly receptiveand obedient.
Another facet of the samerelationship is the caring attitude of the
professional towards the client, and the trust of the client in the professional.
(2) Lessonpreparation
L. Somecomponenttasks or texts may have beenprepareddays or weeksin
advance,but I prepare the specificlessonusually not more than a day or two
in advance,so that it can be linked to the one before and the programme of
activities is fresh in my mind.
2. Yes,I always write down lessonnotes.
3. Thesenotesare usually very brief: lessthan a page.
224
Notes
4. The notes consistof brief headingsand abbreviations(probably largely
incomprehensibleto anyone else)reminding me what I wanted to do and in
what order; pagenumbers,if I am using a book; notesof specificlanguage
items I intend to teach, or cues or questions for tasks; a reserveactivity for
use if I find myself with extra time.
5. I am aware of my teachingobjectives,but do not write them down.
6. I look at my notesonly very occasionallyduring the lesson:usually only for
specificinformation like page numbers or vocabulary items. It is the writing
itself which is important and helps me organize myself; once the plan is there,
it is usually fresh enough in my memory not to have to refer to it during the
lesson.However, I like to have it there, just in case!
7.I keep the notesfor a while. PeriodicallSwhen I have time,I go through them
and note down and file ideasthat were successfuland that I thereforewant to
rememberand re-use;the rest I throw away.
(3) Commentson the lessondescriptionin Box 15.5
On the whole, I would say this was a satisfactorylesson;studentswere on-task
most of the time, probably learning;the lessonwas varied and progressedat a
brisk pace.There were, however,somelost opportunities, and someprocedures
may not be to the taste of someteachers.
Somespecificpoints:
- It took five minutes for the students to quieten: time wristed for language
learning; perhapsmore assertivedemand on the part of the teachercould
have shortenedthis initial transition?
- The fact that the teacherelicited topic and words was good, sincethe
studentswere prepared,and at least someof them knew the words. But what
about those who did not? To promote 'intake' it might have beenbetter to
put them on the board and tell studentsto write them in their notebooks.
- The pair work did not really work; virtually no learning was taking place.
Probably the task was too difficult and not clearly enough defined:I am not
sureI could have done it myself. And would they be able to do it for
homework, if they could not do it in class?
- The teacher was deliberately guiding students towards developing reading
strategies,and making them useone: a good idea. The studentsread well,
obviously concentratingand focussed.
- The true/falseexercisewas done 'ping-pong' fashion: many studentswere not
involved. There would have been a higher proportion of student activiry if
the teacher had let them try answering in writing for fwo or three minutes
before checkingin the full class.
It
was good that the teachergavehomework at this stageso that it was not
left to the last minute.
- The speech:obviously somethingstudentswere usedto and treated as
routine; though many teachers,and students,dislike this procedure.The rest
of the classwas sympathetic and affentive - clearly listening and
understanding.
- The discussion:if the objectivehere was oral fluencypracticethen not many
students benefited from it! A common, perhaps not optimally cost-effective,
use of classtime.
225
15 Lessonplanning
Further reading
Maclennan, S. (1987) 'Integrating lessonplanning and classmanagement',EI:T
lournal, 41,3,793-7.
(Lessonplanning, with particular referenceto the 'stir-settle' factor)
Prabhu,N. S. (1992) 'The dynamicsof the languagelesson',TESOL Quarterly,
26,2,22547.
(An interesting analysis of various facets of the lesson,principally comparing
thd contribution of transactional and interactional elements)
Underwood, M. (1987 ) Eff ectiue CIassroom Managemenf,London: Longman.
(Various aspectsof classroom management and lessonplanning: practical and
comprehensive)
Ur, P. and Wright, A. (1,992)Fiue-Minute Actiuities, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
(A collection of short activities which can be used to easetransitions. as
reserves,or to introduce or round off lessons)
226
interaction
Module
16:Classroom
Observationhas shown that the most common type of classroominteraction is
that known as 'IRF'-'Initiation-Response-Feedback': the teacherinitiates an
exchange,usually in the form of a question,one of the studentsanswers,the
teachergivesfeedback(assessment,
correction, comment), initiates the next
question- and so on (Sinclairand Coulthard, t975).
There are, however, alternative patterns: the initiative does not always have
to be in the hands of the teacherland interaction may be betweenstudents,or
betweena student and the material.
Task Glassifying forms of interaction
Look at the various patterns of interaction described in Box 16.1, and note
for each one hor active the teacher and students are in their participation,
using the following code:
IT = Teacher very active, students only receptive
T = Teacher active, students mainly receptive
TS = Teacher and students fairly egtrally active
S = Students active, teacher mainly receptive
SS = Students very active, teacher only receptive
Can you add any further ideas for interaction patterns, and attach
appropriate codes?
If you wish, look up the Notes, (l) for my oJvnanswers.
FoIlow-up Observe one or two lessons, and note do,rrn the types of interaction ]rou
obserrntion saw, using your onrn list or that shown in Box 16.I . After the obsewation,
and discuss or reflect on the following questions:
dl'scussion l. Was there one particular type of interaction that seemed to
predominate?
2. Did teacher activity predominate? Or student activity? Or was the
interaction more or less balanced?
3. How appropriate did you think the chosen interaction patterns were for
the teaching objectives in the different activities? Perhaps look at one or
two specific examples from yor.u observation. This point is studied more
fi:lly inUnit Five.
227
16 CIassroom i nteracti o n
B O X 1 6 .1 : IN T ER AC T IO N P A TTE R N S
Group work
Studentswork in smallgroupson tasksthat entailinteraction:
conveying
information,
for example,or groupdecision-making.
The teacherwalksaround
listening,interveneslittleif at all.
Closed-endedteacher questioning ('lRF')
Onlyone 'right'responsegets approved.Sometimescynicallycalledthe 'Guess
what the teacherwants you to say' game.
lndividual work
The teachergivesa task or set of tasks,and studentswork on them independently;
the teacherwalks aroundmonitoringand assistingwhere necessary.
Ghoral responses
The teachergivesa modelwhich is repeatedby all the classin chorus;or givesa
cue which is resoondedto in chorus.
Gollaboration
Studentsdo the same sort of tasksas in 'lndividualwork', but work together,usually
in pairs,to try to achievethe best resultsthey can.The teachermay or may not
intervene.(Notethat this is differentfrom 'Groupwork', where the task itself
necessitates
interaction.)
Student initiates, teacher answers
Forexample,in a guessinggame:the studentsthinkof questionsand the teacher
responds;but the teacherdecideswho asks.
Full-classinterastion
The studentsdebatea topicor do a languagetask as a class;the teachermay
interveneoccasionally,
to stimulateparticipation
or to monitor
Teacher talk
Thismay involvesome kindof silentstudentresponse,suchas writingfrom
dictation,but there is no initiativeon the partof the student.
Self-access
Studentschoosetheirown learningtasks,and work autonomously.
Open-ended teacher questionin g
Thereare a numberof possible'right'answers,so that more studentsanswereach
cue.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Questioning is a universallyusedactivation techniquein teaching,mainly
within the Initiation-Response-Feedbackpanern describedat the beginningof
Unit One.
Note that teacherquestionsare not always realizedby interrogatives.For
228
Ouestioning
example,the question:
'What can you seein this picture?'
may be expressedby the state-ent,
'We'll describewhat is going on in this picture.'
or by the command:
'Tell me what you can seein this picture.'
So perhapsa question,in the context of teaching,may be best definedas a
teacherutterancewhich has the objectiveof eliciting an oral responsefrom the
learner(s).
Task Reasons for questioning
There are various reasons why a teacher might ask a question in the
classroom. Read through the list of possible reasons shovunin Box 16.2, and
add any more that you can think of.
BOX 16.2: RE A S ONSFOROUE S T I O NI NG
-
To providea modelfor languageor thinking.
To find out somethingfrom the learners(facts,ideas,opinions).
To checkor test understanding,
knowledgeor skill.
To get learnersto be activein their learning.
To directattentionto the topicbeinglearned.
To informthe classviathe answersof the strongerlearnersratherthanthrough
the teacher'sinput.
To provideweaker learnerswith an opportunityto participate.
To stimulatethinking(logical,
reflectiveor imaginative);
to probemore deeplyinto
rssues;
To get learnersto reviewand practisepreviouslylearntmaterial.
To encourageself-expression.
To communicateto learnersthat the teacheris genuinelyinterestedin what they
t hin k .
(Nofe:Any specificquestionis likelyto involvemorethanone of theseaims;for
example,it might reviewand practisewhile simultaneously
encouraging
selfexpression.)
UniversityPress1996
@Cambridge
Effectivequestioning
There have been numerous attempts to identify characteristicsof effective
questioning techniquesin the classroom. Questions have been classified
according.to various different criteria: what kind of thinking they try to elicit
(plain recall, for example,analysis,or evaluation);whether they are 'genuine'
or 'display' questions(doesthe teacherreally want to know the answer,or is he
or shesimply checkingif the student does?);whether they are closed-or openended(do they have a singleright answeror many?);and many others.For
229
16 Classroom i nteraction
somemore detailedsuggestedmethodsof analysis,seereferencesgiven under
Furth er reading ('Questioning')below.
However, in the presentcontext, I proposeconcentratingon a few basic
principles that would seemto characteize effective questions within the
conventional IRF structure, defining 'effective questions' in terms of the desired
response.As languageteachers,our motive in questioningis usually to get our
students to engagewith the languagematerial actively through speech;so an
effective questioning technique is one that elicits fairly prompt, motivated,
relevant and full responses.If, on the other hand, our questionsresult in long
silences,or are answeredby only the strongeststudents,or obviously bore the
class,or consistentlyelicit only very brief or unsuccessfulanswers,then there is
probably somethingwrong.
Some useful criteria for effective questioning for languageteachersare
in Box 16.3.
suggested
F O RE F F E CT I VO
B OX 16.3: CRITE RIA
E UE S T I O NI NG
1. Glarity:do the learnersimmediatelygraspnot onlywhat the questionmeans,but
alsowhat kindof an answeris reouired?
2. Learningvalue: doesthe questionstimulatethinkingand responsesthat will
unhelpfulor
contributeto furtherlearningof the targetmaterial?Or is it irrelevant,
merelytime-filling?
challenging,
stimulating?
3. Interest:do learnersfind the questioninteresting,
4. Availability:can most of the membersof the classtry to answerit? Or onlythe
(Notethat the mere additionof a few
moreadvanced,confident,knowledgeable?
seconds'wait-timebeforeacceptinga responsecan makethe questionavailable
largernumberof learners.)
to a significantly
5. Extension:doesthe questloninviteand encourageextendedand/orvaried
answers?'
6. Teacherreaction:arethe learnerssurethat their resoonseswill be relatedto
with respect,that they will not be put down or ridiculedif they saysomething
inappropriate?
'l Occasionally
- for example,where the emphasisis on listeningcomprehensionratherthan
in such casesthis criterionwould not
speaking- briefsingleanswersmay be more appropriate;
apply
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
Task Gritical analysis of teacher questions
Look at the exchanges in Box 16.4, which are loosely based on events
actually observed in classrooms. Can you identify what the purpose of the
teacher is in gnestioningt, and comment on the way he or she went about it,
perhaps applyrng the criteria suggested above? See the Comments section
belovv for my ovyncriticisms.
230
Auestioning
B O X 1 6 .4 : T EA C H ER O U ES T IO N IN G
Exchange 1
T: Now todaywe aregoingto discusscircuses.Haveyou everbeento a circus?
Yes,yes.
Ss: (immediately)
T: Yes.Whereyou seeclowns,andhorsesandelephants
andacrobats...
Exchange 2
T : Y e s te rd a yw e l e a rn e dv a ri o u sw ords that expressfeel i ngs.C an you tel l
m e ...Wh adt o e s ' re l i e me
f' a n ?
(pause)
Well,when mightyoufeel relief?
(pause)
Canyou remembera timewhenyoufelt relief?Yes,Maria?
51: Whenmy friendwas late,I thoughthe wasn'tcomingandthenhe came.
T : G o o d ...F ra n ?
52: I thoughtI willfailthe exam,andthenin the end I pass.
T: Good.Now:'fear'?
Exchange 3
T: Right:whatwas the storyabout?Cananyonetell me?Claire?
S: Man.
T: Yes,a man.Whatdidthismando?Canyoutell me anythingabouthim?
S : H e ...ma rri e d .
Exchange 4
T: Here'sa picture,with lots of things going on. Tell me some of them. For
is talkingto the driver,perhapshe's tellinghim where
example:the policeman
to go.what else?
S1: Thelittlegirlis buyingan ice-cream.
the road.
52: There'sa woman,oldwoman,in the middle,she'scrossing
53: A ma n ...s i tti n g ...o
c hna i r...
T: OK,a manis sittingon a chair,therein the corner..Whatelse?
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Comments
Exchange1
There is a problem of 'double messages'here, sincethe declaredobjectiveis
contradicted by the questioningtechniqueused.The teachersaysexplicitly that
the intention is to 'discuss';but the introductory question,though clear,actually
discouragesdiscussion:it is a 'yes/no' question inviting a single,brief answer,
lacking'extension', and not forwarding the declaredteachingobjective.
However, it is both interestingand 'available': the factthat the studentsanswer
promptly and apparently enthusiasticallyindicatesthat they probably have
somethingto say- though they are given no opportunity to do so.
Either the teacherdid not really intend to 'discuss'at all and prefersto hold
the stageherself,or sheis not aware of the inappropriate form of her questions;
perhapsa combination of the two.
Exchange2
The purpose of the exchangeis, presumablSto review vocabulary learnedthe
day before.The obvious question: 'I7hat doesX mean?'though apparently
231
16 Classroom i nteraction
clear,is unsuccessfulin eliciting answers,probably becauseit is too abstract and
difficult; even a competent native speaker of the language might have trouble
answering.It is, thus, not very 'available', and certainly doesnot elicit extended
answers.This teacher,however,quickly realizesher mistake and rephrases,
twice. The question that demandsa concreteexample from experienceis much
better on all counts, and predictably receivesimmediate and fairly full
responses.But then, what is going to happen with the next item?
Exchange3
There is no indication of pausesafter the questions,and the answersare
basically correct in content; the questions seem fairly clear,interesting and
availableto most of the class,but their value in providing for learning is
lowered becauseof the difficulty of the learnersin expressingtheir answersin
the foreign language.The teachermight have beenable to help by giving some
'scaffolding', or modelling answers,in her questions:.Wasit about a man, a
woman, an animal...?It was...Yes,Claire?'
Exchange 4
Here the teachermakesit very clear what kinds of responsesshe is requestingby
providing examples.Shealso implies that sheexpectsa number of answers
('extension').The combination of thesetwo strategiesmakesthe questionfar
more 'available': the sheernumber of student responsesto the singlecue looks
like being relatively large, and the weak student (S3)venturesa responsebased
on the examples(of the teacherand of previous speakers)which he or she
would not have done if only one response,without illustration, had been
requested.The sheernumber of responsescontributes significantlyto the
effectivenessof the desired practice of the target language as a whole (see
Module 2; Practiceactiuitiesfor a discussionof the characteristicsof good
practiceactivities).
In group work, learners perform a learning task through small-group
interaction. It is a form of learner activation that is of particular value in the
practice of oral fluency: learners in a classthat is divided into five groups get five
times as many opportunities to talk as in full-classorganization. It also has
other advantages:it fosterslearner responsibilityand independence,can
improve motivation and contribute to a feeling of cooperation and warmth in
the class.There is someresearchthat indicatesthat the use of group work
improves learning outcomes (seeFurther reading).
Thesepotential advantagesare not, however, always realized,.Teachersfear
they may lose control, that there may be too much noise,that their students
may over-usetheir mother tongue, do the task badly or not at all: and their fears
are often well founded. Somepeople - both learners and teachers- dislike a
situation where the teachercannot constantly monitor learner language.
The successof group work dependsto some extent on the surrounding social
232
lndividualization
climate, and on how habituated the classis to using it; and also, of course,on
the selectionof an interestingand stimulating task whose performanceis well
within the ability of the group. But it also depends,more immediately on
effectiveand careful organization. Someguidelineson organizing group work
are given in Box 16.5, divided into four sections:presentation,process,ending,
feedback.You might like to usethe task as a way of studying them.
Note also that a classmay not readily take to group work if it is usedto being
constantly teacher-directed.But this is somethingthat can be learnedthrough
practice; do not give up if your first attempts at group work with a classare
unsatisfactory.
Task Evaluating guidelines
The gruidelines given in Box 16.5 are ones that I recomrnend, but may be of
varying usefulness to you. .A.syou read, tick ideas that seem in the light of
your experience to be particularly important, delete any that you think
trivial or unnecessary, and make notes in the margins of any queries,
criticisms or other reactions that occur to you as you read.
Compare your notes with those of colleagrues, and discuss the relevance
of the guidelines to your orn teaching situation.
Unit Four: Individualization
Theconceptof individualizationin languagelearning
The concept of individualization' in education is sometimesidentified with the
provision of a self-access
learning programme.
centre,or evena full self-access
Materials of various kinds are made available,and the learnerschoosewhich to
work on: the organization of thesechoicesmay be in the hands of either teacher
or learner,and learnersmay be working on their own or in groups or pairs.
I would, however, define the term more modestly as a situation where
learnersare given a measureof freedom to choosehow and what they learn at
any particular time (implying lessdirect teachersupervisionand more learner
autonomy and responsibilityfor learning), and there is some attempt to adapt
or selecttasks and materialsto suit the individual. The opposite is 'lockstep'
learning, where everyonein the class,in principle, is expectedto do the same
thing at the sametime in the sameway.
Individualized learning thus defineddoesnot necessarilyimply a programme
centres(which
basedentirely on self-instruction,nor the existenceof self-access
are expensiveto equip and maintain and thereforenot availableto most
foreignJanguagelearners).It doesimply a seriousattempt to provide for
differing learner needswithin a classand to place a higher proportion of
responsibilityfor learning on the shouldersof the learnersthemselves.For most
of us, it is perhaps more useful to devote thought to how we can achieve at least
somedegreeof this kind of individualization within a conventionalclassroom
than it is to give up on the attempt becausewe do not have the time or resources
to organize full self-accessfacilities. This unit therefore looks at
233
16 Classroomi nteraction
B OX 16.5: GROUP -W O RK
O RG A NI Z A T I O N
1. Presentation
The instructions
that are givenat the beginningare crucial:if the studentsdo not
confusion,lack
understandexactlywhat they haveto do therewill be time-wasting,
of effectivepractice,possiblelossof control.Selecttasksthat are simpleenoughto
classesyou may find it cost-effective
to explain
describeeasily;and in monolingual
some or all in the students'mothertongue.lt is advisableto givethe instructions
before givingout materialsor dividingthe classintogroups;and a preliminary
rehearsal
or'dry run' of a sampleof the activitywith the full classcan helpto clarify
things.Note,however,that if your studentshavealreadydonesimilaractivitiesyou
will be ableto shortenthe process,givingonly briefguidelines;it is mainlythe first
time of doingsomethingwith a classthat suchcareneedsto be investedin
instructing.
quickreview
Try to foreseewhat languagewill be needed,and havea preliminary
grammaror vocabulary.
of appropriate
Finally,beforegivingthe signto starttell the
classwhat the arrangements
arefor stopping:if there is a time limit,or a set signal
for stopping,saywhat it is; if the groupssimplystop when they havefinished,then
tell them what they will haveto do next.lt is wise to havea 'reserve'taskplannedto
occupymembersof groupswho finishearlierthanexpected.
(SeeUnitThreeof Module1 (pages16-18)for a more detaileddiscussionof the
givingof instructionsin general.)
2. Process
Yourjob duringthe activityis to go from groupto group,monitor,and either
contributeor keepout of the way - whicheveris likelyto be more helpful.lf you do
decideto intervene,your contributionmay takethe form of :
-
providinggeneralapprovaland support;
helpingstudentswho are havingdifficulty;
keepingthe studentsusingthe targetlanguage(in manycasesyour mere
p re s e n c ew i l l e n s u reth i s !);
in a discussionwhere you find some studentsare
tactfullyregulatingparticipation
over-dominant
and otherssilent.
3. Ending
lf you haveset a time limit,then this will helpyou draw the activityto a closeat a
try to finishthe activitywhile the studentsare stillenloying
certainpoint.In principle,
it and interested,or onlyjust beginningto f lag.
4. Feedback
A feedbacksessionusuallytakesplacein the contextof full-classinteraction
after
the end of the groupwork. Feedbackon the task may take manyforms:givingthe
poolingideas
rightsolution,if there is one; listeningto and evaluating
suggestions;
on the board;displayingmaterialsthe groupshaveproduced;and so on. Yourmain
objectivehereis to expressappreciation
of the effortthat hasbeeninvestedand its
results.Feedbackon languagemay be integratedintothis discussionof the task,or
orovidethe focusof a seoarateclasssessionlater.
UniversityPress1996
@Cambridge
individualization in the context of the teacher-frontedlesson.
If you are interestedin studying more thoroughly individualized programmes,
have a look at Dickinson (1,987)and Sheerin(1989).
234
lndividualization
Proceduresthat allow for individual choice
ln Box 16.6 thereis a list of classroomprocedures,listed in random order, that
allow for differing degreesof individual learnerchoice.This choicemay be in:
1. Speed:how fast or slowly eachindividual may work (everyonebeing engaged
in the samebasictask);
2.Levelztasksthat are basicallyaimed at the sameteachingpoint may be
presentedin easieror more difficult versions,so that the learner can choose
the one that suits his or her level;
3. Topic the learner may be able to selecttasks that - while all are basedon the
samelanguageskill or teachingpoint - vary in the subjector topic of the text
as well as in level;
4. Language skill or teaching point: each learner may choose to work on a quite
different aspectof language:listening,for example,or grammar,or reading
literature.
Another way learning procedurescan vary is in the amount of work demanded
of the teacherin preparation.
The task below asksyou to think about the degreeof individualization
provided by different practical classroomprocedures,and the relationship
betweentheseand the degreeof teacherwork that needsto be invested.If you
do not wish to do the task, read through it quickly and then go on to the
Conclusionsat the end of the unit.
Task Assessingindividualizedptocedures
StageI : Categorization
Insert the namesof the different procedures described in Box 16.6into the
appropriate squaresin the grid shorn in Box 16.7.It is possible to have
procedures 'overflowing' acrossthe lines, if 1ou feel they do not fit neatly
into a category.
Stage2: Conclusions
Vtllrenyou have finished, Iook at your grrid to see if any kind of systematic
pattern emer(tes,and any conclusionscan be drawn.
A suggestedway of completing the grridis shovvnin the Notes, (2).
Some conclusions
If your filled-in grid looks similar to mine as shown in the Notes, (2), there are
two conclusionswe might draw from it.
.
1. The techniqueshigher up on our grid (that are more individualized)tend on
averageto be also more to the right (involve more teacherpreparation):the
conclusionwould be that on the whole more choicefor the learner means
more work for the teacher.
2. Nevertheless,note that there is at least one item quite high up on the grid that
is also on the left. It is possible, in spite of the generalization just made, to
individualize to quite a highdegreewithout a prohibitive amount of work.
The crucial issueis perhapscareful planning rather than sheerwork hours.
235
16 Classroom interaction
B OX 16.6: CLA S S ROO M
P RO CE DURE S
1. Readers.Studentschooseindividual
simplifiedreaders,of variedleveland topic,
from a schoollibrary,and readquietlyin class.
2. Responseto listening. The teacherplaysa recordedtext on a topicalissue,and
asksthe classto notedown pointsthey understood.
3. Workcards. A pile of workcardspreparedby the teacheris put in the centre of
the class,all practisingthe materialthe classhas recentlylearned,but each
different.Eachstudentchoosesone,completesit and then takesanother.
4. Textbook questions in class. The class has been given a set of questionsfrom
the textbookto answerin writing;eachstudentdoesthem on his or her own.
5. Worksheets. The teacherdistributesworksheetswhich all oractisethe same
grammarpoint,but containingvarioussectionswith differentkindsof practice
tasksand topics.The studentschoosewhich sectionsthey want to do, and do as
much as they can in the time allotted.
6. Textbook exercisesfor homework. The teachergives three sets of
questionsfrom the textbook,of varyingdifficulty,on a passage
comprehension
that hasbeen readin class;eachstudentis askedto selectand do one set.
7. Varied tasks. The teacherhas prepareda numberof workcardsbasedon
differentlanguageskillsand content.Thereis a cassetterecorderin one corner
with headsetsfor listeningtasks,and anothercorneravailable
for quiettalk.
Studentsselect,work on and exchangecardsfreely.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
B OX 16.7: CA TE GORI Z I NG
I NDI V I DUA L I Z EP
DRO CE DURE S
Learner
choice in:
speeo
level
topic
point
language
speed
level
topic
speed
level
speed
Little or
no teacher
preparation
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
236
Some teacher
preparation
A heavyload
of teacher
preparatton
The selection of appropriate activation techniques
activation techniques
The'Initiation-Response-Feedback'('IRF')pattern describedat the beginning
of this module tends to be usedmost of the time in most classrooms,evenif it is
not in fact the most effectiveway of achievingthe teachingobjectiveat the time.
This unit aims to raise awarenessof the suitability of different patterns for
different teachingobjectives,and suggestssomegeneralconsiderations.
Task Matching
In Box 16.8 are some descriptions of materials and objectives in using
them, e:rpressed as teacher statements. Imagine you have been asked to
advise the teachers what kind of classroom interaction would be most
effective in producing learning in each context. To each description below
(a-g) match one or more of the interaction patterns listed in Box I6.I and
note down, or discuss, your choice.
Some factors that might in general inlluence such choices are discussed
in the Comment section beloar; specifrc possible 'matches' are suggested
intheNotes, (3).
Comment
'
1.'IRF'is a convenientand easilyadministeredactivation techniquethat
quickly providesthe teacherwith someindication of what someof the class
knows. Its resultsdo not, however,provide a very representativesampleof
what most of the classknow or do not knoq since only a minority have a
chanceto expressthemselves,and theseare usually the more advancedand
confident. Individual work providesfar more accurateand comprehensive
feedback.
2.If the classis in the early stagesof learning something,then the 'IRF' pattern
is useful, sinceit allows the teacherto monitor immediately,and learnersmay
also learn from each other's responses.Later, however, when they know the
material better and simply needto consolidateit through rehearsalthey are
probably better servedby individual, group or pair work which allows active
participation of more students simultaneously.
3. Teacherspeechor reading aloud is useful for presentingnew languageor
texts; also for recyclingmaterial which the classhas previously encountered
through their own reading.The extra exposurecontributesto the
consolidation of learning,particularly if the teacherspeaksexpressivelyor
dramatically.
4. Collaboration is invaluablewhen learnersare producing considered,careful
written language,and want to avoid mistakesor have them correctedas
quickly as possible,but when you yourself cannot possiblymonitor all of
them at the sametime. In collaboration, learnerscontribute to eachother's
writing and are made more aware of their own; they can in fact do a
substantialproportion of the monitoring on their own.
237
16 Classroominteraction
BOX 16.8: TEACHEROBJECTIVES
AND LEARNERACTIVATION
a) Comprehension check
'We'vejust finishedreadinga story.I want to makesurethe classhas understoodit,
questionsin the book.'
usingthe comprehension
bl Familiarization with text
'We'veiust finishedreadinga story.l'm fairlysurethey'veunderstoodthe basicplot,
but I want them to get reallyfamiliarwith the text throughreading,as they'regoing
to haveto passan exam on it.'
cl Oral fluency
'l havea small[fifteenlclassof businesspeople,who need more practicein talking.I
want them to do a discussiontask where they haveto decidewhich qualitiesare
most importantfor a manager.'
dl Grammar check
'We've beenworkingon the distinctionbetweentwo similarverb tenses.I want to
find out how far they'vegraspedit, usingan exercisein the bookwhere they haveto
allotthe righttenseto the rightcontext.'
el Writing
'Theyneedto improvetheirwriting.I want to ask them to write for a few minutesin
class,but am worriedthey mightjust makea lot of mistakesand not learnanything.'
fl Grammar practice
'Theyneedto practiseformingand askingquestions.I thoughtof usingan interview
situation;they might interviewme or eachother.'
gl New vocabulary
'l want to introducesome new vocabularyin preparationfor a text we're going to
read.'
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Notes
( 1) Interaction patterns
I have listed the items below in ordeq from the most teacher-dominated(1) to
the most student-active(9).
1. Teachertalk (TT)
2. Choral responses(T)
3. Closed-endedteacherquestioning('IRF') (T)
4. Open-endedteacherquestioning(TS)
5. Studentinitiates,teacheranswers(TS)
6. Full-classinteraction (S)
7. Individual work (S)
8. Collaboration (S)
9. Group work (S)
(SS)
10. Self-access
238
Nofes
(2) Categorizingindividualized procedu res
Learner
choicein:
speed
level
topic
point
language
varled
taoke
speed
level
topic
readere
speed
level
tetctbook
ercrcieee for
homework
speeo
brtbook
queetioneln
alaee
Little or
no teacher
preparation
workaarde
worksheete
rceponeet'o
liotening
Some teacher
preparauon
A heavyload
of teacher
preparation
(3) Suggestedsolutions to the task in Unit Five
a) Closedor open-endedteacherquestioningis the usual solution; probably
more effectiveis individual work. In full-classquestioningonly a minority of
the classanswers,and thesewill tend to be those who understand.Feedback
on learner understandingwill thereforebe incompleteand inadequate.More
detailedand reliable information can be obtained if learnersare askedto do
the questions individually in writing, while you move around the classto help
and monitor. Notebooks can also be taken in for later inspection.
b)Teacherreading aloud (a form of teachertalk); or combined group and
individual work. If the learners have read the text previously on their own,
your reading it aloud might be an effectiveway of 'recycling'. Another
possibility is to ask different learners to study different sections of the story in
depth, and then get together to teach eachother what they have studied.
c) Group work. A classof fifteen may seemsmall; but evenso, dividing it into
three groups of five for a task like this giveseachparticipant, on average,
three times as much practice in talking,
d)Individual work. The teacher'sclear objectiveis to test, though he or shedoes
not actually usethe word (seeUnit One of Module 3: Testsfor a definition of
a test). Therefore the objection to 'IRF' is the sameas in (a) above;and the
solution also similar.
e) Individual work and/or collaboration. This is a casewhere peer teachingcan
contribute. Learnerscan be askedeither to write alone and then help each
other improve, correct and polish their texts; or write collaboratively in the
first place,pooling their efforts to produce the best joint result they can.
239
16 Classroom interaction
Teachermonitoring can take place during the writing - as far as time and
classnumberspermit - or after.
f) Open-endedteacherquestioning,individual work and/or collaboration;
followed by full-classinteraction or group work. In order to make the
interview produce as much practice in questionsas possible,it is a good idea
to let the learnersprepareat leastsomeof thesein advance;individuall5 or in
pairs, or through a full-classbrainstorm of ideas.The interview may then be
targetedat the teacherin the full class;or at (volunteer)studentsin full class
or small groups.
g) Teachertalk, and/or teacherquestioning;possibly choral responses.In
general,the most efficientway to introduce new vocabulary is just to present
and explain it frankly. If, however, you think that some of your classknow
some of the items, ask them, and give them the opportuniry to teach (or
review) them for you. If they do not know them, then such questioningis to
be avoided:it is likely to result in silenceor wrong answersand a general
feeling of frustration and failure. After the new items have been introduced,
repeatingthem in chorus can help learnersto perceiveand rememberthem.
Further reading
CLASSROOM INTERACTION IN GENERAL
Bloom, B. S. (1955) Taxonomy of Educational Objectiues,Vol. I, New York:
McKay.
(A classichierarchicaltaxonomy of cognitive objectives,and by implication
of rypesof questionsand learning tasks)
Flanders,N. A. (19701AnalyzingTeachingBehauior,Reading,Mass.: AddisonIflesley.
(One well-known systemof analysisof teacher-studentinteraction, which
may be applied in observation)
Malamah-Thomas,A. (L987) ClassroomInteraction, Oxford: Oxford
Universiry Press.
(Mainly a seriesof tasks defining and critically exploring various aspectsof
classroominteraction)
Sinclair,J. and Coulthard, R. M. (1,975) Toutardsan Analysis of Discourse,
Oxford: Oxford Universify Press.
(An analysisof classroomdiscourseinto a hierarchy of categoriesof oral
participation)
QUESTIONING
Brock, C. A. (1985) 'The effectsof referentialquestionson ESL classroom
discourse',TESOL Quarterly, 20, 1, 47-59.
(An interestingpieceof researchon the effectivenessof 'genuine'questionsin
eliciting fuller answers)
Brown, G. A. and Edmondson,R. (1984) 'Asking questions',in \Vragg, E. C.
(ed.), ClassroomTeachingSkills,London and Sydney:Croom Helm,
pp.97-120.
240
Further reading
(Basedon various piecesof research,a brief, useful summary of purposes and
types of classroomquestions)
Long, M. H. and Sato, C. J. (1983) 'Classroom foreigner talk discourse:forms
and functions of teachers'questions',in Seliger,H. W. and Long, M. H.
(eds.), Classroom Oriented Researchin SecondLanguage Acquisition,
RowleS Mass.: Newbury House.
(On the use of various kinds of questionsin the foreign-languageclassroom)
GROUP WORK
Bejarano,Y. (1987)'A cooperativesmall-group methodology in the language
classroom', TESOL Quarterly 21, 3, 483-501.
Long, M. H. and Porter,P.A. (1985) 'Group work, interlanguagetalk and
second language acquisition', TESO L Quarter Iy, 19, 2, 207 -28 .
(Two articles on researchon the effectivenessof group work in language
teaching)
INDIVIDUALIZATION
Dickinson,L. (1987)Self-lnstructionin LanguageLearning,Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress.
(Discusses
the rationaleand organizationof entireself-instructional
programmes:with examplesof actualprogrammesand ideashow to design
or adaptmaterials)
Geddes,M. and Sturtridge,G. (eds.)(1982)Indiuidualization,Oxford:Modern
EnglishPublications.
(A collectionof articleson variousaspectsof individualizedlearning,with a
very practicalorientation)
McCall, J. (,992) Self-access:
Settingup a Centre,Manchester:The British
Council.
(A slim bookletwith very practicaladviceasto how to go about settingup
centres)
differentkindsof self-access
Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.
Sheerin,S. (1989)Self-access,
(Guidanceand plenty of ideasfor self-access
tasksat variouslevels)
Preparationand Training,Manchester:The
Sturtridge,G. (1.992)Self-access:
British Council.
(Anotherbooklet in the sameseriesas McCall's above,with someusefulideas
work)
abouthow to prepareboth teachersand learnersfor self-access
24t
Module
17:Giving
feedback
Unit One: Different approachesto the nature
and function of feedback
Preliminary definition: What is feedback?
In the context of teaching in general, feedback is information that is given to the
learner about his or her performance of a learning task, usually with the
objective of improving this performance. Someexamplesin languageteaching:
the words 'Yes, right!', said to a learner who has answereda question; a grade
of 70"/" on an exam; a raised eyebrow in responseto a mistake in grammarl
comments wriften in the margin of an essay.
Feedbackhas two main distinguishablecomponents: assessmentand
correction. In assessment,
the learner is simply informed how well or badly he
or she has performed. A percentagegrade on an exam would be one example;
or the response'No' to an attempted answer to a question in classlor a
comment such as 'Fair' at the end of a written assignment.In correction, some
specific information is provided on aspectsof the learner's performance:
through explanation, or provision of better or other alternatives, or through
elicitation of thesefrom the learner.Note that in principle correction can and
should include information on what the learner did right, as well as wrong, and
why! - but teachersand learnersgenerally understand the term as referring to
the correction of mistakes,so that is (usually) how it is used here.
Question Are the two components of assessment and correction completely
separable? In other words, can ]rou have assessment without correction, or
correction without assessment?
Read on for a possible €ulswer to this.
The relationship between assessmentand correction
It is, of course,perfectly possibleto give assessment
without correcting, as when
a final percentagemark on an exam is made known to a learner without the
exam itself being returned or commented on. The other way round is very much
lessfeasible:it is virtually impossibleto comment on what is right or wrong in
what a learner has done without conveying some kind of assessment.
If a
correction is supplied, the learner is very aware that this meansthe teacher
thinks something was wrong; if comment is given on why something was
appropriate, there is necessarilyan underlying messageof commendation.
Teachersare sometimesurged to be 'non-judgemental' when giving feedback;
in my opinion this is unrealistic.Any meaningful feedbackis going to involve
242
Differentapproachesto the natureand function of feedback
somekind of judgement.It is more useful,perhaps,to acceptthat there is
judgement involved, but to try to make the attitude to this more positive: that
mistakes are a natural and useful part of languagelearning; that when the
teacher gives feedback on them, the purpose is to help and promote learning;
and that 'getting it wrong' is not 'bad', but rather a way into 'getting it right'.
Approaches to the giving of feedback
In Boxes 1,7.1,and 77.2 youwill find expressionsof selectedopinions on the
nature and functions of assessmentand mistake correction; these are basedon
different theoriesof languagelearning or methodologies.It is not essentialfor
you to be familiar with the namesor details of the theoriesfor the purposesof
this bit of study; but if you are interestedin reading further on any of them, see
Mclaughlin (7987) and/or Richards and Rodgers(1986); or references
provided with specificitems.
The opinions as stated here are obviously simplified, and expressedin 'strong'
forms, as these are likely to provide more interesting and fruitful departurepoints for discussion.
DIFFERENT
BO X1 7 .1 : T H EP R OV IS ION
OFASSESSMENT:
oPlNloNs
Audio-lingualism
Negativeassessmentis to be avoidedas far as possiblesinceit functionsas
'punishment'and may inhibitor discouragelearning.Positiveassessmentprovides
reinforcement
of correctresponses,and promoteslearning.
Humanistic methodologies
A crucialfunctionof the givingof assessmentis to preserveand promotea positive
self-imageof the learneras a personand languagelearner.Assessmenttherefore
'
shouldbe positiveor non-judgemental.
Skill theory
Forsuccessfulacquisition
of a skill,the learnerneedsfeedbackon how well he or
she is doing;hencethe importanceof the provisionof constantand honest
assessment(Johnson,1995).
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Task
.Sfage I: Study
As ]rou read, think about or discuss how far ]rou agrree with the various
statements.
Stage 2: Discussion
After reading: can you sumrnarize ]rour own opinion on the functions of
assessment and correction? Write dovn y'our orJynstatements in a format
similar to that shomr in Boxes l7.L/2; if lou are working in a group,
compare your ideas with those of colleagiues.
If you are interested in comparing lrour own opinion with mine, look at
theNotes, (l).
243
17 Giving feedback
BOX 17.2: THE CORRECTION
OF MISTAKES:DIFFERENT
oPrNroNs
Audio-lingualism
Learnermistakesare,in principle,avoidedby the limitingof progressto very small,
controlledsteps:hencethereshouldbe littleneedfor correction.
The latteris, in any
case,not usefulfor learning;peoplelearnby gettingthingsrightin the first placeand
having their performancereinforced.
Gognitive code-learning
Mistakesare regrettable,
partof learning:they shouldbe
but an unavoidable
correctedwheneverthey occurto preventthem occurringagain.
Interlanguage
Mistakesare not regrettable,
but an integraland importantpartof languagelearning;
correctingthem is a way of bringingthe learner's'interlanguage'
closerto the target
language(Selinker,1972,19921.
Communicative approach
Not all mistakesneedto be corrected:the mainaim of languagelearningis to
receiveand conveymeaningfulmessages,and correctionshouldbe focussedon
mistakesthat interferewith this aim, not on inaccuracies
of usage.
Monitor theory
Correctiondoes not contributeto realacquisition
of the language,but only to the
learner'sconscious'monitoring'of speechor writing.Hencethe mainactivityof the
teachershouldbe to providecomprehensible
inputfrom which the learnercan
acquirelanguage,not to correct(Krashen,1982).
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Unit Two: Assessment
Note: In literature on education, a distinction is sometimesmade between
(of learnerperformance),evaluation (of innovation or changein, for
assessment
example, school organization or a course syllabus) and appraisal (of teacher
performance).This unit is concernedonly with feedbackon learning, and the
terms 'evaluation' and 'assessment'
are usedinterchangeably.
Most of the feedbackwe give our learnersis ongoing correction and assessment,
directed at specific bits of learner-produced languagewith the aim of bringing
about improvement; the type of evaluation involved here is sometimescalled
'formative', sinceits main purpose is to 'form': to enhance,not conclude,a
process.Distinct from this is the evaluationusually termed 'summative',where
the teacherevaluatesan overall aspectof the learner'sknowledgein order to
summarize the situation: how proficient he or she is at a certain point in time,
for example,or how much he or shehas progressedduring a particular course.
244
Assessment
Summative evaluation may contribute little or nothing to the ongoing
teachingllearningprocess;but it is a part of the teacher'sjob, something we
need to know how to do effectively.
Below are descriptions of various ways of gathering the information which
and of somecommon criteria usedfor
will serveas a basisfor assessment.
it.
assessing
Gatheringinformation (1):Iesfs
The most common way of gatheringinformation for assessment
is through tests
(seeModule 3); the usual criterion is an arbitrary level which the learner is
expectedto have reached;and the result is generallyexpressedthrough
percentages.
Question
Can you remem.ber taking an exam or test at the end of a progrramme of
study, or in order to be accepted into a course or profession? lMhat was the
criterion for success, and hornrwas )rour result e:<pressed?
Gatheringinformation (2):Othersources
There, are, however, various problems with tests as a basisfor summative
evaluation: they are a one-off event which may not necessarilygive a fair
sample of the learner's overall proficiency; they are not always valid (actually
testingwhat they saythey are) or reliable (giving consistentresults);and if they
are seenas the sole basis for a crucial evaluation in the learner's career,they can
be extremelystressful.
Other options do, however,exist. Theseare summarizedbelow; or see
Brindley (1989) for a more detaileddiscussion.
The teachergivesa subjectiveestimateof the learner's
1. Teacher'sassessment.
overall performance.
The final gradeis somekind of combination of the
2. Continuous assessment.
gradesthe learner received for various assignmentsduring the course.
The learners themselvesevaluate their own performance,
3. Self-assessment.
using clear criteria and weighting systemsagreedon beforehand.
4. Portfolio. The learner gathers a collection of assignmentsand projects done
over a long period into a file; and this portfolio providesthe basisfor
evaluation.
Question
Haveyou yourself any e:rperience of any of the above, as teacher or
learner? Hovyvalid or useful were/are they,in your e:<perience?
Criteria
Having collected the 'evidence' of the learners' proficiency in one or more of the
ways describedabove,what will be our yardstick in decidinghow good it is?
The following are someof the possibilities.
1,.Criterion-referenced: how well the learner is performing relative to a fixed
criterion, where this is basedon an estimationof what it is reasonableor
245
17Giving feedback
desirableto demand from learnersat the relevantpoint in their development
(age,career,level,stageof a course).
2. Norm-referenced: how well the learner is performing relative to the group. In
this case,a group of slow learnerswould be assessedaccording to different,
easier,norms than a group of faster ones.
3. Individual-referenced: how well the learner is performing relative to his or her
own previous performance, or relative to an estimate of his or her individual
ability.
Question
\Mhat criteria dolwould you yourself use in assessing learners'
performance? Wonld you combine different criteria? Would you take into
account learners' effort, motivation and progness in deciding on a frnal
grrade?
Assessmentgrades
Percentages
are probably the most common way of expressingassessment
grades, but there are others.
1. Letters,words or phrases:'lf or'B'1 'Good', 'Excellent'.Theselook a little
lessimpersonal,lessdefinitivethan percentages;
but in fact learnersoften
'read'them as definitivenumber-typegrades,exactly as they read percentages.
2. Profiles: a totally different kind of expressionof assessment,comprising a
number of separategradeson different skills or sectionsof knowledge,so
that there is a possibility of describing the performance of an individual
learner in more detail, showing his or her various strengths and weaknesses.
Summary
question
lMhat is the most conrmon way of gathering information, assessing
profrciency and awarding grades in your o,un teaching context? \Mhat
changes or improrrements would you like to see introduced?
Preliminary note. On the whole, we give feedback on oral work through speech,
on written work through writing; and although there are occasionalsituations
where we might do it the other way round (for example,discussan essaywith a
student in a one-to-one tutorial, or write a letter providing feedback on speech)
theseare very much the exceptions and will not be dealt with in this unit and
the next.
There are some situations where we might prefer not to correct a learner's
mistake: in fluency work, for example, when the learner is in mid-speech,and to
correct would disturb and discouragemore than help. But there are other
situations when correction is likely to be helpful.
246
Correctingmistakesin oral work
Question Would ]rou support the recommendation to refrain from correcting during
fluency-oriented speech, and to do so only druing accuracy-oriented
exercises? Can you add any firrther comment?
Read on for my answer to this.
The recommendation not to correct a learner during fluent speechis in principle
a valid one, but perhaps an over-simptrification.There can be placeswhere to
refrain from providing an accepgableform where the speakeris obviously
uneasyor'floundering'can actually be demoralizing,and gentle,supportive
intervention can help. Conversely,even where the emphasisis on getting the
languageright, we may not always correct: in a grammar exercise,for example,
if the learnerhas contributed an interestingor personalpieceof information
that doesnot happento usethe target form; also,when they have got most
of an item right we rnay prefer not to draw attention to a relatively trivial
mistake.
Techniquesof oral correction
Oral corrections are usually provided directly by the teacher; but they may also
be elioited from the learner who made the mistake in the first place, or by
another'memberof the class.Corrections'mayor may not include a clarification
of why the mistake was made, and may or may not require re-production of the
acceptableform by the learner.
The objective of the inquiry project suggestedbelow is to asceftain which of
thesetechniquesare in fact most used in a selection of lessonstaught locally,
and which are preferred by learners. Somepractical conclusions may be drawn
from the results.
Inquiry
Gorrection techniques in the classroom
StageI: Preparation
Look at the set of oral correction techniques listed in Box 17.3.Reword, or
add fnrther items as you feel necessary. Think about antd note dovvn for
yourself: which do you e:rpect to be used most frequently in the glassroom,
and which do you imagine most learners actually prefer?
Make copies of the list for use at Stages 2 and 3.
Stage 2: Observation
Observe some lessons, taugiht, if possible, by different teachers; orwatch
video recordings of lessons. Every time you hear a correction, try to
identify to which category it belongs and put a tick in the appropriate
box. At the end, count ]tour ticks, and note dovtrnwhich kinds of
correction ale most often used and which least.
Stage 3: Interview
Interview some learners to find out which kind.s of correction they find most
useful. If you are working on your own try to find ten or so respondents; if
you are working in a group, then each participant can intenriew one or two,
pooling results later.
247
17Givingfeedback
The samelist of techniquesas used for observationcan function as a
basis for the interviews. Plusor minus signs can be inserted in the
appropriate bres to shorwhich your respondentspreferred or disliked.
The learners should be interviewed one by one, but the interview may
be held in various ways,Youmay simply shorlrthem a copy of the list, and
ask them to identify which techniguesthey prefer; or read out the options
and ask them to comrnent;or ask them a general questionlike: 'Do you like
the teacher to correct your mistakes,and if so,how?'- interpreting their
answersyourself in order to fill in answers.The interview may,of coutse,
be conductedin the learners' mother tongiue,if you feel this is appropriate.
Sumrnarizethe most, and least,popular techniquesin the sameway as
you did at the end of Stage2.
Stage4: Summaryand conclusions
Discussor think about what you have found out. Someinteresting questions
to considermight be the follouring:
- Did your resultsdiffer from your e:rpectationsas recorded at StageI? If
so, hovt/?
- Did the teachersyou observed actually correct in the way learners say
they prefer? If not, hor would you accountfor the differences?
- As a general conclusion,which would seemto be the most helpful way(s)
of correcting?And under what circumstancesmight you do something
different?
Comments
Oneof the crucialissueswhichwill emergein this discussion
is the discrepancy
betweenwhat teachers
think is best,or usuallydo, andwhat learnersfind most
useful.Giventhat thereis a discrepancS
whoseopinionshouldbe more
respected?
The learnerhasreliableintuitiveknowledgeaboutwhat kind of
- especially
ones- havea
correctionhelpsmost;but teachers
experienced
differentkind of knowledgewhich may be no lessvalid.My own feelingis that
learnerpreferences
areon the wholea reliableguide;and if I chooseto
disregardtheseI shouldbeveryclearin my mind why I am doingso.
How the correctionis expressed
At leastasimportantaswhat the correctionconsistsof is how it is expressed:
gentlyor assertivelysupportivelyor asa condemnation,
tactfullyor rudely.On
tactfulcorrection;but it is
the whole,of course,we shouldgo for encouraging,
lesseasyto generalize
aboutgently/assertively:
somelearnerpopulations
respondbetterto the one,someto the other.In general,in fact,learner
responses
to differentexpressions
of feedbackareoftensurprising:a teacher
correctionthat seems.to
an observera humiliating'put-down'may not be
perceivedassuchby the learnerto whbm it was addressed;
or an apparently
gentle,tactfulonemay giveoffence.A gooddealof teachersensitivityis needed
here.
248
Written feedback
BOX 17.3: ORAL CORRECTIONTECHNIOUES
*Classobserved
*Learner
interviewed
Teacher'sresponsesto mistakes
Observation / Learner
optnpns
1. Doesnot reactat all.
2 Indicatesthereis a mistake,but doesnot
provideanyfurtherinformationaboutwhat is
wrong.
3. Sayswhat was wrongand providesa modeloi
version.
the acceptable
4. Indicates
something
was wrong,elicits
acceotable
versionfrom the learnerwho made
the mistake.
6
Indicates
something
was wrong,elicits
acceptable
versionfrom anothermemberol the
crass.
o . (Maygo with anyof 3-5 above)Asksthe learner
who madethe mistaketo reproducethe
correctedversion.
7. (Maygo with anyof 3-5 abovelProvidesor
elicitsan explanation
of whv the mistakewas
madeand how to avoidit.
*Delete
or fill in as appropriate.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1995
Task
Observation
and inquiry
Pick out five or six instancesof correction in a lesson,and for each note
dorn briefly what happened and then add some adjectivesyou would use
to describe the manner in which it was g-iven(e.9. gentle/loud/hesitant/
brisk/supportive?). If you were obsenring together with a colleagrue,
compare your descriptions after the lesson: did your opinions tal$ If not,
is there anyway of finding outwhose perceptionwas truer?
If feasible, find out from the learner(s) how they felt at the time, and
compare their impressionswith your own.
249
17Givingfeedback
but also
Learners'writtenwork includesnot only written compositions,
questions,
answersto comprehension
assignments
on granunaror vocabulary,
aspart of their job, to respondto
areexpected,
testsand so on; and teachers
suchwork, providingappropriate(written)feedback.
How canthis feedbackbe madeoptimallyeffective?
Question Canyou remember hor you felt about the ways teachersrespondedto your
ovwrwritten work when ]rouwere learning a foreigmlangnrage(or even your
orn)? Try to recall particr:lar instances,and perhaps sharewith colleagues.
The followingtaskinvitesyou to experimentwith correctingwritten work
yourself;if you do not actuallydo it, you may find it interestingand helpful
simplyto look at the examplesof learnerwriting in Box 17.4 andthenread
straighton to the Commentsbelow.
Experiential Gorrecting written work
ting
provided in Box 17.4.fite flrst is a granrmar
Look at the written assigmments
exercisemainly on the presentperfect tense,which the studentsdid for
homework.The secondis a test on vocabulary,which is also intended to
check their masteryof the use of relative clausesin definitions.The third is
a short piece of writing done in classas art individual summaryof a gEoup
discussion,and given in to the teacher at the end of the lesson.
Stage2: Giving feedback
Imagine these are assigmmentsdone by your ovrrnstudents, and write in
Jrourcorrectionsand other feedback either on the page itself or on a copy.
Do this onyour ovwtratherthan collaboratively.
Stage3: Reflection
If you are in a grroup,come together with other participantswhen you have
frnishedto compareyour responses.Perhapswork in pairs, reading each
other'scorrectionsand discussingdifferences.
\Mhether working on your ovvnor with others, you might find the set of
questionsshovynin Box 17.5 useful to stimulatethinking. My ovm answersto
these appear in the Notes, (2).
a
2s0
Writtenfffi
BOX1 7 .4 : S A M P LE S
O F LE AR N E R S ' W R IT T W
ENOR K
1.Grammarexerciseon the presentperfecttenss,givenashomework
74.1 Youareaskingsomeone
aboutthingshehasdonein hislife. Usetheuordsin brachets
to
maheyour questions.
Example:(youever/ be/ to ltaly?)
1 (youever/ be/ to / South
2 (you/ read/ anyEnglish
3 (you/ live/ in thistowni
4 (howmanytimes/ you/
(what'sthemostbeautiful
countryyou/ ever/
)
?
/ to a famousperson?
6 (youever/ speak
)
14.2 Completetheanswers
to thesequestions.Usetheuerbin brackets.
painting?
(see) Yes,t&.1;..*e-.me.rt.De+M.fuL.M.$.'lyg-.ent(.psa.,..
Example:
Is it a beautiful
r.. |
*/
'i1.m.....,J.-e.y
<e p h
1I s it
a goodfilm?(see) Yes-it'sthehest +
.........e:1.9.Y...
---o--2I s it al-ong
book?(read)
2Y b*.k...t'ei.......9-..1
'sthemost.infuu.e..S
pers
3I s sheaninteresting
.t^^
{eY
i1 - t '
,"'e
(FromRaymond
Murphy,EnglishGrammar
in Usq Cambridge
University
Press,i 985,p. 29)
2. Teston vocabularyand relativeclauses
Define the following words, using who/which/that/whose/when/where.
For example: a deserted house = a house where nobody lives
l . a tem p le:
2. a motionless tree:
Lolo
tr
3. an illusion:
f6ox
4. courage:
5 . sw eat:
6. a P R man :
Vvork
ddtc vel4 tox
7 . a viru s :
8. an antibody:
9. a h o st:
10. a p a w:
251
17 Giving feedback
Writing following a discussion
Dear HeI p fu I
H a rri e t,
I hav e a p ro b l e m w i th th i s
te a c her
at school .
He is alwa y s s h o trti n g
a t me , t hough I don' t
dis lur b
m o re th a n Io ts o f o th e r pupi l s
i n the
c las s .
It's
tru e th a t
I s o me ti mes don' t do
m y hom ewo rk , b u t I k n o w h i s s u bj ect
very
weI I ,
alwa y s g e t h i g h m a rk s o n Lhe test-s, l ro
t her e is n o p o i n t
doing silly
homew ork.
He
gav e m e a m u c h l o w e r m a rk th a n I deserve at
t he end o f th e te rm.
ft.s
n o t fai r.
A nd
it ' s
no g o o d s a y i n g g o t,o th e cl ass teacher,
s he alway s b a c k s h i m u p .
W h a t can I do?
Yo u rs ,
FRUSTRATED STUDENT
.
I itt. ,,ilil
!, ToralLu/lLffito__
anllr1;tlt' r+);au
trur,llar
t,/*il ilwtr*rs*W
r,/il "ul"t
Uinl.fl^f yat/..ry
,;A;ttty' ,r .
FoIlow-up Gonclusions
dl'scussion
you draw
Can
some conclusions as to what makes feedback on learner
wrih-ng more or less effective? Try writing dounr what for you would be the
three most important principles in giving written feedback, and sharewith
colleagues.
If you wish to explore this topic ftuther, you might like to look at Module
ll= Teachingwriting, Unit Five; for the topic of feedback on more advanced
writing, see Zamel (1985).
252
CIarifying personal attitudes
BOX 17.5: CONSIDERINGWRITTEN FEEDBACK
1. Didyouusea redpenforyourcomments?
Or another
colour?
Or a penor pencil?
for yourchoice?
Canyouaccount
2. Forwhichof theassignments,
if any,didyougivesomekindof assessment
at
theend('Good',
for example)?
Why,or why not?
3. Didyoucorrectallthe mistakes?
lf so,why?lf not,on whatdidyoubaseyour
decision
whichto correctandwhichnot?
youcorrected:
4. Thosemistakes
didyouwritein thecorrectform?Givea hintwhat
it shouldbe?Simplyindicate
it waswrong?Why?
5. Didyounoteonlywhatwaswrong,or didyougivesomekindof indication
of
good?
whatwasrightor particularly
6. Didyouprovideanykindof informative
feedbackotherthanmistakecorrection
(e.9.'Thiswas
andoverall
assessment,
designed
to helpthestudentimprove?
goodbecause...',
or'Takecarewhenyou...')
7. Whenresponding
to theassignment
thatentailed
expression
of personal
opinion,
('l agreewiththispoint',
didyouprovide
a response
of yourownto thecontent?
'Yes,buthaveyouconsidered...?')
8. Didyourequire
thestudentto redoanyof theassignment?
Canyousaywhy,or
why not?
yourcorrections
youarethestudent:
try rereading
imagining
9. Finally,
whatdo you
thinkthestudentwillfeelaboutthem?
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
This unit asksyou to defineyour own attitudesto various aspectsof the topic of
feedback;it focussesparticularly on the feelingsand relationshipswhich may be
affected by the giving and getting of feedback.
Task .Egree or disagree?
In Boxl7.6thereis a list of statements,
with an 'Agre*Disagnee'continuum
belov each. You may like to add more statements in the spaces provided.
Put a cross on the continuuJxrfor each statement to indicate hor far you
agree with it. Perhaps look first at the Comments section belour, which may
help (or complicate!) your thinking. My oun opinions iue e:rplessed in the
Notes, (3).
Commentson Box 17.6
1. In relating to this question try to free yourself from the superficial negative
connotationsoften associatedwith the phrase'power hierarchy'. Power
hierarchiesmay in somecircumstancesbe necessar5productive and fully
compatible with good human relationships.
2. In answering this question, teachersoften conveniently overlook the word
humiliates,but if
'potentially'! Note: the questionis not whether assessment
253
17 Giving feedback
B OX 17.6:S TA TE ME NT S
A B O UTF E E DB A CK
1. The fact that the teachergivesfeedbackon stutlentperformanceimpliesa power
hierarchy:
the teacherabove,the studentbelow
Verymuch
Totally
agree
disagree
2. Assessmentis potentiallyhumiliating
to the assessedperson.
Verymuch
Totally
agree
disagree
3. Teachersshouldgive theirstudentsonly positivefeedback,in orderto encourage,
raiseconfidenceand promotefeelingsof success;negativefeedback
demoralizes.
Verymuch
agree
Totally
disagree
4. Givingplentyof praiseand encouragement
is importantfor the fosteringof good
teacher-studdnt
relationships.
Very'much
Totally
agree
disagree
5. Veryfrequentapprovaland praiselosetheirencouraging
effect;and lackof praise
mav then be interoretedas neoativefeedback.
Verymuch
Totally
agree
disagree
6. Teachersshouldnot let studentscorrecteachother'swork. as this is harmfulto
theirrelationshios.
Verymuch
Totally
agree
disagree
7.
Verymuch
Totally
agree
disagree
8.
Verymuch
Totaily
agree
disagree
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
there is or is not such a potential. (And if so, what should or may be done
aboutit?)
3. The main controversialfeature in this statementis the word 'only' in the first
line.
4. In consideringthis question it might help to ask yourself: can I conceiveof (or
recall) a good teacher-studentrelationshipwhere the teachergivesor gave
very little positive feedback?Can I conceiveof (or recall) one where there is
or was plenty of positive feedbackbut relationshipsare or were nevertheless
bad?
5. Can you recall a situation where the teacherover-praised?Or is the opposite
usuallythe case?
6. Again, your answerto this will very much dependon your own experience.
254
Notes
Notes
(1)Thevalueof assessmentand correctionfor learning
In general,both positive and negativeassessments
should, in my opinion, be
made availableto the learner,as honestly as possible:mainly becausein my
experiencethis is what learnersfeel, and sag they want. Howeveg it is essential
for such assessments
to be given in an atmosphereof support and warm
solidariry so that learners feel that the teacher'smotive is honestly to promote
and encouragetheir learning,not to put them down. The problem in negative
assessmentis often not the assessmentitself, but rather the accompanying
implications of aggressionon the side of the assessorand humiliation on the
sideof the assessed
- which can, and should, be eliminated.
As to correction: I think there is certainly a place for correction. Again, most
learnersask for it; and it doescontribute to someextent to learning.However,
we should not over-estimatethis contribution; most experiencedteachersare
familiar with the phenomenonof recurring correctionsof the samemistake
which do not seemto lead to improvement.I would rather investtime and
energy in creating opportunities for learners to get things right as much as
possiblethan in painstakingwork on correctingmistakes.This is one point on
which I am in agreementwith the presentlyunfashionableaudioJingual method.
(2) Commentson the questionsin Box 17.5
1. I usually use a coloured pen for corrections,simply in order to make them
maximally clear and visible to the learner.The exceptionto this is when
providing feedbackon advancedwriting (essays,papers,other forms of selfexpression);here,if the writer has printed or written in ink, I give comments
in pencil in order to convey a lessauthoritative, more diffident message:I'm
suggesting,not telling.
2. I provided an assessing
comment on the grammar exercise,in order to let the
stud.entknow how well I thought he or shehad masteredthe material.
Similarly, I gave a grade on the test, partly becausethis is what people who do
tests usually expect and want. For the third assignment,however, I did not:
this is a pieceof spontaneouscomposition where the main activify was
discussion,the writer had little chanceto rereador polish, and I did not think
it fair to judge it as a sampleof the learner'swriting.
3. I correctedvirtually all the mistakesin the test. In the grammar exerciseI
corrected all the mistakes which had to do with the target forms, but ignored
most of the others: learnerscan only usejust so much feedbackinformation:
to give too much may simply distract, discourageand actually detract from
its value for learning. In the third assignmentI did not mark in corrections in
the body of the student's text, but noted below some points they might attend
to for the future: this was becauseI seethis kind of writing not, like the
others, as a presentationof languagesamplesfor display,but mainly as a
form of self-expression,to be respectedas such.
4. I wrote in the full correct forms. I do not seemuch value in demanding that
students focus again on the wrong form and try to work out what is wrong
25s
17 Giving feedback
about it - besides,many of them never bother to do so! I would rather
confront them with the acceptableforms as quickly and clearly as possible.
(However, in the caseof a first draft of an essaywhich a student is ro rewrite,
I might simply indicate there is a misrake, knowing that they are going to
take the trouble to find out how to correct in order to make the final draft as
good aspossible.)
5. Yes.I put in ticks here and there indicating my appreciationof a difficulty
overcome,or a note such as 'well expressed'in the margin. Theseresponses
can draw learners'attention to their successes,
thus boosting morale and
reinforcing learning.
6. Yes.For example,I noted for the student who did the relative clauseexercise
that she neededto review the irregular third-person forms of the present
tense.If we can give information that makesstudentsaware of their
particular problems and suggestwhat they might do about them, this is one
of the most valuablekinds of feedbackwe can provide.
7. Again, yes. I think it is very important to respond to an expressionof opinion
with one of my own: 'Yes,I feel the same...', 'I'm not sure about this.
What would happenif...?'. This kind of comment makesit clear that the
messageis important, and that I seeit as valuableenoughto respondto as
interlocutor.
8. Asking learnersto re-do all their correctedwork as a routine can be tedious
and discouraging.For theseexercisesI did not require rewriting, though I did
give another very similar grammar exerciseto the one shown here a week or
fwo later,having reviewedwhat I saw as the main problems.One instance
where I do consistentlyrequestrewriting is for longer compositionsor essays.
In this case,the first draft does not get graded, only corrected, with
constructive suggestionsfor the secondversion. The student then knows that,
if he or sheincorporatesall the correctionsand suggestions,there is a very
good chanceof getting a high mark, and the procedureis immediately
rewarding as well as learning-valuable.
(3) Statementsabout feedback
L. Feedbackimplies a power hierarchy.
Verymuch
X
agree
>
Totally
disagree
In my opinion a power hierarchy in the classroom, with the teacher in charge
and studentssubordinate,is inevitable:the right of the teacherto correct and
assessis one expressionof it. Underlying, and to some extent offsetting this
apparent dominance, however, is the teacher'srole as server and supporter of
the learners:the two roles are not only compatible, but, I think,
complementaryand essentialfor healthy classroomrelationships.
2. Assessmentis potentially humiliating.
Verymuch ,
v
;;,1;'-
Tota1v
di;;;;;L
If you have recentlyundergoneassessment
yourself,you may recall the
experienceof real, or feared, humiliation. It is important to recognizethat the
potential existsin order to be able to ensurethat it is not realized.
256
Notes
3. Teachersshould give only positive feedback.
Verymuch
Totaily
agree
disagree
It is true that positive feedback tends to encourage,but this can be overstated,
as here. Negative feedback, if given supportively and warmlS will be
recognizedas constructive, and will not necessarilydiscourage.
4. Giving praise fosters good teacher-student relationships.
l/ ^^'
m"^h
v
L
Totally
agree
disagree
Yes,up to a point. But if there are good relationships,praiseoften becomes
unnecessary;frank, friendly criticism is probably more appropriate and
contributes more to the further strengthening of the relationship. And seethe
next question.
5. Very frequent approv4lloses
its encouraging effect.
,'
)(
>
veryiucn
Totatly
agree
disagree
I have seenthis happen:the giving of praisecan easilybe devaluedthrough
overuse.Studentscome to expect it as a matter of course, ceaseto be
particularly encouragedby it, and are hurt if it is not forthcoming.In fact,
overused,uncritical praise can begin to irritate.
6. Correcting eachother can be harmful to studentrelationships.
Verymuch
Totaily
agree
disagree
If peer-correction causesconflict or tension between individuals, this
probably meansthat relationships were not particularly warm or trusting in
the first place. In other words, I do not think that peer-correctionin itself can
hurt if students feel good with one another in general; it ma5 however, do so
if there was previousdislike or lack of trust betweenthem.
Furtherreading
Bartram, M. and'Walton, R. (1991) Correction:Mistake Management- A
Positiue Approach for Language Teachers,Hove: LanguageTeaching
Publications.
(A compact,clear,systematicand, as it says,practical guide to the subject;
interestingand relevantreadertasks help to clarify)
Brindley,G. (1989) Assessing
Achieuementin the Learner-CentredCurriculum,
Macquarie Universitg Sydney:National Centre for English Language
Teaching and Research.
(A comprehensiveand readableoverview of ways of assessment
in language
learning)
Edge,J. (1989) Mistakesand Correction,London: Longman.
(A simple,practical handbook: suggestsvarious techniquesfor correctingin
different situations)
Harmer, J. (,984l,'How to give your studentsfeedback', Practical English
Teaching,5,2,3940.
(Practicalguidelineson ways of correctingin the classroom)
2s7
17 Giving feedback
Johnson,K. (1988) 'Mistake correction',ELT Journal,42,2,89-96.
(Ways of correcting mistakes effectively within a skill model of language
learning)
Leki, I. (1,991)'The preferencesof ESL studentsfor error correction in collegelevel writing classes',Foreign LanguageAnnals (New York) ,24,3,203-18.
(An interestingpiece of research,indicating that learnersdo, on the whole,
want detailed correction of grammar, spelling, etc.)
Norrish, J. (1983) LanguageLearnersand their Errors, London: Macmillan.
(A basic,sensibleteacher'sguide, clearly written, with plenty of practical
examplesand suggestions)
Raz, H. (1992)'The crucial role of feedbackand evaluation in language
classes',The TeacherTrainerr 6, tr 1,5-17.
(Stressesthe importance for the learner of ongoing supportive feedback rather
than test-basedevaluation)
Zamel, V. (1985) 'Respondingto student writing', TESOL Quarterly,19,l,
79-101.
(A thoughtful discussionof dilemmas in giving feedbackon (advanced)
student writing, and some practical solutions)
REFERENCESIN UNIT ONE
Johnson,K. (1995)LanguageTeachingand SkillLearning,Oxford: Basil
Blackwell.
Krashen,S.D. (1982)Principlesand Practicein SecondLanguageAcquisition,
Oxford: PergamonPress.
Mclaughlin,B. (1987)Theoriesof Second-Language
Learning,London:
EdwardArnold.
Richards,J. C. and Rodgers,T. S. (1985)Approachesand Methodsin Language
Teaching,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
ge', IRAL, lO, 219-31.
Selinker,L. (1,972)'Interlangua
Selinker,L. (1,992) Rediscouering I nterlanguage, London: Longman.
258
discipline
Module
18:Classroom
Discussion Brainstormand definition
task
The phrase 'classroom discipline' has for most teachers an immediate and
clear meaning, but it is in fact quite a complex concept, and hard to defrne
in words. One way into such a definition is to start by brainstorming all the
ideas that seem to you to be comprised in it: 'control' for example, or
'rufes'.
Tty brainstorming a list of such words for yourself, or in yonr group, and
then look at the one sho\Mnin Box 18.1. Add to the latter whatever items you
think I have missed, delete any lrou think irrelevant; finally put a circle
round the ones you think most basic and essential. Using these, you may
nor find it easier to formulate a satisfactory definition.
You may be interested in comparing your definition with that given in a
dictionary, or with my own as suggested in the Notes, (l).
Optional follow-up study
There are, of course, more subtle and interesting distinctions to be
discoveredwithin the concept of 'discipline'. Try discussing the
distinctions between the folloring pairs:
l.'control' v.'discipline';
2.'authoritarian' v.'authoritatine';
3.'power' v.'authority'.
Simplifiedversions of the distinctions between the above pairs of concepts
appear in the Notes, (2). For more detailed and careful discussion see:
Wilson, t97l: 77-80; Widdowson, 1987: 83-8; Peters, 1966: 23747.
O F DI S CI P L I NE
BOX 18.1: THECONCE P T
control
agree
rewards
respect
norms
obey
authoritarian
contract
accept
routrne
smootn
power
consistent
efficient
(ground)rules
responsibility
punishments
behaviour
authority
authoritative
cooperation
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
259
18 Classroom discipl i ne
look like?
Task Exanniningassumptions
StageJ;.Assessing
Imagine an ideally disciplined classroom.Then have a look at the set of
statementsin Box 18.2.Put a double plus (++) by statementswhich seem to
you to describe a characteristic which is always typical of the disciplined
classroom,and a single one by those which describe a characteristic which
is fairly typical but not inevitable. Where you think the characteristic is
entirely irrelevant or not very important, put a double or single minus (-);
and a question mark where you feel uncertain. You may, of course, make
any other combinations you like, or note resenrationsin the margin.
Stage 2: Rethinking
Read the Commentssection belovrr,and shareideas with colleagues. Would
you, as a result ofreading and discussion,alter any ofyour responses?
My own opinions are given in the Notes, (3).
BOX 18.2: P OS S IB LECHA RA CT E RI S T I CS
O F T HE DI S CI P L I NE D
CLASSROOM
1. L e a rn i n gi s ta k i n gp l a c e .
2. l t i s o u i e t.
3. The teacheris in control.
4. Teacherand studentsare cooperatingsmoothly.
5. Studentsare motivated.
6. The lessonis proceedingaccordingto plan.
7. Teacherand studentsare aimingfor the same objective.
8. The teacherhas naturalcharismatic'authority'.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Comments
1. The question of the relationship betweendiscipline and learning in a lessonis
a crucial one. It seemsfairly clear that in a disciplined classroomit is easierto
activate students in the way the teacherswant, and that time will be probably
spenton-task, rather than wasted on organizationalproblems or disruptive
behaviour.However, I have seenwell-disciplinedclassesin which little or no
learning was taking place, simply becausethe activitieshad themselveslittle
learning value: see,for example the first scenario describedin Box 2.2, on page
25, and the following comments.Thus, the existenceof a disciplined classroom
doesnot, in itself, necessarilyimply that learning is taking place.There is,
certainly, a link bet'weenthe nvo: but it is not a consistent or inevitable one. (Note,
howeveq that the converseis more likely to be consistentlytrue: that is, that little
or no learning will take place in a thoroughly undisciplinedatmosphere.)
260
What does a disciplinedclassroomlook like?
2. It is easyto claim that this criterion is irrelevant:what about well-disciplined
classeswhere noisy pair or group work is going on?
But there are other relevant questionswhich might lead you to a different
conclusion.For example:pair and group work involving noisy talk take up
only a part of lessontime - what about the rest?Or: imagineyourselfwalking
down the corridor of a school and listeningat the door of eachclassroom.
Half are noisy,half are quiet. If you had to guesswhich were the more
disciplinedones,what would you say?I would go for the quiet ones(unlessI
knew that all the teachersusedinteractivegroup work at leasthalf the time!).
A further argument:disciplinedclassesmay or may not be quiet;
undisciplinedonesare usually noisy.There is, therefore,arguably some
positive correlation between quietnessand the level of discipline.
3. The fact that a teacher is in control of proceedingsdoes not necessarilymean
that he or she is standing in front of the classtelling everyonewhat to do. The
initiative may have been handed over to the students to do what they decide
in a particular activity: nevertheless,
it was the teacherwho took and
implementedthe decisionthat there should be such a handover of initiative,
and who may,at any point, take it back. However democraticthe setup,the
underlying responsibilityfor the control of any disciplinedclassroomhas to
be, surely in the hands of the teacher:how authoritarian or liberal, rigid or
flexible he or sheis in the operation of this control is another question.
4. Smooth-runningprocessis the main outward manifestationof disciplinein
the classroom, as it is in any other organization; and there has to be
cooperation of participants in order to produce this. It must be noted
however, that cooperation between students, or between students and
teacher,is not necessarilyeither willing or democratic:it may well be a result
of coercionor fear.There are all sorts of ways of bringing it about: you will
have your own ideasabout what methodsare ethically,educationally,
personallyor practically acceptableand which are not.
5. Can you imagine a classof unmotivated studentswhich is disciplined?Or a
classof motivated studentswhich is undisciplined?My answerto both of
theseis yes:which meansthat the correlation betweenthe two is not
absolute.The associationis one of probability: if the classis motivated to
learn, it is more likely to be easyto manage.
6. Again,we have here a caseof probability rather than inevitablecauseand
effect.A lessonwhich is going according to plan is more likely to be
disciplined:the teacherknows where he or sheis going, activitiesare well
preparedand organized;and the awarenessthat the processis clearly planned
tendsto boost teacherconfidenceand studenttrust, which in their turn also
contribute to discipline.On the other hand, changesand improvisationsdo
not necessarilylead to indiscipline,and may evenpreventit.
7. Studentsmay be quite unaware of the objectiveof the lesson,and yet be
amenableto the control of the teacher,and the classas a whole disciplined.
On the other hand, if they actually have and wish to implement opposing
objectivesof their own - for example,they want to discusssomethingin their
own languagewhen the teacher wants them to do so in the target languagethe result may well be chaos,unlessthey can be persuadedto forgo their own
objectives,and do as they are asked.The latter is what in fact happensin
many classrooms,especiallywith younger or adolescentlearnersin schools.
261
18 Classroom d iscipl i ne
A sharedknowledge of and agreementon lessonobjectivesis not, therefore,
absolutelynecessaryfor a disciplinedclassroom,but it probably contributes
to it, by raising motivation and the likelihood of cooperation.
8. There is no doubt, in my opinion, that there existssuch a quality as
charismatic'authority'; that someteacherspossessit while others do not; and
that the possessors
of this quality find it much easierto control classes.The
good news is that the classesof teacherswho do not possessnatural
'authority' (and I speakas one such myself!) can be equally disciplined:we
just have to work at it harder.
Unit Three: What teacher action is conducive to
a disciplined classroom?
Factorsthat contribute to classroom discipline
The idea that someteachershave a kind of natural 'authority', as suggestedat
the end of the previous unit, is not very helpful to the rest of us: what may be
helpful is a study of the kind of teacherbehavioursthat are availableto anyone
and that are likely to produce a stateof disciplinein the classroom.Theseare
not limited to classroom management skills, such as knowing how to organize
the beginningof a lesson,or how to get studentsto raise their hands insteadof
shouting out answers.The choice of an appropriate methodologg for example,
is likely to ensurethat studentsfeel they are learning in a way that is 'right' and
useful for them, and they will therefore be more willing to cooperate. The
fostering of interpersonal relationships - feelings of respectand goodwill
befween individuals - is obviously another important factor. Then there is the
question of good planning: a carefully and clearly organizedlessonmakes for
purposeful and orderly process.Finally, student motivation is extremely
important, and can be enhancedby teacheraction: the more interestingand
motivating the learning activiry, the more likely it is that students will be
cooperativeand stay on-task.
To recap:someimportant factors that contribute to classroomdisciplineand
are potentially within the control of, or influenced by, the teacher are:
-
classroommanagement
methodology
interpersonal relationships
lessonplanning
student motivation.
Question Have a look at the hints for teachers in Box 18.3. Can you pick out at least
one ex€unple that has to do with each of the above?
Task Practical hints
Stagel: Prioritizing
Read through the list of practical hints in Bo:r 18.3, and decide which, for
262
What teacheraction is conduciveto a disciplinedclassroom?
you, are the ten most important. You may, of course, add any you feel are
missing.
Sfage 2: Discussion
If you are working in a group, compare your answers with those of other
participants and try to come to a consensus on the 'top ten'. If you are
working alone find, if possible, an oqrerienced teacher to compare notes
with; and,/or look at the folloring section, which gives some comments. My
ovynselection appears in the Notes, (4).
BOX 18.3: PRACTICAL
HINTSFORTEACHERS
ON CLASSROOM
DIS CIP LINE
1. Startby beingfirm with students:you can relaxlater.
2. Get silencebeforeyou startspeakingto the class.
3. Knowand use the students'names.
4. Preparelessonsthoroughlyand structurethem firmly.
5. Be mobile:walk aroundthe class.
6. Startthe lessonwith a 'bang'and sustaininterestand curiosity.
7. Speakclearly.
8. Make sureyour instructions
are clear.
9. Haveextra materialprepared(e.9.to cope with slower/faster-working
students).
10. Lookat the classwhen speaking,and learnhow to 'scan'.
(to pupils'age,ability,culturalbackground).
11. Make work appropriate
12. Developan effectivequestioningtechnique.
period.
13. Developthe art of timingyour lessonto fit the available
14. Yaryyour teachingtechniques.
15. Anticipatedisciplineproblemsand act quickly.
16. Avoid confrontations.
17. Clarilyfixed rulesand standards,
and be consistentin applyingthem.
18. Show yourselfas supporterand helperto the students.
19. Don't patronizestudents,treatthem with respect.
20. Use humourconstructively.
21. Choosetopicsand tasksthat will activatestudents.
22. Be warm andfriendlyto the students.
AdaptedfromWragg11981:221
@ CambridgeUniversity Press 1996
Comments
The original list on which this version is basedwas derived from the responses
of student teacherswhen asked which hints from experiencedteachersthey had
found most useful.The order of items 1-20 is the sameas that in the original,
and representsthe respondents'overall order of importance.In other words, the
most useful hint, for most people,was'Start by being firm...', the leastuseful
'Use humour constructively'.
I addedItem 21 (the activation value of tasks)as particularly relevantto
languageteaching,and worth discussing.I would not, however,include it in my
top ten. It is necessaryto be fairly rigorous here in your thinking: activation of
students(particularly in an activity involving talk and/or physicalmovement)is
263
18 Classroom d i scipl i ne
certainly important for learning, but it is a double-edgedweapon for classroom
disciplineas such.It may get studentsinvolved and thoroughly cooperativeon
the one hand, but can over-enliven and unsettle them on the other. (However,
we might sometimesconsider it justifiable to risk a little unsettling for the sake
of the learning!)
Item 22 (which also did not appear in the original) is a misleadingly attractive
one: teacherwarmth and friendliness,while undoubtedly a positive attribute in
itself from other points of view, makes no direct contribution to classroom
discipline,and may in somecircumstancesdetract from it.
The next step:learner self-discipline
Although the immediateresponsibilityfor the maintenanceof classroom
disciplinein most situationsis the teacher's,the ultimate goal is to reachthe
point where learnerstake on or at leastsharethis responsibility.The ability to
self-discipline is to some extent a function of the maturity of the learner, but can
be fostered by the teacher.The way to do this is not simply to rry to hand over
responsibilityto the learnersfor running the lesson- this teacheslittle, and can
be disastrous- but first to get them used to the 'feel' of orderly classroom
process,then gradually to begin to sharedecision-makingbasedon this.
Like the previous unit, this one dealswith practical recommendations,but this
time the focus is on the prevention and treatment of disciplineproblems as they
arisein class,rather than, as up to now, on the creation of a disciplined
atmosphere in the first place.
Below is some advice in the form of directions on how to deal with deviant
student behaviour in class.These are basedon my own experienceas a teacher
who had to learn the hard way how to teach unruly classesof adolescentsin a
foreign country. I hope you find them useful: try as you read to recall classroom
events in your own experience,as learner or teacher,which are relevant to the
different topics.
In spite of the prescriptive tone, do not treat thesedirections as any kind of
objective'truth'! They should be regardedas one possibleexpressionof
classroomrealities,which can be testedagainstyour own experienceand may
furnish a starting-point from which you may develop strategiei that work for you.
Beforethe problem arises
The teacherswho are most successfulin maintaining discipline in classare not
those who are good at dealing with problems, but those who know how to
prevent their arising in the fust place. I suggestthree main preventative
strategies:
264
Dealing with discipline problems
1. Careful planning
When a lesson is clearly planned and organized there is likely to be a constant
momentum and a feeling of purpose, which keep students' attention on the task
in hand (or in anticipation of the next) and does not allow the formation of a
'vacuum' which may be filled by distracting or counterproductive activify.
Moreover, the awarenessthat everything is planned and you know where you
are going contributes a great deal to your own confidence, and to your ability to
win the trust of the students.
2. Clear instructions
Problems sometimesarise due to student uncertainty about what they are
supposedto be doing. Instructions, though they take up a very small proportion
of lessontime, are crucial. The necessaryinformation needsto be
communicated clearly and quicklS courteously but assertively:this is precisely
what the task involves,theseare possibleoptions, those are not (seeModule L:
Presentationsand explanations, Unit Three). This is not incompatible with the
existenceof student-teachernegotiation about what to do: but too much
hesitation and mind-changing can distract and bore students, with obvious
implications for discipline.
3. Keep in touch
You need to be constantly aware of what is going on in all quarters of the
classroom,keepingyour eyesand earsopen: as if you have sensitiveantennae,
or a revolving radar dish constantly on the alert, ready to pick up 'blips'. This
achievestwo things: first, students know you are aware of them all the time
which encouragesparticipation and personal contact on the one hand, and
discouragesdeviant activity on the other; second,you yourself are able to detect
a student's incipient loss of interest or distraction and do something about it
before it has become problematic.
When the problem is beginning
Inexperienced teacherstend to ignore minor problems, in the hope that they
will go away by themselves.Occasionallythey do; but more often they simply
escalate.In principle, it is advisable to respond immediately and actively to any
incipient problem you detect.
1. Deal with it quietly
The bestaction is a quiet but clear-cutresponsethat stopsthe deviant activiry
keepingthe latter as low-profile as possible.For example:if a student has not
openedhis or her book in responseto an instruction from you, it is better
quietly to go up to them and open the book yourself than draw the attention of
the whole classby a reprimand or loud, repeated instruction. Over-assertive
reactionscan lead to the very escalationyou wish to avoid.
2. Don't take things personally
This is a difficult instruction to obey sometimes,but an important one.
Inexperienced teachersof adolescentsare often upset by remarks that were not
intended personally; or allow incidents of unpleasant conflict to rankle long
265
18 Classroom discipline
after the student has forgotten they ever happened.Try to relate to the problem,
not the student, as the object to be attacked and dealt with. A more difficult
piece of advice: even if you are quite sure the criticism was meant personally do
your bestto relate to it as if it was not: don't let the studentpull you into
personal conflict.
3. Don't use threats
Threats are often a sign of weakness;usethe formula 'if you. . .then.. .' only as a
real, factual option that you are ready to put into practice, not as a weapon to
make an impressionor intimidate.
Whenthe problem has exploded
The priority here is to act quickly in order to get the classto revert to smooth
routine as fast as possible. Often it is preferable to take a decision, even if not a
very good one, fast, than to hesitate or do nothing.
1. Explode yourself
Often a swift, loud command will do the trick, with a display of anger:
provided, of course,that you do not really loseyour temper or become
personally aggressive!The trouble with displaying anger is that you cannot do it
too often, or it losesits effect.
2. Give in
For example, if students refuse to do homework you might sa5 'All right,
don't'. This is a perfectly respectableoption, which is unfortunately shunned by
many teacherswho feel they risk loss of face. Its advantageis that it
immediately defusesthe situation, and if done quickly and decisively,will not be
seenas dishonourable surrender! It also puts you in a position to fairly demand
something from them in return! But again, it cannot be used too often, for
obvious reasons.
3. Make them an offer they can't refuse
If they are pushing you into a confrontation, and you cannot give in but do not
wish to impose your will by getting over-assertive- look for away of diverting
or sidesteppingthe crisis. Some strategiesare: postponement ('Let's come back
to this tomorrow at the beginningof the day. Now, to get back to...'); or
compromise('I'll tell you what: you have to do all the assignments,but I'll give
you extra time to finish them...'); or arbitration ('Let's discussthis with the class
teacher,and accepthis or her decision...').
The above guidelinesare summarizedin Box 18.4.
266
Discipline problems: episodes
BOX 18.4: ADVICEON DEALINGWITH DISCIPLINE
PROBLEMS
your
Planandorganize
lessoncarefully
1. BEFORE
PROBLEM
ARISES
Makesureinstructions
are
clear,assertive,
brief
Keepin touchwith whatis
gorngon
Dealwiththeproblem
quickly;preventescalation
2. WHENPROBLEM
IS
BEGINNING
Keepyourcool:don'ttake
thingspersonally
Don'tusethreats(unless
youareprepared
to
implement
them!)
'Explode'
(loudand
yourself
assertive
command)
3. WHENPROBLEM
HAS
EXPLODED
-/
Maketheman offerthey
can'trefuse
(postponement,
arbitration,
compromise)
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
In this unit you are asked to apply your own expertise or knowledge of the
subject of classroom discipline to critical analysis of actual classroom incidents.
It is, of course, far easierto criticize and recommend when it is someoneelse's
problem, and when you have plenty of time to consider and weigh alternatives
than it is to take the right decisionswhen you yourself are involved in a realtime classroom crisis! Nevertheless,vicarious experienceand decision-making
like this has its usesfor professional thinking, and is an interesting exercisein
itself.
Task Andysing
episodes
Readtluough the descriptions of episodes shournin Box 18.5.Deal with
themin any order that you like and think about or discuss the folloring
questions:
267
18Classroomdiscipline
- What caused the problem?
- lMhat could the teacher have done to prevent it arising?
- Once it had arisen, what would you advise the teacher to do?
My oun comrnents follo,v.
Comments
Episode 1
The causesof this were, possiblS that the book is indeed boring, coupled with
Terry's wish to disrupt, challenge, or simply take a break from routine. Apart
from choosing a different text, it is difficult to seehow the teacher could have
foreseenor prevented the incident. Now the priority is to neutralize the
challengeand get the classback on task. I would say somethinglike: 'Yes,we do
have to do this book; we'll discusswhether it's boring later'- and get someone
elseto go on reading. I would, however,as promised, discussthe book later
with the class or with Terry himself, and devote some thought to the selection of
the next text.
Episode 2
This situation is a very common one, rooted in lack of fum and consistentrules
in the classroom, or the teacher'sfailure to insist on them: the result is that a
number of students are getting little or no learning value from the lesson.The
teachershould have insistedon quiet and attention from the start, and stopped
eachmurmur as it began.Possiblyshe is afraid of losing popularity: her
reproacheswhen they occur,lack 'attack', are rapidly disregarded,and the
result is that constant inattention and chat is tacitly acceptedas the norm.
To reversethe situation when it has got as far as this is extremely difficult. It
may be necessaryto hold a seriousdiscussionwith the class,agreewith them on
explicit new ground rules and then insist strictly on their implementation from
then on.
Episode 3
Here, the incident was causedby the teacher'sover-lengthy explanation, the
child's impatience, and the failure of the teacher to pick up and stop the
disturbance when it started. Most people's intuitive reaction would be to
reprimand John; but probably a more effectiveresponsewould be to usethe
silenceto instruct the classfirmly to start work on the worksheet, promising to
deal with any further problems in responseto raisedhands. Once the classis
working, the teachercould go to John, make it clear that his behaviour is
unacceptable,but that the incident is now over and he should be working. A
further word or two with him after the lessonmav make it lesslikelv that he
will repeat the behaviour.
Episode 4
The immediate causeof this incident, given the confident and cheeky character
of members of the class,was the teacher'smistake in getting into an argument
with one boy in the middle of an organizational routine involving all the classan argument which escalatedrapidly into a full-classdisturbance.He should
have finished distributing and collecting books and dealt with the notebook
268
Di scipl i ne problems: episodes
BOX 18.5: EPISODES:DISGIPLINEPROBLEMS
Episode1
Theteacher
of a mixedclassof thirteen-year-olds
is workingthrougha classreader
'Dowe haveto do this
in an English
HeasksTerryto readouta passage.
lesson.
book?'
saysTerry.'lt'sboring.'
Somemembers
of theclasssmile,onesays'l like
it',othersaresilentawaiting
reaction.
theteacher's
(from E C Wragg, ClassManagement and Control Macmillan, 1981, p. 12)
Episode 2
The teacheris explaining
a story.Manyof the studentsare inattentive,andthere is
a murmurof quiettalkbetweenthem.Theteacherdisregards
the noiseandspeaks
to thosewho are listening.Finallyshe reproaches,
in a gentleandsympatheticway,
one studentwho is talkingparticularly
noticeably.The studentstops talkingfor a
minuteor two, then carrieson. This happensonce or twice more, with different
students.The teacherdoes not get angry,and continuesto explain,trying (with
questions.
onlypartialsuccess)to drawstudents'attentionthroughoccasional
(adaptedfrom SarahReinhorn-Lurie,
Unpublishedresearchproiecton classroom
discipline,OranimSchoolof Education,Haifa,1992)
Episode 3
The teacherhas prepareda worksheetand is explaininghow to do it. He has
extendedhis explanation
to the point where John, havinglost interestin the
teacher'swords,beginsto tap a ruleron his desk.At first the tappingis occasional
and not too noticeable,but John beginsto tap more frequentlyand more noisily,
buildingup to a finalclimaxwhen he hitsthe tablewith a veryloudbang.Theclass,
startledby the noise,falls silent,and looksat both John and the teacherto see
whatwill happen.
(adaptedfrom E. C. Wragg, ClassManagement and Control,Macmillan, 1981, p 18)
Episode 4
Theteacherbeginsby givingout classroombooksandcollectinghomeworkbooks.
Teacher(to one of the boys):Thisbook'sverythin.
Boy 1:
Yeah,'tis,isn'tit.
Teacher: Why?
Boy1:
l'vebeendrawingin it.
Boy2:
He'sbeenusingit for toiletpaper,sir.
(Uproad
(adaptedlrom E. C. Wragg, led.l ClassroomTeachingSkills,Croom Helm, 1984, p. 32)
Episode 5
The studentshave been askedto intervieweach other for homeworkand write
reports.In this lessonthey are askedto readaloudtheir reports.A few students
refuseto do so. The teachertells these studentsto standup beforethe classand
be int e rv i e w e db y th e m. T h e y s ta n d up, but do not rel ateto the questi ons
seriously:
answerfacetiously,
or in theirmothertongue,or not at all.The teacher
eventuallysendsthem backto their places,and goes on to the next planned
activity,a textbookexercise.
(adaptedfrom SarahReinhorn-Lurie,
Unpublishedresearchprojecton classroom
discipline,OranimSchoolof Education,Haifa,1992)
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
269
18 Classroom di scipl i ne
problem later, privately. Now that there is uproar, he should immediately
abandon the individual problem, and devote his efforts to regaining order and
finishing the book collection and distribution as quickly as possible. The
problem of the mutilated notebook may be taken up again after the lessonwith
the boy alone.
Episode 5
The causeof this was the lack of authorify of the teacher (her inability to
demand and get student obedience),and the mistaken tactic of allowing
obviously undisciplined students, in a group, to take over centre-stage.\fhat I
usually do if students do not want to read aloud something they have written is
take it and read it aloud myself: they accept this becauseI can make it sound
much better than they can, and my main objective (displaying students' work to
eachother) is gained.
Given the very uncomfortable situation of students actually making fun of a
teacher-directedlearning task, the reaction of stopping it and going on to the
next bit of the lessonwas the right one, although late. Certainly, however, the
teacher should talk to the students later, one at a time, in order to make it clear
that this behaviour was unacceptableand to try to prevent a recurrence.
Notes
(1) Defining classroom discipline
A possible definition: Classroom discipline is a state in which both teacher and
learnersacceptand consistentlyobservea set of rules about behaviour in the
classroom whose function is to facilitate smooth and efficient teaching and
learning in a lesson.
(2) Distinctions between pairs of concepts
'Control' is imposed from above by an authority who is invested with superior
influence; 'discipline' is acceptedby participants in the activity of studying as an
essentialand integral part of that study (compare the use of the term 'discipline'
to denote an areaof study such as philosophy or science).
'Authoritarian' describesa teacher whose authority derives from some
exterior empoweringagent,or who is 'bossy'; 'authoritative' describesone who
is obeyedbecausehe or sheis trusted to know bestabout the subjectof study
and how to learn it (hencethe phrase'to be an authority on...').
'Power'is the sheerability to impose one'swill on others, through physical
coercion, or other forms of pressure;whereas 'authority' is the demand for
cooperation and obediencethat is acceptedbecauseit is rooted in a laq social
order or acceptedvalue system.
270
Notes
(3) Possiblecharacteristicsof classroom discipline
My responseswould be as follows.'Where I have found it difficult to make a
clear decision,symbolsin bracketsindicate possiblealternativechoices.
1. Learning is taking place. +(?)
2.Itis quiet. +
3. The teacheris in control. ++
4. Teacherand studentsare cooperatingsmoothly. ++
5. Studentsare motivated. ?(+)
6.The lessonis proceedingaccordingto plan. +(?)
T.Teacherand studentsare aiming for the sameobjective. ?(+)
8. The teacherhas natural charismatic 'authoriry'. ?(+)
My reasonsare discussedin the Comments section within the unit.
(4) Practical hints for classroom discipline
My chosen'topten'wouldbe:1, 3, 4, 6, 8r'1.0,
lt, L5,77, 79.
Further reading
Charles,C. M. (1,992)Building ClassroomDiscipline (4th edn.), New York:
Longman.
(Practicaland readable,written for trainee or practising teachersla summary
of various models of classroomdisciplineand guidelinesfor practical
application)
Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (L9771A Guide to TeachingPractice,London:
Macmillan.
(A valuable practical guide to all aspectsof school teaching)
Kounin, J. S. (1970) Discipline and Group Managementin Classrooras,New
York: Holt, Rinehart and'Winston.
(An analysisof various aspectsof discipline,someinterestingand useful
perspectives)
Maclennan, S. (1987) 'Integrating lessonplanning and classmanagement',EI:l
Journal,4l,3,1,93-7.
(On alternating lively and quiet activitiesin the lessonprocess)
Peters,R. S. (1966) Ethics and Education,London: GeorgeAllen and Unwin.
(Philosophicalanalysisof various aspectsof education;seeparticularly Part
Three:'Education and social control')
Underwood, M. (I9 87) Effectiue Classroom Managemenf,London: Longman.
(Not just on discipline,but on a variety of aspectsof classroommanagement
and lessonplanning: practical and comprehensive)
Widdowson, H. G. (7987)'The roles of teacherand learner', ELT Journal,4l,
2,83-8.
(An analysis of the different roles of the teacher as authority, and resulting
interaction between teacher and learner)
'Wilson,
P. S. (1971) lnterest and Discipline in Education,London: Routledge.
(A philosophical discussionof the two concepts:seeparticularly the analysis
of disciplineversuscontrol, pp.77-80, quoted in ITragg, 1984)
277
18 Classroomdiscipline
Wragg,E. C. (ed.)(1934) ClassroomTeachingSkills,London and Sydney:
CroomHelm.
(A collectionof research-based
articleson variousaspectsof schoolclassroon.
particularly
Chapterc2,3 and.7)
teaching;see
and Contol, London:Macmillan.
Wragg,E. C. (1981) ClassManagetnent
(A slim booklet of highly practicaland accessible
information, tasksand
backgroundreading)
272
Learner populations differ according to various parameters:whether the
learners are beginner,intermediate or advanced;whether they are young
children, adolescentor adult; their objectivesin learning the language,and how
they are motivated; whether their environmentoutsidethe classroomis targetlanguageor mother-tongue; how heterogeneousor homogeneousthe classis;
the size of the group; and many more.
Most of theseissueshave been touched on incidentally within earlier
modules, as they affected the different topics under discussion.Part M,
however, focussesentirely on characteristicsof learners, or groups of learners,
which seemto me particularly important or problematical: the question of
classes.
learner motivation; learnersof different ages;and heterogeneous
Module 19 looks at different kinds of learner motivation, and examines
particularly the ways in which the teacher can influence it. The assumption is
made here that the teacher has a responsibiliry not only to provide
opportunities for learning, but also actively to 'push' learners to realize their full
potential and make maximum progress;and that the enhancementof
motivation is probably the most effective way to do this.
The topic of younger and adult learners is dealt with in Module 20: differences
between the age groups in learning styles,abilities and motivation entail
corresponding differencesin the selectionof materials and methodology and in
lessonplanning. It is also useful to be aware of the unreliabiliry of various popular
myths: for example, that children learn languagesbetter than adults.
Module 2t dealswith heterogeneousclasses,sometimescalled'mixed-ability'
classes.The term 'mixed-ability', however, implies that the important difference
between members of a mixed classis in their language-learningabiliry but this
is not necessarilyso. Even if the main observeddifference between them is in the
amount of languagethey know, this may have its roots in all sorts of other
reasonsbesidesability (previousteaching,motivation, etc.).And there are
plenty of other differencesbetween learnersthat need to be taken into account
by a teacher:preferred learning sryle,personaliry interests,cultural background to name only a few. Thus the term'heterogeneous'- composedof different
kinds of people- is I think more suitablein defining suchclasses.To some
extent, any classis heterogeneous(one definition of the term is 'a classof two'! );
but certainly some are more so than others. Very heterogeneousclassescan be
extremely difficult to teach: hencethe importance of studying the main
problems and searchingfor principlesand practical ideasthat can contribute to
effective solutions.
The problem of heterogeneityis, of course,compoundedif the classis also
large; and in fact many teachersseethe 'large heterogeneousclass' as a single,
generalizedproblem situation. Hence it seemedlogical to treat the two aspects
together in a single module.
273
19:Learner
motivation
Module
andinterest
thinking
The abstract term'motivation' on its own is rather difficult to define.It is easier
and more useful to think in terms of the 'motivated' learner: one who is willing
or even eager to invest effort in learning activities and to progress. Learner
motivation makesteachingand learning immeasurablyeasierand more pleasant.
as well as more productive: hence the importance of the topic for teachers.
This first unit reviews, necessarilybriefly various interesting theoretical
aspectsof the topic of learner motivation that have beenstudied and discussed
in the literature.
Questions
To stimulate your ornrnthinking in anticipation,
inBox 19.1.
try answering the questions
BOX 19.1: ASPECTS OF LEARNER MOTIVATION
is for successin language
learning,
1. How important
do youthinkmotivation
to, for example,
language
compared
aptitude?
pastsuccessin language
2. Howimportant
is people's
learning
for theirmotivation
to learnin the oresentandfuture?
3. Whatcharacteristics
andbehaviours
do youassociate
withthe imageof a
motivated
learner?
4. Somepeoplearemotivatedby wantingto integrateintothe targetlanguage
culture('integrative
motivation'),
for theircareeror
someby needing
the language
('instrumental
otherpersonal
advantages
motivation').
Whichof thewvowould
youimagine
to bethe strongermotive,on thewhole?
is
5. Theurgeto engagein learning
activityfor its own sake(intrinsic
motivation)
distinguishable
fromthe urgeto learnfor the sakeof someexternal
reward
(extrinsic
motivation).
Doyouthinkthereis anydifference
betweenchildren
and
adultsin the degreeof influenceof thesetwo kindsof motivation?
Press1995
@Cambridge
University
The importance of motivation
Various studies have found that motivation is very strongly related to
achievement in language learning (e.g. Gardner and Lambert, 1972; Gardner,
1980). The question then needsto be asked:which is the causeand which the
result? In other words, does successin language learning breed its own
motivation (Burstall et a1.,7974; Khan, 1,997)or does previous motivation lead
274
Motivation: some backgroundthinking
to success?
Or both? Another questionfor which there is no conclusive
research-based
evidenceis whether motivation is more, or less,important than
a natural aptitude for learning (languages),though at leastone well-known
study (Naiman et a1.,1978)tends towards the claim that motivation is
ultimately more important (seebelow).
The significant messageof researchin this arca for teachersis the sheer
importance of the factor of learner motivation in successfullanguagelearning.
Other questionsraisedin the aboveparagraphare arguably academic.The
uncertainty as to which comesfirst, motivation or success,doesnot entail any
particular problems for teaching:it simply meansthat among other things we
do to increaseour students'motivation, strategiesto increasethe likelihood of
successin learning activitiesshould have high prioriry. And as to the question
whether motivation is more or lessimportant than languageaptitude:
motivation is not measurable,and evenlanguageaptitude is apparentlymuch
more difficult to assessthan was once thought, so that the question is probably
unanswerable.In any case,perhapsit was not a very helpful one in the first
place:our job is to do all we can to encouragethe developmentof ability and
enhancemotivation, on the understandingthat eachwill contribute to the other.
Characteristicsof motivated learners
The authors of a classicstudy of successfullanguagelearning (Naiman er a/.,
1978) cameto the conclusion that the most successfullearners are not
necessarilythoseto whom a languagecomesvery easily;they are thosewho
display certain typical characteristics,most of them clearly associatedwith
motivation. Someof theseare:
L. Positivetask orientation. The learner is willing to tackle tasks and challenges,
and has confidencein his or her success.
2. Ego-involvement. The learner finds it important to succeedin learning in
order to maintain and promote his or her own (positive)self-image.
3. Need for achievement.The learner has a need to achieve,to overcome
difficulties and succeedin what he or she setsout to do.
4. High aspirations.The learneris ambitious, goesfor demandingchallenges,
high proficiency, top grades.
5. Goal orientation. The learner is very aware of the goals of learning, or of
specific learning activities, and directs his or her efforts towards achieving
them.
5. Perseverance.The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in
learning,and is not discouragedby setbacksor apparentlack of progress.
7. Tolerance of ambiguity. The learner is not disturbed or frustrated by
situationsinvolving a temporary lack of understandingor confusion;he or
she can live with thesepatientlS in the confidencethat understanding will
come later.
Various other personalitytraits have beenstudied,such as field-dependence
or independence,empathy introversion or extraversion,but resultshave been
lessconclusive.
275
19 Learner motivation and interest
Different kinds of motivation
A distinction has been made in the literature between 'integrative' and
'instrumental' motivation: the desire to identify with and integrate into the
target-languageculture, contrasted with the wish to learn the language for
purposesof study or careerpromotion. Gardner and Lambert (L972)
introduced theseconcepts and claimed that integrative motivation was more
influential among learners of French in Canada; but researchsince has cast
doubt on the application of this claim to foreign languagelearners in general. In
any case,at leastone other study (Burstallet al.,'I-.974)has indicatedthat it may
be impossiblein practiceto distinguishbetweenthe two.
Another distinction, perhaps more useful for teachers,is that between
'intrinsic' motivation (the urge to engagein the learning activity for its own
' sake)and 'efirinsic' (motivation that is derivedfrom external incentives).Both
of thesehave an important part to play in classroommotivation, and both are
at least partially accessibleto teacher influence. Intrinsic motivation is in its turn
associatedwith what has beentermed 'cognitive drive'- the urge to learn for its
own sake, which is very typical of young children and tends to deteriorate with
age.
A third distinction which has beenmade (Brown, L987) is that between
'global', 'situational'and 'task'motivation: the first is the overall orientation of
the learner towards the learning of the foreign language;the secondhas to do
with the context of learning (classroom,total environment);and the third with
the way the learnerapproachesthe specifictask in hand. As regardssituation:
for our purposes,we assumeit is the classroom,but the other two may vary and
be influencedby teacheraction. Global motivation may seemmainly determined
by previous education and a multitude of social factors, but it is also affected by
the teacher'sown attitudes conveyed either unconsciously or through explicit
information and persuasion.And the third is probably where most of our effort
is invested in practice: in making the task in hand as attractive as possible, and
in encouraging our studentsto engagein it, invest effort and succeed.
In an article written someyearsago, Girard (L977) emphasizedthat it is an
important part of the teacher'sjob to motivate learners.In more recent'learnercentred' approachesto languageteaching, however, the teacher'sfunction is
seenmainly as a provider of materials and conditions for learning, while the
learner takes responsibility for his or her own motivation and performance.
IThich of theseapproachesis nearer your own? Your answer may depend to
someextent on your own teachingsituation: classescomposedof highly
motivated adult immigrants learning the target languagefor purposes of
survival in a new country may only need you as a provider and organizer of
learning activities and texts; whereas schoolchildren learning a foreign language
may only learn well if you find a way to activate and encouragetheir desire to
invest effort in the learning activity.
276
Extrinsicmotivation
One way of studying the question of the contribution of teachersto learner
motivation is through the following task.
Task Reflecting on the characteristics
Stage1: Recall
of a good teacher
Think back to your own classroom learning, as either child or adult, not
necessarily of a foreigm language, and try to recall a teacher of yours who
was outstantdingly good, from whom you really learnt well. (I am
deliberately refraining from defining further what I mean by a 'good'
teacher- interpret the term as you understand it.)
Stage 2: Writing
Write dovulr,possibly in note form, as complete a description as ]rou can of
how this teacher fnnctioned, w'ithin the classroom and outside it.
Stage 3: Retlection
Reading through what you have written, consider:
I. Hor much effort this teacher put in to motivating you to learn, whether
deliberately or not, amd:
2. Hory far your positive assessment of this teacher is based on the way he
or she managed to motivate you.
If you are working in a group, share your accounts of your good teacher
with others, and discuss the questions with them.
Results obtained from this task when done by teacher trainees in a group I
worked with are describedin the Notes.
Resultsand conclusions
If your results are similar to mine, then you will have found that the learnercentredapproach describedin the introductory paragraph of this unit doesnot
in fact seemto be implemented very often. Most good teachersseemto accept
that it is their responsibility to motivate learners, and invest quite a lot of effort
in doing so.
Extrinsit motivation is that which derives from the influence of some kind of
external incentive, as distinct from the wish to learn for its own sake or interest
in tasks. Many sourcesof extrinsic motivation are inaccessibleto the influence
of the teacher: for example, the desire of students to pleasesome other
authority figure such as parents, their wish to succeedin an external exam, or
peer-group influences.However, other sourcesare certainly affected by teacher
action. Here are some of them.
277
19 Learner motivation and interest
Successand its rewards
This is perhapsthe singlemost important feature in raising extrinsic motivation.
Learnerswho have succeededin past taskswill be more willing to engagewith
the next one, more confident in their chancesof succeeding,and more likely to
perseverein their efforts.
It is important to note that 'success'in this context is not necessarilythe same
as 'getting the answersright' - though sometimesit may be. Further criteria may
be the sheeramount of languageproduced or understood,the investmentof
effort and care, the degreeof progresssince a previous performance. All these
for which the learnercan and
needto be recognizedby the teacheras 'successes'
should take credit.
The teacher'smost important function here is simply to make sure that
learnersare aware of their own success:the messagecan be conveyedby a nod,
a tick, even significant lack of response.But a senseof pride and satisfaction
may of course be enhancedby explicit praise or approval, or by its expressionin
quantitative grades- particularly for young, inexperiencedor unconfident
learners.The only potential problem with theseexplicit markers of successis
the danger that if over-usedlearners may becomedependenton them: they may
lose confidencein their ability to recognizesuccesson their own, and seelack of
teacherapproval as castingdoubt on it, or evenas disapproval.
The key then, is the learners'own awarenessof successfulperformance,
however this is affained:the more confidentthey becomeand the more able to
recognizesuch successon their own, the lessthey will need explicit support
from someoneelse.
Failureand itspenalties
Failure, too, is not iust a matter of wrong answers;learners should be aware
that they are failing if they have done significantly lessthan they could have, if
they are making unsatisfactoryprogress,or not taking care.
Failure in any senseis generallyregardedas somethingto be avoided,just as
successis somethingto be sought.But this should not be taken too far. For one
thing, successlosesits sweetnessif it is too easilyattained and if there is no real
possibility or experienceof failure. For anotheq it is inevitable that there will be
occasional failures in any normal learning experience,and they are nothing to
be ashamedof; good learners recognizethis, take setbacksin their stride, and
look for ways to exploit them in order to succeednext time.
As with success,it is in principle part of the teacher'sjob to make learners
aware of when they are failing. Having said this, however, there is certainly a
dangerthat constant awarenessof shortcomingsmay lower learners'motivation
and demoralizethem, particularly thosewhose self-imageand confidenceare
shaky to start with. There may be caseswhere you may prefer to.ignore or play
down a failure; and successcan be made more likely by judicious selectionof
tasks,and by settingthe (minimum) standardof successat a clearly achievable
level.
278
Extrinsic motivation
Authoritativedemands
Learners are often motivated by teacher pressure:they may be willing to invest
effort in tasks simply becauseyou have told them to, recognizing your authority
and right to make this demand, and trusting your judgement. Younger learners
on the whole needthe exerciseof such authorify more, adults less:but even
adults prefer to be faced with a clear demand such as 'I want you to do this
assignmentby Friday' than a low-key requestlike: 'Do what you can, and give
it to me wheneveryou finish.'
Authoritative demandscan be, of course,over-usedor misused:if learners
only do things becausethey are obeyingcommands,without any awarenessof
objectivesand resultsor involvementin decisions,they are unlikely to develop
personal responsibility for their own learning or long-term motivation to
continue. On the other hand an over-emphasison learnerfreedom and
autonomy and correspondinglack of authoritative demand by the teachercan
lead to noticeable lowering of effort and achievement,and often, paradoxicallS
to learner dissatisfaction. Teachershave, surely a duty to use their authority to
'push' their students- particularly the younger ones - beyond what they might
be willing to do on their own, towards what Vygotsky (L962: Ch.6) calledtheir
'zone of proximal development' - the next stagein achievement- which can
only be attained by a learner with the support and help of a teacher.
Tests
The motivating power of tests appearsclear: learners who know they are going
to be tested on specificmaterial next week will normally be more motivated to
study it carefully than if they had simply beentold to learn it. Again, this is a
usefulincentive,provided there is not too much stressattached,and provided it
is not usedtoo often. SeeModule 3: Tests.Unit Two for a discussionof this and
relatedpoints.
Competition
Learners will often be motivated to give of their best not for the sake of the
learning itself but in order to beat their opponents in a competition.
Individual competition can be stressfulfor people who find losing
humiliating, or are not very good at the languageand therefore likely
consistently to lose in contests basedon (linguistic) knowledge; and if overused, it eventually affects negatiyely learners' willingness to cooperate and help
each other. If, however, the competition is taken not too seriously, and,if scores
are at leastpartly a result of chance,so that anyonemight win, positive
motivational aspectsare enhancedand stresslowered. Group conteststend on
the whole to get better results than individual ones, in my experience:they are
more enjoyable,lesstenseand equally motivating.
Summar y dl'scussionfask
A recurring message in the aborre discussion has been the caution not to
rely on any one of the methods too consistently or use it too often, since
over-use of any one of them cal lead to negative attitudes and harm long-
279
19Learnermotivationand interest
term learning. Do you have any further resenrationsabout any of them,
based,perhaps on negativee:cperiencesas learner or teacher?Arc there
others that you have positive e:rperience of and have found particularly
useful?
Globalintrinsicmotivation- thegeneralized
desireto investeffort in the
learningfor its own sake- is largelyrootedin the previousanitudesof the
learners:whetherthey seethe learningasworthwhile,whetherthey like the
language
andits cultural,politicalandethnicassociations.
However,you can
certainlyhelpto fostertheseattitudesby makingit clearthat you sharethem,or
by givingfurther interestingand attractiveinformationaboutthe languageand
its background.
Suchglobalmotivationis importantwhenthecourseis beginning,andas
generalunderlyingorientationduringit; but for real-timeclassroom
learninga
more significantfactor is whetherthe task in handis seenasinteresting.It is in
the arousingof interest,perhaps,that teachers
investmosteffort,andgetmost
immediateandnoticeable
pay-offin termsof learnermotivation.
Task Finding ways of arousing learner interest
.SfageI: Brainstorm
Hourmanyways of creating learner interestin doing a task canyou think of?
Either on your ovynor with colleagues,make ascomprrehensive
a list asyou
can.
Sfage2: hrtending
Compareyour list with mine asshovynin Box 19.2.Canyou use my list to
extendyour otrn, orvice versa?
Note that we may havemanyof the sameideasperhapse:<pressed
in
different words; decide which terms you prefer and stick to them. Also,
different ideas may werlap: for example,you may haveboth 'games'alrd
'puzzles',wherep'rzolssare argruablyone kind of game.This doesnot
matter at all: we are, after all, simply Uying to alxrassas many good ideas
for teachingaspossible,not attemptinga scientifrcta:ronomyof mutually
exclusivecategories.
Sfage3;.Assessrhgr
With your final list before you, think about or discuss:which of the items are
used most and which least in a teaching situationyou are familiar with? And
can you single out thosewhich are,in your opinion, nnder-e:rploitedand
you would like to try to use more yoursell?
280
lntrinsic motivation and interest
BOX 19.2:WAYS OF AROUSINGINTERESTlN TASKS
1. Cleargoals
Learnersshouldbe awareof the oblectivesof the task- both languageJearning
and
goalof
content.Forexample,a guessing-game
may havethe language-learning
practisingquestions,andthe contentgoalof guessinganswers.
2. Varied topics and tasks
Topicsand tasksshouldbe selectedcarefullyto be as interestingas possible;but
few singletypes can interesteveryone,so there shouldbe a wide rangeof different
onesovertime.
3. Visuals
It is importantfor learnersto havesomethingto look at that is eye-catchingand
relevantto the task in hand(seeWrightand Haleem,1991).
4. Tension and challenge: games
Gamelikeactivitiesprovidepleasurable
tensionand challengethroughthe process
of attainingsome 'fun' goalwhile limitedby rules.The introduction
of suchrules(an
arbitrarytime limit,for example)canadd spiceto almostany goal-oriented
task.
5. Entertainment
producesenjoyment,which in its turn addsmotivation.Entertainment
Entertainment
(iokes,stories,perhapssongs,dramaticpresentations)or
can be teacher-produced
recorded(movies,video clips,televisiondocumentaries).
6. Play-acting
Roleplayand simulationsthat use the imagination
and take learnersout of
themselvescan be excellent;thoughsome peopleare inhibitedand may find such
activitiesintimidating
at first.
7. Information gap
A particularlyinterestingtype of task is that basedon the need to understandor
transmitinformation- findingout what is in a partner'spicture,for example.A
variationon this is the opiniongapwhere participants
exchangeviews on a given
ISSUE.
8. Personalization
Learnersare more likelyto be interestedin tasks that haveto do with them
themselves:theirown or eachother'sopinions,tastes,experiences,
suggestions.
9. Open-ended cues
A cue which invitesa numberof possibleresponsesis usuallymuch more
stimulatingthanone with only one rightanswer:participants'contributions
are
unpredictable,
and are more likelyto be interesting,
originalor humorous.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
281
19 Learner motivation and interest
The ideas for raising interest suggestedin the previous unit are useful as overall
guidelines for the design of materials or tasks. This unit looks at how learners'
level of affention and interest fluctuates within the period of engagementwith a
task, and what might causesuchfluctuations.Sometemporary lowering in
learner interest can be causedby factors beyond our control - the need of the
learner to take a short break, for example, or external distractions - but there
are also certain teacher behaviours which can quickly catch or lose learner
interest, and it is important to be sensitiveto their effect.
Teacher-associatedfluctuations in interest are more obvious in classesof
younger or lessautonomouslearners,but can be observedto someextent in all
classes.
The following task invites you to study your own data on rises and falls in
apparent learner motivation in a lesson;if you are unable to do the necessary
observation yourself, then read on to the account of my own observation below.
Observation Rises and falls in learner interest
'
task
I: Obsermtion
^Sfage
For this task you will need to obsenre one lesson. Place yourself somewhere
where you have a good view of one or two particular students. Watch them
carefully and notice fluctuations in their interest level; at the same time note
what was going on in the classroom. I found this easiest to do by noting
time, classroom errent(s) and then'++' for 'high attention',
'- -' for 'very low attention', or appropriate intermediate symbols. Your
perception of when interest is rising or falling will be largely intuitive, but
look particularly for the direction of the student's gaze, slumping or erect
body posture, alert or apathetic facial e:rpression, physical activity that is,
or is not, directed at the task in hand.
Stagre2: Summary and conclusions
Vllhenyouhave finishedyonr obsenration, try to pinpoint some of the
apparent causes of rises and fdls in attention, andwhat you might learn
from these for your om teaching. If others in your group have also done
such an obsenration, Jroumight furd it interesting to compare notes.
I tried this in a class of twelve-year-olds in my school; results are
describedbelor.
Fluctuationsin learner interest:Obseruationand reflections
I watched two boys in the front row of a heterogeneousclassof twelve-year-olds
in my school.They were average,or slightly above-averagestudents,but not
outstandingly obedient or self-disciplined. Below are slightly edited notes from
the first half of the lessonI observed,followed by some of my reflections.
282
Fluctuationsin learnerinterest
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Some reflections
- On the whole, the teacheraddressingthe whole classgot most people's
attention; when sheaddressedindividuals, others sometimeslost interestparticularly if shewent into lengthy corrections and explanations of
individual error. One possible explanation might be that the teacher'seye
contact with individuals raisestheir attention; exrendedlack of eye contact
lowers it. Hence the importance of constant 'scanning'of the class?
- Blackboard writing on the whole held students' attention, particularly when
she was writing something they had said themselves.
'When
students had to read or write something down, they concentrated;
when they only had to listen, they attendedless.Perhapsboth this point and
the previous one have to do with activation of the visual channel:students
who have something to look at attend better?
- Organizational activities (giving out and collecting papers, for example) were
usually accompanied by a lowering of attention; such processestherefore
need to be managed as quickly and efficiently as possible.
- Pair and group work sometimesproduce a very high level of learner
concentration and activity, but can also do exactly the opposite. A high
degreeof teacher sensitivity is neededhere, together with very clear
instructions, simple and well-structured tasks and careful monitoring.
283
19 Learner motivation and interest
Notes
Task:Recallingthe characteristicsof a good teacher
Most of my traineesrecalledtheir good teachersas in someway 'pushing' them
to want to give of their best,though there was by no meansa consensuson the
most common or successfulmethods.
It is, for example, apparently by no meansnecessarilytrue that motivating
behaviouron the part of the teacherimplies increasingpleasureor enjoyment.
Peoplewho choseto recall teachersat secondary-schoollevel tendedto describe
their good teachersas demanding consistently high standards, giving frequent,
possibly stressful,tests,punishing slacknessand so on. Theseteachersdid,
however,in spite of (or becauseof?) strictnessand uncompromisingdemands,
apparently succeedin conveying to their students a faith in their ability to reach
the desiredstandards,and respectfor them as individuals and scholars.A
typical comment was somethinglike 'I would never have believedI could do it my teachershowedme I could, and pushedme until I got there.'
Others recalled their teachersas motivating them by gentler and warmer
personalsupport; theseare particularly thosewho choseto recall primaryschoolteachers.'I felt shecared about me, and enjoyedteachingme, so I
enjoyedlearningwith her and wanted to do my best.'
Yet another category was those teacherswho motivated students by making
the tasks and lessonsinteresting,and thus, eventually the subjectof study as a
whole. Interest was aroused not just by careful planning of stimulating topics
and tasks,'butalso by the teacher'sown enthusiasmand eagerness:
teachers
who are excited about their subiect or who simply love teaching seemto
communicate their own motivation to their students.
Further reading
Brown, H. D. (1987) Principlesof LanguageLearning and Teaching(2nd edn.),
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall.
Burstall, C., Jamieson,M., Cohen, S.,and Hargreaves,M. (19741,Primary
Frenchin the Balance,'Windsor:National Foundation for Educational
ResearchPublishing Company.
(An account of an experimental period of teaching French as a foreign
languagein British primary schools, with some significant conclusions for the
functions and causesof motivation to learn)
Csikzsentmihalyi,M. and Nakamura, J. 0989)'The dynamicsof intrinsic
motivation', in Ames, C. and Ames, R. (eds.),Researchon Motiuation in
Education, Vol. ilI, London: AcademicPress,152-64.
(Interesting, convincing hypothesesand researchon the nature and causesof
intrinsic motivation)
Gardner,R. (1980) 'On the validity of affectivevariablesin secondlanguage
acquisition:conceptual,contextual and statisticalconsiderations',Language
Learning, 30, 25 5-70.
(On the relationship between motivation and proficiency)
284
Further reading
Gardner, R. and Lambert, V. (1972) Attitudes and Motiuation in Second
Language Learning, Rowleg Mass.: Newbury House.
(A classicstudy of motivational variables affecting learners of French as a
secondlanguagein Canada)
Gardner,R. C. and Maclntyre, P.D. (1993) 'A student'scontributions to
second-languagelearning. Part II: Affective variables', Language Teaching,
26,1.,l-L'[,.
(An overview of recent research,relating particularly to attitude, motivation
and anxiety)
Girard, D. (L9771'Motivation: the responsibilityof the teacher',ELT Journal,
31,97-1.02.
(On the importance of motivation in languagelearning in general, and the
teacher'scontribution to it)
Khan, I. Q,991)'Lessonsworth rememberingfrom Primary French in Britain' in
Kennedg C. and Jarvis,J. (eds.),ldeas and lssuesin Primary ELT, London:
Nelson.
(A recent reconsideration of the implications of an important foreign
languageteachingexperimentin Britain undertaken by Burstal, C. et al.,
L974)
Naiman, N., Froelich,M., Stern,H. H. and Todesco,A. (79781TheGood
Language Learner, Researchin Education Series,No.7, Toronto: Ontario
Institute for Studiesin Education.
(An interesting and much-quoted study of good language learners and their
characteristics)
Stern,H. H. (1983) Fundamental Conceptsof LanguageTeaching,Oxford:
Oxford University Press,Ch.t7.
(This chapter gives a useful overview of various learner characteristics that
affect learning, relating particularly to aspectsof motivation)
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962) Thought and Language, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT.
(On how the child developsthe ability to understandand expressconcepts,
and how the (adult) teachermay promote such development;eye-opening)
'Wright,
A. and Haleem, S. (1991) Visualsfor the Language Classroorn,
London: Longman.
(On the creation and use of various kinds of visual materialsfor use in the
languageclassroom)
285
Module
20:Younger
andolderlearners
language learning?
Many conventionalassumptionsabout differencesbetweenchildren and adults
in languagelearning may turn out, when subjectedto careful examination or
researchto be not quite so obvious or inevitably true as they seem.In Box 20.1
are somestatementsthat representtheseassumptions;commentsfollow.
B OX 20.1: A S S UMP TIONS
A B O UTA G E A ND L A NG UA G E
LE A RNING
1. Youngerchildrenlearnlanguages
betterthan olderones;childrenlearnbetter
th a na d u l ts .
2. Foreignlanguagelearningin schoolshouldbe startedat as earlyan age as
oossible.
3. Childrenand adultslearnlanguagesbasically
the sameway.
4. Adultshavea longerconcentration
spanthan children.
5. lt is easierto interestand motivatechildrenthanadults.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Task Critical assessment
Lrook at the statements in Box 20.1, and note for each whether you agrree or
disagree, adding any comments or reservations you might have. Compare
your reactions with those of colleagrues if possible; then read on.
Comments
1. Young children learn languagesbetter
This is a commonly held view, basedon many people'sexperienceseeing(or
being)children transplantedto a foreign environment and picking up the local
Ianguagewith apparent ease.The obvious conclusionfrom this experience
would seemto be that children are intrinsically better learnerslbut this has not
beenconfirmed by research(Singleton,t989). On the contrary: given the same
amount of exposureto a foreign language,there is someevidencethat the older
the child the more effectivelyhe or she learns (Snow and Hoefnagel-Hoehle,
1978; Ellis, 1994: 484-94); probably teenagersare overall the best learners.
(The only apparent exceptionto this is pronunciation, which is learnedmore
easily by younger children.) The reasonfor childrent apparently speedy
286
What differencedoes age make to languageleamirry?
learningwhen immersedin the foreign environmentmay be the sheeramounr of
time they are usually exposedto the language,the number of 'reachers'
surrounding them, and the dependenceon (foreign-language-speaking)
people
around to supply their needs('survival' motive).
The truth of the assumptionthat young children learn better is evenmore
dubious if applied to formal classroomlearning:here there is only one teacher
to a number of children, exposuretime is very limited, and the 'survival' morive
doesnot usually apply. Moreover, young children have not as yet developedrhe
cognitive skills and self-disciplinethat enablethem to make the most of limited
teacher-mediatedinformation; they rely more on intuitive acquisition, which in
its turn relies on alarger volume of comprehensibleinput than there is time for
in lessons.
2. Foreign language learning in school should start early
Somepeoplehave arguedfor the existenceof a 'critical period' in language
learning:if you get too old and passthis period you will have significantlymore
difficulty learning;thus early learning in schoolswould seemessential.But this
theory is not conclusivelysupportedby researchevidence:there may not be a
critical period at all; or there may be several(Singleton,L989;Long, 1990). The
research-supported
hypothesisdiscussedabove- that children may actually
becomemore effectivelanguagelearnersas they get older,particularly in formal
teacher-mediated
learning situations- meansthat the investmentof lessontime
at an early age may not be cost-effective.In other words, if you have a limited
number of hours to give to foreign languageteachingin school,it will probably
be more rewarding in terms of sheeramount of learning to invest thesein the
older classes.I have heard one authority on the subject,C. Snow (in a lecture
'Using L1 skills for L2 proficiency:ril7hyolder L2 learnersare better', at the
Conferenceof the EnglishTeachers'Associationof Israel,Jerusalem,1993)
claim that twelve is the optimum agefor starting a foreign languagein school;
my own experienceis that ten is about right.
Having said this, however, it is also true that an early start to language
learning is likely to lead to better long-term results if early learning is
maintainedand reinforced as the child getsolder (Long,1990).In a situation,
therefore, where there are as many teachersand teaching hours as you want, by
all meansstart as early as you can.
3. Ghildrenand adults learn languagesthe same way
In an immersion situation, where peopleare acquiring languageintuitively for
daily survival, this may to someextent be true. In the context of formal courses,
however,differencesbecomeapparent.Adults' capacityfor understandingand
logical thought is greater,and they are likely to have developeda number of
learning skills and strategieswhich children do not yet have.Moreover, adult
classestend on the whole to be more disciplinedand cooperative- as anyone
who has moved from teachingchildren to teachingadults, or vice versa,will
have found. This may be partly becausepeoplelearn as they get older to be
patient and put up with temporary frustrations in the hope of long-term
rewards,to cooperatewith others for joint profit, and various other benefitsof
self-restraintand disciplinedcooperation.Another reasonis that most adults
are learning voluntarily have chosenthe coursethemselves,often have a clear
287
20 Youngerand older learners
purpose in learning (work, travel, etc.) and are therefore likely to feel more
committed and motivated; whereas most children have little choice in where,
how or even whether they are taught.
4. Adults have a longer concentration span
Teacherscommonly notice that they cannot get children to concentrate on
certain learning activities as long as they can get adults to do so. However, the
problem is not the concentration span itself - children will spendhours
absorbed in activities that really interest them - but rather the ability of the
individual to perseverewith something of no immediate intrinsic interest to
them. Here older learnersdo exhibit noticeablesuperioriry becausethey tend to
be more self-disciplined.One implication for teaching is the need to devote a lot
of thought to the (intrinsic) interest value of learning activities for younger
learners(seethe next unit and Module 1.9:Learner motiuation and interest).
5. lt is easier to motivate children
In a sense,this is true: you can raise children's motivation and enthusiasm(by
selectinginterestingactivities,for example) more easilythan that of older, more
self-reliantand sometimescynical learners.On the other hand, you can also lose
it more easily:monotonous, apparently pointlessactivities quickly bore and
demotivate young learnerslolder ones are more tolerant of them. Perhapsit
would be more accurateto say that younger learners'motivation is more likely
tdvary and is more susceptibleto immediate surrounding influences,including
the teacher: that of older learners tends to be more stable.
Note: In this unit 'children' is taken to mean pre-adolescents.
In general, as noted at the end of the last unit, children have a greater immediate
need to be motivated by the teacher or the materials in order to learn effectively.
Prizes and similar extrinsic rewards can help, but more effective on the whole
are elements that contribute towards intrinsic motivation: interest in doing the
learning activity itself (for further discussion of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation seeModule 1.9:Learner motiuation and interest, Units Three and
Four). Such elements are most likely to be effective if they are based on an
appeal to the sensesor activate the children in speechor movement.
Three very important sourcesof interest for children in the classroom are
pictures, stories and games:the first being obviously mainly a visual stimulus;
the secondboth visual and aural; and the third using both visual and aural
channelsas well as activating languageproduction and sometimesphysical
movement.
Question
288
Can you add other important sources of interest for childlen learning
languages besides the tluee mentioned abore? Somesuggestionsof my
orvn €uegiven in the Notes, (l).
Teaching crtit&sr
Pictures
Lack of aural stimulus is relatively easyto tolerate: even young learners will
work for a while in silence without searching for something to listen to. This,
however, is not true of the visual, which is a very dominant channel of input: so
much so, that if young learnersare not supplied with something to look at that
is relevant to the learning task in hand they will find and probably be distracted
by something that is not.
The most obvious type of visual material for children is the picture: and the
more clearly visible, striking and colourful the better.On the whole,
professionallydrawn pictures or photographs are used:those in the textbook,
or coloured posters,or pictures cut from magazines.But there is also a place for
the teacher's own quick sketcheson the board (however unprofessional and
untidy!); and of course for the children's own drawing. There are, incidentally,
books that give advice and help with drawing: have a look, for example, at
Vright (1984), 1000 Picturesfor Teacbersto Copy.
Application
If you are teaching or going to teach children, and do not alrready have a
collection of pictrues of your ovrm,start making one!
Stories
Young children love having stories told to them (even adults continue to enjoy
it!); and older ones begin to read for themselves.Moreover stories- in contrast
to pictures or even games- are pure language: telling a story in the foreign
languageis one of the simplestand richest sourcesof foreign languageinput for
younger learners.
. The most effective combination in teaching is pictures and stories together:
and the successof use of picture-books with young learnershas beenattestedby
many (seearticles in Brumfit et a1.,1.991andin Kennedy and Jarvis, L99l).
Application
Can you think of stories or books which you think would be suitable for use
in a children's foreign language class? Perhaps pool ideas with other
teachers and make a list of recommended material.
Games
Some years ago I wrote an article which began with the words: 'I am not, in
principle, in favour,of the use of gamesin languageteaching' (Ur, 1985). This
was an obviously provocative statement,but basedon a seriousargument.
Gamesare essentiallyrecreational 'time out' activitieswhose main purpose is
enjoyment; languagestudy is seriousgoal-orientedwork, whose main purpose
is personallearning. Once you call a language-learningactivity a'game'you
convey the messagethat it is just fun, not to be taken too seriously:a messageI
consider anti-educationaland potentially demoralizing.Very occasionallywe
do play real gamesin the classroom,(at the end of a course,for example, or as a
break from concentratedwork); but to call something a game when our goal is
in fact serious learning may harm the learning - andlor, indeed, spoil the
'game'! - as well as being dishonest.
289
20 Youngerand older learners
Two further dangers are: first, the tendency of some teachersto call activities
'games'for the sakeof raising initial motivation, when they are not in fact
gamesat all ('Let's play a game:I'll give you a word, you tell me how it is
spelt!'); second,the dangerthat the obvious activify and enjoymentcausedby a
gamemay obscurethe fact that its contribution to learning is minimal (see,for
example,ScenarioI inBox2.2l.
However, another definition of 'games'ignoresthe implication of non-serious
recreationand concentratesrather on their quality as organizedaction that is
rule-governed, involves striving towards a clear goal through performance of a
challenging task, and provides participants andlor onlookers with a feeling of
pleasurabletension.Children in generallearn well when they are active; and
when action is channelledinto an enjoyablegamethey are often willing to
invest considerabletime and effort in playing it. If we design our gamesin such
a way that they are productive of languagelearning they becomean excellent,
evenessential,part of a programme of childrent learning activities.
My conclusionwould certainly be to include game-basedproceduresas a
substantialcomponent of any children'slanguagecourse;though I am to this
day uncomfortableabout using the 1g11n
'game', becauseof the misleadingand
belittling implication. I would rather think of and presentthem as (game-like)
language-learningactivities.
Application
Together with colleagues, describe and list some language-learning
games that you lsrorr or have used, or seen used, successfully with
children. You may find some of the references under Furfh er reading
helpful; three favor:rites of my o\ rn appear in the Notes, (2).
Unit Three: Teaching adolescents: student
preferences
For inexperiencedteachers,classesof adolescentsare perhapsthe most daunting
challenge.Their learning potential is greater than that of young children (see
Unit One), but.they may be considerablymore difficult ro motivate and manage,
and it takeslonger to build up trusting relationships.
One sourceof guidanceabout how to teachadolescentssuccessfullyis books
on developmentalpsychology.Another - arguably no lessreliable,and perhaps
under-used- is the adolescentsthemselves.
Inquiry
Finding out how adolescents like to be taught
Sfage1:Preparation
took tluough the guestioruraire shown in Box 20.2, noting dovyn for each
item which responses you e:<pect. Optionally, administer it also to an
e:rperienced teacher of adolescents, and compare their answers with
yours. This will help you to familiarize yourself with the items, and will also
raise some interesting speculations to which your later survey may supply
answers. Add further items if you wish, or delete any ]rou feel irrelevant.
290
Teaching adolescents: student preferences
BO X2O .2 :SU RV E YOF S TUDE NTOP INI O NS
Puta tick in the appropriate
column:
very
Agree
Undecided Disagree
much
agree
Totally
disagree
1 lt is importantfor a teacherto
dress nicelyand look good
2. lt is importantfor a teacherto care
a lot about his/herteaching.
3 A good teachercontrolsthe class
firmly
4. A good teachertreats his/her
studentswith fairnessand
resoect.
5. A good teacheris warm and
f riendlvtowards students.
6. A good teacherknows and uses
students'names.
7 A good teacheris interestedin
eachstudentas a oerson.
8 A goodteacherwill changethe
lessonplanand do somethingelse
if that is what the studentswant
9 A good teacherlets students mark
their own tests.
10. I Iikeit when the studentstake
overand run the lesson.
11. A goodteachermakessure
studentshaveJunin lessons.
12. A goodteachergets studentsto
work hard.
13. I preferworking in groupsor
individuallyto havinga teacherdominatedlesson.
14 | likeit when the teacherasksmy
ooinionin class.
15 A goodteacheralwaysgives
interestinglessons.
16. A goodteacherusescorporal
punishmentoccasionally.
17. lf we needhelp,the goodteacher
findstime to talkoutsidethe
crassroom.
AcknowledgementMany of the ideasfor questionsare basedon Wraggand Wood, 1984,pp 220-2
@ Cambridge University Press 1996
297
20 Younger and older learners
Stage 2: Interviev'ts
If you are working on your or,nm,find some teenagers learning foreigm
languages locdly who are willing to answer your questions: if possible
about fifteen of them, but it is worth doing evenwith a smaller number. (If
you are in a grroup, each participant may work with two or tluee
respondents, pooling results at the end.)
You may do this as a series of interviews, noting a mark or tick in the
appropriate space onlrour copy of the questioruraire for each answer. Or
make multiple copies, and distribute to respondents, collating results later.
(I did it by distributing copies in a lesson, letting students fill in answers on
.their ovrrn,but being myself on hand to clarify uncertainties about
meanings.)
.Sfage 3: Summarizing results
Look at your results, or pool them with colleagues. Were there any
surprises? If so, holnrwould you account for the difference between your
expectations and the respondents' answers?
Stage 4: Drawing conclusions
Assuming that your results are based on honest and fairly representative
student opinions, in what way can you use them to gtuide you in plarming
your own teaching approach and procedures? Discuss this question with
colleagues, or note ideas for yourself in writing.
Some general comments and conclusions of my ovrm,based on a similar
sunrcy carried out by teachers in my ornrnschool are given in the folloring
section.
Resultsand comments
The following comments are basedon responsesfrom two classesof fifteenyear-olds in the school where I teach, and are not necessarilyall true for or
applicableto other situations;implications for teachingare thereforeexpressed
as personalconclusions.Nevertheless,you may find someinterestingpoints of
similarity between your own results and reflections and mine!
Statement 1
On the whole I found that studentsin fact carea lot lessabout their teachers'
appearancethan the teachersexpect. If this is generally true, then relax!
Statement 2
Most agreed.The fact that teacherscare about their teaching is apparently
clearly if unconsciouslg conveyed; and this appearsto be important to
adolescentstudents.I should thereforenot be misled by outward displaysof
indifference or cynicism!
Statement 3
This was strongly agreedwith. Most students appear to like to feel that the
teacherhas authoriw and is clearly in control.
292
Teaching adults: a different relationship
Statements 4 and 5
Thesewere both predictably agreedwith by most adolescents:the interesting
point is that the first of the two scored noticeably higher than the second;and
this may representa general truth. In spite of the image of the warm and loving
teacherpromoted by someromantic fiction, most adolescentsmay prefer their
teachersto value and respectthem rather than to be their friends.
Statements 6 and 7
Thesetwo questionsapparently relateto the sameteachercharacteristic:but my
respondentsshowed noticeablylessenthusiasticagreementwith the secondthan
with the first. They certainly want their teachersto identify them as individuals,
but do not necessarilywant them to be too interestedin what may be seenas
private territory.
Statements 8-10
Many of my respondentsare usedto being consultedin classroomaffairs, and
take quite a lot of responsibility for their own learning. Nevertheless,their
responsesto statements8 and L0 were lukewarm, and to 9 outright
disagreement.Most studentsseemto seeresponsibiliryfor decisionsabout
as part of the teacher'sjob, and regard you as
learning and assessment
irresponsibleor unprofessionalif you 'opt out'. There is somethingin this. On
the other hand, it is clearly desirableto have studentsparticipate in decisionson
what happensin the classroom,so that they too feel someownership of and
commitment to the learning programme: such participation has also educational
value and provides somepreparation for adult learning situations.However,
collaborativedecision-makingcannot usually be demandedabruptly or
immediately where the students are not used to it, and bringing it about may
demandtact and careful planning.
Statements 11and12
Here, answerschange perceptibly as students get older. The younger adolescents
are more in favour of fun, lesskeen on working; older ones tend to switch
priorities. My own conclusion: they judge us, ultimately, by how much they
learn from us, not by how much they enjoy our lessons,and as they get older
realizethat good learning costs effort.
Statement 13
Answers varied, depending on the background of the individuals: whether they
were used to doing group or individual work, or were chiefly taught in teacherfronted lessons.I need to know their preferences,and, if I wish to introduce a
change, should be aware that there may be difficulties.
Statement 14
Again, answershere varied very widelS even within one group' since they are
closely linked to the individual's personality and learning style: it was difficult
here to draw any generalconclusions.
Statement 15
Most respondentsagreedwith this one fairly enthusiastically; they do not stop
293
20 Younger and older learners
to consider whether it is reasonableto demand from eveh a first-rate teacher
that all lessonsbe consistently interesting!
Statement 16
This is another culture-boundproposition. My respondentsrejectedit strongly;
but elsewhereit may well be approved of by students,and seenas making a
positive contribution to education.
Statement 17
This was agreedwith enthusiastically and almost unanimously; the implications
for my own behaviour with students is clear.
Unit Four: Teaching adults: a different
relationship
The teachingof foreign languagesto adults is arguably lessimportant, worldwide, than the teachingof children: most languageteachingtakesplace in
schools,most basicknowledgeof and attitudestowards the foreign language
are acquiredthere. However,teachingadults is on the whole easierand less
stressful(and better paid!). It is, however,often directedtowards special
purposes(for business,for academicstudy and so on), demandingextra areasof
expertiseon the part of the teacher;and the teacheris often expectedto be a
native speakerof the target language.
Someof the reasonswhy it is usually easierto cope with and teach classesof
adults than those of children were mentionedin Unit One: you might find it
useful at this point to (re)readthe Commealssectionin that unit on pages
286-288. However, one aspectwhich may actually be more problematical is not
dealt with there: that of personalrelationships.
Discussion Look at Box 20.3, inwhich are listed defrnitions of various possible
relationships between teacher and class. \Mhich of these do you feel are
more, or less, appropriate for adult classes in general? Do the same
generalizations apply to a specific class you lcro,u or have obsenred? (You
will notice that the dominance shifts from teacher to learners as you gfo
dwrn the list. It looks as if the ftuther dovun]rou go the more appropriate the
relationship, but this would be an orrer-simplification.)
You may wish to discuss these questions with colleagues, or note doum
some personal responses - or simply read on to my conunents belovu.
Comments
Authority - subjectsto authority
Evenin an adultclass,theteacher's
statusasan authorityis usuallymaintained.
This,however,is basedmoreon theteacher's
being'anauthorityon ...' (the
language
andhow to learnit) than on their beinga legallyappointedsuperior:a
294
Teaching adults: a different relationship
BO X 20.3: RE LA TIONS HIPBSE T WE E N
T E A CHE R
A ND A DUL T
STUDENTS
- subjectsto authority
authority
assessor
- assesseo
transmitter
- receivers
motivator
- peopleto be motivated
- peopleto be activated
activator
- clients
counsellor
sellerof services- buyersof services
resource
- users
@ CambridgeUniversity Press 1996
distinction expressedin the French terms enseignant and professeur respectively
(see\Tiddowson, 1987). In any case,there is a certain deferenceon the part of
the learners:the teacheris expectedto give instructions,the learnersare
expectedto respectand obey them. However,there is also the important factor
of accountability: in return for conceding authority to the teacher in the
classroom,adult learnersdemandultimate returns in terms of their own benefit
in learning outcomes.
Assessor - assessed
The moment one personis placedin the position of having the right to criticize
the performance of another, the relationship becomesasymmetrical, dominance
Even if someoneelseactually checksa final
being attributed to the assessor.
exam and passesor fails courseparticipants,the teacherwill be seenas assessor
in the daily classroomprocess;and this contributesto their role as authorify,
abeadydiscussedabove.In this aspect,there is little differencebetweenyoung
and adult classes.
Transmitter - receivers
This relationshipcan occur in adult classroomsjust as it can in others;it is a
function of the methodology the teacher has chosento employ rather than of
the age of the learner. Becauseof the lessformal authority of the teacher with
most adult classes(asdescribedin the paragraph'Authority - subjectsto
authority' above),adults are perhapsin a better position to asserttheir right to
question, criticize and generally participate actively; on the other hand, they do
tend to be more disciolinedand conform more to teacherdemandsthan
younger learners.Thi two factors probably offset one another, and it is difficult
to draw any firm conclusionsabout the 'typical' adult classin this respect.
Motivator - motivated
As a generalization, adults take responsibility in society: for their own actions
In the classroomalso, adults take more
and for their consequences.
responsibilityfor the learning process,and rely lesson the teacher'sinitiative in
making activitiesattractiveor providing incentives.They are also usually more
motivated in the first place (partly becausemost of them are learning
voluntarilg while most children are given no choice!),and this motivation, as
295
20 Youngerand older learners
noted in Unit One, tends to be relatively stable:it doesnot, for example,rise or
fall so much in immediate responseto more interesting or more boring teaching.
Thus although the raising and maintaining of learnermotivation is an
essentialand basic component of teaching activity with all age groups, it usually
demands perhaps lessinvestment of effort and time on the part of teachers
working with adults.
Activator - aetivated
As with 'transmitter - receivers' this is a relationship that dependsmore on the
teacher'schosen methodology than on the age of the learners, and can be true
for any class.
Counsellor - clients
This relationship entails a view of the teacher as an accepting, supportive
professional,whose function is to supply the expressedneedsof the learner
rather than to impose a predetermined programme. It involves a perceptible
shift of responsibility and initiative in the classroom processfrom the teacher to
the learnersthemselves.It is a typically adult relationship,and is unlikely to
occur in classesof children; evenin adult classesit is rare to find it consistently
used: perhaps only where the methodology known as Community Language
Learning is used (a brief summary of this is given in the Notes, (3); for further
detail seeRichards and Rodgers,1986). But occasionalexchangesand some
general 'feel' of the counsellor<lient relationship may enrich the interaction in
many otherwise conventional adult classes.
Seller - buyers
This is an essentiallybusinessrelationship: the teacher has a commodity knowledge of the language- which the learneris willing to pay money to
acquire. The implication is a relative lowering of the prestige of the teacher,and
greater rights of the learner to demand appropriate results (value for money),
and even to dismiss the teacher if the results are not forthcoming. This
relationship may underlie quite a high proportion of adult learning situations,
and the juxtaposition of the traditional authoritative role of the teacher with
their role as employeeor sellermay be an uneasyone.
Resource- users
Here the implication is that the teacher is a mere source of knowledge to be
tapped by learners,and is virtually passivein classroominteraction: it is the
learner who tells the teacher what to do. Total and consistent implementation of
such a teaching-learning relationship is difficult to envisage,but many adult
classesmay implement it partially particularly where the students are
experiencedlearners who know what they want and how to get it, and./orwhere
the teacher knows the language but has no knowledge or experienceof how to
teachit.
296
Notes
Notes
(1) Othersourcesof interestfor children
Someother ideasare: physicalmovement (dancing,gymnastics,aerobics);
drama (mime, role play putting on plays);projects (exploring a topic and
making booklets or displayson it); doing decorativewriting or other graphic
design.
(2) Language-learning games for children
Here are three game-like activities I have used successfullywith younger classes.
1. Association dominoes
You need a collection of small pictures - about three times as many as there are
studentsin the class.Give eachstudenttwo. Stick up one from the pool of
remainingpictureson the board. Studentsmay suggestadding one of their
pictureseither sideof the original one if they can think of a convincinglink or
associationbetweenthe two: for example,a camel may be put by a table
becausethey both have four legs.The aim is to make as long a line of pictures
as possible, or to make the line reach the sidesof the board; studentswho run
out of pictures may take more from your pool.
(The original 'dominoes' rule, that the winner is the one who gets rid of their
pictures first I discarded, becausethis shortensthe activity - lessening
participation and languageproduction - and also makesthe whole atmosphere
lesspleasant:competitiverather than cooperative.)
2. Doodles
Draw an abstract'doodle' on the board and invite studentsto say what they
think it represents.The idea you think most interesting or original 'wins' and its
producer gets to draw the next doodle and judge the resulting suggestions.
3. Decideon names
Each student is given a copy of the picture shown below. The students are
divided into pairs, and are given the task of allotting namesto the people in the
picture, taking turns to chooseand name a character.The condition is that they
may not look at their partner'spicture: they may mark in the nameson their
own picture, but the identification of the character to be named has to be done
entirely through talking. After a certain time, stop them. They lay their pictures
on their desksand check that they have in fact given the samenamesto the
samepeople.
Note that just as good children'sliterature can be enioyedby all ages,so can
good children's games:I have used all three of the above with adult classes,with
good results.
297
20 Younger and older learners
(3) Community LanguageLearning
In this methodology the aim is for learnersto learn the language,promote their
own personaldevelopmentas individuals and together form a warm supportive
community (henceits name). The teacheracts as a non-judgementalcounsellor
who helps to achievetheseaims.
A basic initial procedureis for learnersto sit in a circle, with the teacher
(calleda 'knower') outside.A learner who wishesto say somethingwhispers it
to the 'knower' who translatesinto the target language.Another learner who
wishesto reply goesthrough the sameprocedure.The individual contributions
are recorded,and the recording representsa full conversation.This
conversationmay then be transcribed,studied and used as the basisfor further
languagedevelopment.
Other proceduresinclude group discussionson the feelingsand reactionsof
participants, teachermonologuesre-presentinglearner-initiatedlanguage,free
conversation.
For a more detaileddescription of the method and somecriticism, see
Richardsand Rodgers(1986).
298
Further reading
Further reading
AGE DIFFERENCES
Burstall, C., Jamieson,M., Cohen, S., and Hargreaves,M. (1,974),Primary
French in the Balance,Windsor: National Foundation for Educational
ResearchPublishing Company.
(An account of an experimental period of teaching French as a foreign
languagein British primary schools;the results overall were disappointing,
and the teaching was discontinued:seeKhan, 1,991,)
Ellis, R. (1,9941TheStudy of SecondLanguageAcquisition, Oxford: Oxford
University Press:484-94.
(A survey of researchon the influence cif agein second language learning:
concludes, roughly, that older learners learn faster, but that given extensive
and consistent exposure learners who started young eventually learn better)
Khan, J. 0,991)'Lessons worth rememberingfrom Primary French in Britain' in
KennedS C. and Jarvis,J. (eds.),ldeas and lssuesin Primary ELT, London:
Nelson.
(A recent reconsiderationof the implications of an important foreign
languageteaching experiment in Britain (Burstall et al.,19741)
Long, M. H. (1990)'Maturational constraints on languagedevelopment',
Studies in Second LanguageAcquisition, 12, 217-8 5 .
(Research-based
article on the age factor in languagelearning: conclusions
similar to theseof Ellis, above)
Singleton,D. (1,989)LanguageAcquisition: The Age Factor, Clevedon,
Philadelphia:Multilingual Matters.
(A thorough overview of the research,with useful summariesat the end of
eachchapter: few 'easyanswers')
Snow, C. and Hoefnagel-Hoehle,M. (1,978)'Age differencesin secondlanguage
acquisition' in Hatch, E. (ed.),SecondLanguageAcquisition, Rowleg Mass.:
Newbury House.
(Researchon English speakersof various ageslearning Dutch in Holland;
older learnerson the whole progressedfaster)
TEACHING CHILDREN
Argardizzo, C. (1.993)Children in Action, Hemel Hempstead:PrenticeHall
International.
(Clearly laid-out activities for children, accompaniedby interesting
suggestionsfor reflection by the teacher)
Brewster,J., Ellis, G. and Girard, D. (1,992)The Primary English Teacher's
G ui de, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
(A systematicand sensibleguide to the teaching of English as a foreign
language to younger children, with a rich, well-organized selection of
teaching ideas,and suggestionsfor teacherdevelopment)
Brumfit, C. J., Moon, J. and Tongue, R. (1991) TeachingEnglish to Children,
London: Collins.
(A collection of articles on the teaching of English as a foreign language,
divided into two sections: the first and longer one devoted to practical
classroomideas,the secondto background theory; to be read selectively)
299
20 Youngerand older learners
Kenned5 C. and Jarvis,J. (eds.)(1991) Ideasand Issuesin Primary ELT,
London: Nelson.
(Another collection of articles on teaching English as a foreign language,
mainly on aspectsof practical researchand experience;also for selective
reading; cautious, sensibleconclusionsat the end) .
Phillips, S. (1993) Young Learners,Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(A collection of suggestedactivities for young learners, sensibly classified
under listening, speaking, grammar, etc.)
Scott,'W.A. and Ytreberg, L. H. (19901TeacbingEnglish to Children, tondon:
Longman.
(A relatively short, readableand practical guide to teachinglanguageskills to
children, obviously basedon the authors' classroomexperience)
Ur, P. (1984) 'Getting younger learnersto talk L, 2, 3' , Practical English
Teaching,4, 4, 234; 5, L, 76-18; 5, 2, 75-16.
(Various guidelines on fluency practice for children, and a number of practical
suggestions)
Vale, D. and Feunteun,A. (1995) TeachingChildren English, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
(A course for teachers,including information, training tasks, and a rich
collection of ideasfor activating young learners)
PICTURES
Gerngross,G. and Puchta,H. (L992) Picturesin Action,Hemel Hempstead:
Prentice Hall International.
(Practicalideasfor using pictures in the classroom)
Wright, A. (1984) 1000 Picturesfor Teachersto Copy, London: Collins.
(Givesclear,easyguidanceon how to draw simple figures,animals, objects,
with plenty of models to copy)
'Wright,
A. and Haleem, S. (1991) Visualsfor the Language Classroom,
London: Longman.
(Guidelineson how to createand usevarious kinds of visual materials)
S TO RI ES
Ellis, G. and Brewster,J. (eds.)(L997) Tbe Storytelling Handbook for Primary
Teachers, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
(On using children's picture-stories for foreign-language teaching; relates
particularly to certain English storybooks, but the ideasare generalizable;
clear,basic,practical)
GAMES
Hadfield, J.0,984) ElernentaryCommunication Games,London: Nelson.
(Ideasfor communication gamesfor younger learners, with plenty of
accompanying visual material; note that there is also an Aduanced
Communication Gamesby the sameauthor)
Rixon, S. (1991) 'The role of fun and gamesactivitiesin teachingyoung
300
Furtherreading
learners'in Brumfit, C. J., Moon, J. and Tongue,R. (eds.),TeachingEnglish
to Children, London: Collins, pp. 3348.
(Generalguidelineson gameconstruction and use,with examplesand
recipes)
Rixon, S. (1992\'English and other languagesfor younger children: practice
and theory in a rapidly changingworld', LanguageTeaching,25,2,73-94.
(An overview of research,theory training schemesand developmentsin
methodology and materials; followed by a comprehensivebibliography)
Ur, P. (1985) 'How is a game like a GLALL?', Practical English Teaching,6,3,
l5-76.
(On the nature and place of gamesin languageteaching)
'Sfright,
A., Betteridge, M. and Buckby, M. (1984) Games for Language
Leaming, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(A collection of gamesand fun activities for language learning at all ages)
TEACHING ADOLESCENTS
Puchta,H. and Schratz,M. (1993) TeachingTeenagers,
London: Longman.
(Suggestionsfor fluency activities with teenagers,basedon humanistic selfexpression; accompanied by interesting accounts of how similar activities
worked when tried with German teenagers)
Wragg, E. C. and'Wood, E. K. (1984) 'Pupil appraisalsof teaching' in'Wragg,
E. C. (ed.), ClassroomTeachingSkills,London and Sydney:Croom Helm,
pp.79-96,220-2.
(Reportsa pieceof researchdone on pupils' opinions on the characteristicsof
the good teacher)
TEACHING ADULTS
Richards,J. C. and Rodgers,T. S. (1985) Ch. 8: 'Community Language
Learning' in Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
(A critical account of the principles and procedures of a counselling-based
language teaching methodology)
'V7iddowson,
H. G. (1987)'The roles of teacherand learner', EI-il Journal,4l,
2,83-9.
(An analysis of the different roles of the teacher as authority, and types of
interaction between teacher and learner)
ITright, T. (1987)' Roles of Teachersand Ledrners, Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
(A more detailed and thorough exploration of the topics discussedin Unit
Four, presentedmainly through tasks for the reader)
301
Module
)usclasses
Note: At first sight,it might seemthat the topicsof 'large' and 'heterogeneous'
classes
areseparate
ones:why treatthemtogether?Onereasonis that the two
featurescoincidemore often than not: largeclassesare almostinvariably
heterogeneous,
heterogeneous
classes
aremostproblematicalwhentheyare
alsolarge.Many practitionersperceivethe encounterwith large,heterogeneous
classes
asin practicea single,and common,teachingproblem,demandingstudy
and guidance.
Largeclasses
Largeis of coursea relativeterm, and what a 'largeclass'is will vary from place
to place.In someprivate languageschoolsa group of twenty studentsmay be
considered
large;in my own teachingsituation,4045; in someplacesnumbers
go up to the hundreds.A studydoneby the teamof the Lancaster-Leeds
LanguageLearningin LargeClasses
Researcb
Proiect(ProiectReportNo. 4 of
Colemanet al., L989)indicatesthat an average
perception
of thelargeclass
maybearound50 students.
ProbablShowever,the exactnumberdoesnot reallymatter:what mattersis
how you, the teacherseethe classsizein your own specificsituation.Most of
what will besaidin the following pageswill befound relevantto anyclass
perceived
aslarge,regardless
of theactualnumberof learnersin it.
Question In your ovunsituation:ho,nrbig is a 'large' class?
Heterogeneous
classes
A 'heterogeneous'
classis onethat hasdifferentkinds of learnersin it, as
opposedto a'homogeneous'class,
wherethe learnersaresimilar.
This definitioncannot,howeveqbe directly appliedto the real world: thereis
in fact no suchthing asa 'homogeneous'
class,sinceno two learnersarereally
similar;and thereforeall classes
of morethan onelearnerarein fact
heterogeneous.
Thus for our purposesthe term may be betterdefinedas 'classes
whosemembersareparticularlSor unusuallgheterogeneous',
and which
thereforepresentspecialproblemsfor both learnersand teacher.
Anotherdefinitionsometimes
appliedto suchclasses
is 'mixed-ability'.This
'V7hat
term is, I think, misleading.
mostteachersunderstandby it in practiceis
302
Problemsand advantages
classesof learnersamong whom there are marked differencesin level of
performance in the foreign language. However, the implications of the term
'ability' include not just the immediate observable'ability to perform' of the
learners,but also their 'potential learning ability'; and the former is not likely to
be a simple one-to-one result of the latter. Learners' present proficiency may
have been influenced by various other factors such as different previous
opportunities for learning, better or worse previous teaching,higher or lower
motivation. Even if we rephrasethe term 'mixed-ability' and say 'mixed
proficiency', this still does not cover all aspectsof heterogeneity as applied to a
classof languagelearners.Learnersare different from one another in all sorts of
other ways that affect how they learn and need to be taught.
Question
'
Horrr many ways can you think of in which learners differ from one another
in a heterogeneous class, and which are likely to affect the way you teach
them? Try making a list, then compare it with that shovrnrin Box 2l.l on
page 304.
The fact that learnersvary in the ways indicated in Box2l.1, within large classes
producesvarious teachingproblems. Someof theseare listed in Box 21.2 in the
form of teacher statements.
Drcussion Problems
task L,ookingat the set of problems described in Box?l.Z, which seem to you to
be the most sigrnificantin classesof this type that you lanou/?
BO x 21.2:TE A GHINGP ROB LE MSlN L A RG EHE T E RO G E NE O US
CLASSES
1. Discipline.'l havedisciplineproblemsin these classes;I find them difficultto
control.'
2. Correcting written assignments. 'l can't keep up with the markingload.'
3. Interest.'Theyget bored:I can'tfind topicsand activitiesthat keepthem all
interested.'
4. Effestive learning for all. 'l can't make sure they're all learningeffectively;the
tasks I provideare eithertoo difficultor too easyfor many of them.'
5. Materials.'l can'tfind suitablematerial:the textbooksare 'homogeneous'rigidlyaimedat one kindof learner,with no optionsor flexibility.
6. Individual awareness. 'l can't get to know and follow the progressof all the
individuals
in my class:there are too manyof them, and they'reall so different.'
7. Participation. 'l can't activatethem all: only a few students- the more proficient
and confidentones- seem to respondactivelyto my questions.'
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
303
21 Large heterogeneous c/asses
Tby categorizing them into tluee groups:
l. Crucial: These are problems whichworryyou andwhichyou definitely
need to solve.
2. Fairly important: Youwould like to be able to deal with these problems,
but they are not top priority.
3. Not important, or not relevant to your teaching situation.
You may find there are problems you have come acrosswhich are not
mentioned here: if so, add and decide how to categorize them.
If you are working in a group, try to come to a consensus;if not, classify
the problems for yourself in writing. You may frnd it interesting to compare
your ideas with mine as described belor.
Commentson Box 21.2:Problems
In my own situation, the most crucial problems are, in order of importance as I
experiencethem:
4. Effective learning for all
5. Materials
7. Participation
3. Interest
L. Discipline
Important, but slightly lessso are the following:
6. Individual awareness
2. Correcting written assignments
The last two I find lessproblematical in that they are potentially soluble simply
by the investment of extra work: in the first caseby meeting or corresponding
with students outside lessons,in the second by taking more time to go over
written work (or by asking the students themselvesto help correct each other's
work). The 'crucial'problems listed previously seemto me more difficult; and
evenmy best efforts and most careful thought and planningmay not result in
totally satisfactory solutions.
BOX 21.1: S OMEDIFFE RE NCEBSE T WE E NL E A RNE RS
lN
HE TE ROGE NE O US
CL A S S E S
language-learning
ability
languageknowledge
culturalbackground
learningstyle
attitudeto the language
mothertongue
intelligence
world knowledge
learningexperience
knowledgeof otherlanguages
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
304
agb or maturity
genoer
personality
confidence
motivation
interests
independence
self-discipline
educational
level
Problems and advantages
Advantages
Large heterogeneous
classesare seenmostly as problematical;but they have
their advantagesas well, and someof thesecan be usedto help solvethe
problems.
Question What positive aspects of large heterogeneous classes can Jrouthink of that
might aid teaching? Make a guick list (if pu arreworking with other
teachers, pool ideas with them). Then look at my suggestions as shovrrnin
Box 2 1.3; can you add more?
Task Matching solutions to problems
InBox 21.4 are some generalized suggestions for teaching that may go
some way towards providing solutions to some of the problems. More
specifrc and practical aspects of some of these suggestions will be
e:rplored in folloring units.
For each of the problems outlined in Box Zl.Ztry to find one or more
ideas in Box 21.4 that might help to solve it. Perhaps note, as ]rou are doing
this, which of the advantages of large, heterogeneous classes described in
Box 21.3 are exploited. When you have finished: are there arry problems
left without even partial solutions? If so, can you suggest some solutions of
your orn?
My orn responses to this task follovv.
BO X 2 1.3: A DV A NTA GE SOF LA RG EHE T E RO G E NE O US
CLASSES
poolof human
1. Suchclasses
a muchricher
resources
orovide
thandosmaller
or
less mixed classes.The individualshave between them far more life experience
and knowledge,more variedopinions,more interestsand ideas- all of which can
be used in classroominteraction.
2. There is educationalvalue in the actualcontactbetween very different kindsof
people:co-studentsget to know eachother's values,personalitiesand perhaps
cultures,and thereby increasetheir own knowledgeand awarenessof others,as
well as toleranceand understanding.
3. The fact that the teacheris very much less ableto attendto every individualin the
classmeansthat in order for the classto functionwell the studentsthemselves
must helpby teachingeachotherandworkingtogether:peer-teaching
and
collaboration
are likelyto be fairlycommon,fosteringan atmosphereof
cooperation.
4. Theseclassescan be seenas very much more challenging
and interestingto
teach,and providegreateropportunityfor creativity,innovationand general
professionaldevelopment.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Matchingsolutionsto problems:Some possibilities
By each numbered item I have written the letters of the suggestedsolutions I
think are relevant,with a following note of explanation.
305
21 Largeheterogeneousc/asses
CL A S S E SS: O ME
BOX 21.4: LA RGEHE TE R O G E NE O US
TEACHINGSOLUTIONS
a) Vary your topics, methods, texts: thus, if one day the materialis not of the right
levelfor, or does not interestcertainmembers of the class,maybethe next day it
w i l l (b e ).
b) Make activities interesting: so that even if the languageis not challengingfor
some of the learners,the content will hold interestand keep everyone
(Someideason the provisionof interestcan beJoundin Module19:
participating.
Learnermotivationand interest,Unit Four.)
c) Encourage collaboration: get learnersto work cooperativelyand peer-teach,so
as to maintainengagementwith the languagematerialevenwhen you cannot
directlyinteractwith every individualyourself.
d) Individualize:allow learnerschoicein what tasksor materialsthey use and how.
Narious ideason how to do this can be found in Module 16'.Classroom
interaction,Unit Four.)
el Personalize:whenever possibledesignor adapttasks in order to allow for
opinionsor
differentindividualresponses,basedon learners'ownexperience,
imagination.
fl Use compulsory plus optional instructions: tell the classthat everyonehas to
do a certainminimaloart of the task, the rest is optional- that is, availableto
thosewho understand
/ can do it / havetime / wish to do more.(SeeUnit Three.)
g) Use open-ended cues: invitethe classto respondto stimulustasks or questions
that havea rangeof possibleacceptableanswersratherthan a singleright
solution.(SeeUnit Four.)
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
L. Discipline: (a) and (b). Discipline problems are largely causedby boredom
and lack of challenge;thesecan be mitigated by varying tasks and materials
and making activitiesinteresting.
2. Correcting written assignments:(c). One way of lesseningyour work load is
to enlist the help of the students themselvesin correcting and improving each
other's work. For some further comment on this seethe last section of
Module lL: Teaching uriting, Unit Five.
3.Interest: (a), (b), (e) and (g). Obviously relevantsuggestionsare to make
activities interesting and to provide variety; but involving students' own ideas
and experiencescan also add interest,as can the useof open-endedtasks (see
Unit Four).
4. Effectivelearning for all: (d), (f) and (g). In individualized activitiesstudents
learn at their own paceand sometimeschoosetheir own tasks and materials.
The strategyof compulsory plus optional tasks allows learnersto decidefor
themselveswhat quantity of content and level of challengeto aim for; and
open-endedcuesalso allow a degreeof personalchoice.All thesehelp to
make proceduresmore flexible and enablethe learner to adapt materialsand
tasks in order to make them maximally effective and useful for him or her.
5. Materials: all. Textbook materialsvery often needto be adaptedand
supplementedfor heterogeneousclassesin order to add variation and
interest,in order to get more collaboration and participation, and in order to
introduce elementsof choiceand individualization. ,
306
Teachingstrategies(1):compulsory+ optional
6. Individual awareness:(c), (d) and (e).While studentsare engagedin
collaborative activity - pair work on a textbook task, for example - you have
an opportunity to go from pair to pair listening in and getring to know them;
or even to take one or two aside for a brief talk. Periods of individual reading
or writing tasksalso allow you time for personalinteraction. Personalization
of student contributions, even within full-class discussion,gives you the
chanceto hear different students' ideas and to get to know individual
personalities.
T.Participation: (b), (c), (d)and (g).Interestingstimuli will raise students'
motivation to engagein the task. The useof collaborativeand individual
work drastically increasesthe number of studentswho can be actively
pafticipating at any one time; this is particularly noticeable in contrast to
teacher-ledverbal interaction in the full class,where only one student at a
time (if any) can make a spokencontribution. FinallS evenwithin teacher-led
full-class interaction, learner participation can be raised, relative to teacher
talk, by the use of open-endedcuesrather than closed-endedones:each
teacherquestionthen stimulatesa number of responses.
+ optional
What it is
The 'compulsory + optional' strategy meansthat the classis given material or a
task and told that a certain minimal componenrof it has to be learnedor done
by everyone,the rest only by some. The basic attainment requestedshould be
accessibleto all, including the slowest;but provision should be made for more,
or more advanced, work by those for whom it is appropriate. Thus, everyone
should be able to succeed;but the amount actually done to achievethis success
will vary from individual to individual. TypicallS instructions that introduce
'compulsory + optional' work include phraseslike 'do at least', 'if you have
time', 'do as much as you can of ...'.
This strategy can be applied ro rhe syllabus, practice activities and tests.
Syllabus
The syllabusof a heterogeneousclassshould definewhat material everylearner
is expectedto master,and what further irems are suggestedfor learning for the
more advanced.In vocabulary lists, for example, compulsory items will be
carefully presented,practisedand tested,while the optional oneswill be taught
more casuallyand checkedonly in the optional sectionsof the tests(seebelow).
Practice activities
In an exerciseconsistingof, say ten questions,learnersmay be told: 'Do at least
six; do all ten if you can or have time'. Similarly in a reading activity: .Readat
leasthalf of this passage';or 'Read as much of the passageas you can in half an
hour'; or in writing: '!0rite one paragraph (or more) about ...' or'Spend at least
307
21 Largeheterogeneous
classes
forty minuteswriting me an accountof ...'. As theseexamplesillustrate,
different amounts of work may be demandedfrom different learners simply by
defining the time they are to spend on it rather than the number of items, pages
or books they are to get through.
Tests
Instead of making all sectionsof a test compulsorS two or three of the (more
difficult) sectionsmay be made optional. AlternativelS the entire test miy be
made up of sectionsof gradually increasing difficulry with the overall
instruction: 'Do as much as you can in the time'. Learnerswho tackle the more
difficult optional sectionsmay then be rewarded by bonus marks; or, if you
know your studentswell, they may be told in advancewho is expectedto do
what in order to passor get full marks.
Problem
The main problem that teachersusually bring up here is: 'How do I get students
to work according to their full potential? Given the choice, surely they will opt
for the easier'compulsory'work?'.
The short answeris: no, in my experiencethey do not. On the contrary: if I
have a problem, it is rather that the lessadvancedstudentsgiven a 'compulsory
+ optional' task try to do too much. I am not surewhy this is: perhapspartly
becausethey prefer challengeand interestto easinessand boredom; partly from
considerationsof self-image('I wish to seemyself as the kind of student who
doesmore advancedwork'); in any case,usually thesemotives apparentlyweigh
more heavily than the wish to take easyoptions.
The most effective way to study this problem and its answer is to try out some
form of the compulsory plus optional strategy in class.One such experiment is
suggestedbelow; or you may prefer to deviseyour own.
Esrperience Glassroom or peer-teaching
Preliminary note
This may be tried either with a class of students or with a giroup of
colleagrues. If the latter, divide them into three groups, each role-playing a
different learner level: Group t will be of fairly lour proficiency, Group 2
intermediate, Group 3 advanced. Tell them each to respond to the listening
task according to their allotted roles.
Stage I
Choose a situation or institution lrou larour guite a lot about, or an
e:rperience you remember vividly, and be ready to describe it to the class.
Make sure that pu will be using some quite easy langruage and some fairly
advanced.
Stage 2
Inform the class that they are going to do a listening comprehension
activity: they will hear something from you (tell them roughly what it is
about) and are asked to find out andwrite dorrn in note form at least ttuee
308
Teachingstrategies(2):open-ending
facts they have found out about the topic. Those who can should note doiyn
more than thrce - as m€rny as they can.
Stage 3
Deliver your description at normal speaking speed.
Stage 4
Check results. Have all the students succeeded in getting at least tluee
facts? Did the more advanced ones accept the challenge and write more?
'Open-ending'meansthe provision of cuesor learning taskswhich do not have
single predetermined 'right' answers, but a potentially unlimited number of
acceptableresponses.SeeBox 21.5 for illustrations of a closed-endedversus
open-endedexerciseon the presentsimple tense.
BOX 21.5: CLOS E D-A ND OP E N-E NDE E
DX E RCI S E S
Closed-ended
Choosethe most acceptable
alternative:
A goodteacher
to classon time.
a)comeb) is comingc) comesd) came
Acceptablelearnerresponse:A goodteachercomesto classon time.
Open-ended
A good teachercomesto classon time. Can you suggestother thingsa good
teacherdoes?
Acceptablelearnerresponses:
A good teachermakesthe lessonsinteresting,
a
goodteachersmiles,a goodteacherexplains
well,etc.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
Closed-endedcues are by their very nature homogeneous.They address,and
provide valuable learning for, a limited range of learners:thosewho have just
about masteredthe relevantlanguage,can rehearseit successfullygiven a cue
like this, and for whom such rehearsalgives useful practice. Learners who are at
a lower level and have not yet masteredthe languagewill either not respondat
all, or are quite likely to get the answer wrong; the result may be to clarify what
they need to work on in the future, but they will have got no useful practice as
such.The more advancedlearnersare also neglected:the item is easyand
boring, provides them with no opportunity to show what they can do or engage
with languageof an appropriate level.
Open-ended cues, on the other hand, provide oppornrnities for responseat
various levels.The more advancedlearnerscan make up more sophisticatedand
309
21 Largeheterogeneousclasses
longer answers(asin the fust examplein Box 21.5),the lessadvancedcan listen
to other learners' responsesand use them as models before volunteering simpler
ideas of their own (such as 'A good teacher smiles'). Moreover, even a basic
exerciselike this allows for expression of personal experienceand opinion.
Finall5 the increasein number of learner responsesto any one teachercue
means an increasein the amount of learner talk relative to teacher talk. This
meansthere will be a significant rise in the proportion of learners in a large class
who can make active contributions to the lesson.
Task'Open-ending' closed-ended exercises
In Box 21.6 is a set of conventional textbook exercises, obviously intended
to be 'closed-ended'. They can, hourever, be adapted during classroom
work in order to fansform them into 'open-ended' ones. Note donrn your
o.rrn ideas on hovu to do this, and/or exchange ideas with colleagrues,
before reading on to the Suggesfibns section follouring.
B OX 21.6: CLOS E D- E NDEEDX E RCI S E S
1. (Afterthe classhas reador heardthe story 'Little Red RidingHood')Answer the
followingquestions:
a) Did LittleRed RidingHoodlivein the city?
b) Where did Little Red RidingHood's mother tell her to go?
c) What did she tell her NOTto do on the way?
d) Where did LittleRed RidingHood'sgrandmotherlive?
e) Who did Little Red RidingHood meet in the forest?
f) What did the wolf want to know?
etc.
2. Matcheachitem in ColumnA with a suitableitem f rom ColumnB.
a doctor
a teacher
a farmer
a policeofficer
a driver
milks cows
drivesa car
works in a hospital
gives lessons
catchesthieves
3. Completeeach sentencewith the appropriaterelativepronoun:who or which.
a) | dislikepeople
talkallthe time.
b) The best storiesare ones
havehappyendings.
c) That is the road
leadsto town.
d) You won't enjoythe film
is showingat the cinema now.
e) The woman
arrivedyesterdayis a new employee.
@CambridgeUniversityPress1996
Suggestions
1. Ouestions
This is a setof conventionalcomprehension
questionson a readingor listening
text, which are usuallypresentedwithin an 'IRF' classroominteractionpattern
310
Teachingstrategies(2):open-ending
(teacherInitiative, learner Response,teacherFeedback;seeModule 16:
CIassrootn inter actionl.
A very simple way to make this activity more heterogeneouswithout actually
changing the text of the questions is to invite students to choose which they
want to answer fust, instead of using the conventional 1, 2,3 ... order. In this
way individual students can immediately selectquestionswhich they are sure
they know the answersto, or consider more interesting. This can be done, of
course, with any exercisebasedon a list of questions, and has the immediate
effect of speedingup and increasingparticipation.
Other strategies:invite students to delete questions they do not think
interesting, to add further ones they can think of, or to suggesttotally'way-out'
answersand thereby rewrite the original story.
2. Matching
Studentsmay be told that they may combine any item from Column A with any
item from Column B provided they can iustify it. The original obvious
combinations are still available for lessconfident or slower students, but there is
also the possibility of suggestingthat, for example, a farmer listens to lectures
(in order to learn more about farming), or a police officer gives lessons(on road
safety or the functions of the police force). A useful side-benefitof this way of
doing the exercise,in this particular example, is the breaking of the stereorypes
implicit in the original!
Another useful option is to delete either Column A or Column B and ask
students to suggesttheir own matching subjectsor predicates.
3. Slot-filling
Delete, or tell students to ignore, the entire secondpart of each sentenceand
invite them to suggesta variety of possible endings. You may wish to direct
them explicitly to use the target items in doing so; otherwise answersmay
include sentenceslike 'You won't enjoy the film becauseit's boring'.
The samestrategy - partial deletion of individual items - works well with
many types of textbook exercises,and results in a more interesting, as well as
more heterogeneous,activity.
It is certainly not recommendedhere that activities done with large
heterogeneousclassesshould always be open-ended;but certainly the
introduction of such procedurescan increaselearning and interest. Note,
however, that the exercisesin textbooks you use are likely to be basedmainly
on closed-endeditems.
Follow-up
task
Look at a textbook commonly used in your oqnr teaching context. Is the
statement at the end of the previous pangrraph true of it? If so, select two or
tluee closed-ended exercises and see if you can suggest ways of 'openending' them. Look also for other ideas for rendering them more
appropriate and productive for use in large heterogeneous classes (you
may find it helpful to refer to the suggestions in Box Zl.4>.
317
21 Largeheterogeneous
c/asses
Unit Five: Designingyour own activities
The two previousunits dealtmainly with the adaptationof conventional
materialsfor usein largeheterogeneous
classes.This one suggestsa setof
teacher-initiated
activitiesthat may be usedto supplementpublishedmaterials.
Thesearefairly clearlybasedon principlesthat havealreadybeendiscussed
in
previousunits, but the emphasishereis on the implementationof these
principlesin practicaltechniques.
Five'families'of techniquesarepresentedhere:Brainstorm,Recalland share,
Doing your ouln thing, Fluid pairs,Passingit round. As you read,consider
which of the activitiesmight work well in a classyou teach.They are
in a'mind map'in 8ox21..7.
summarized
Brainstorm
This activityconsistsof simplepoolingof ideas:asmanycontributionsare
madeasquicklyaspossibleby asmanyparticipantsaspossible;ideasmay or
maynot bewritten down.No time is spenton criticaldiscussion
of
contributions;transitionsfrom oneto the next areswift.
The briskpaceof brainstorms
ensures
maximumparticipationin the time
available;andthe opennatureof the taskmeansthat contributionsof vastly
differinglevelandcontentwill be acceptable.
Example1:Saythingsabouta picture
Studentsareinvitedto sayanythingthey like abouta publicly displayedpicture:
they may be askedto aim for a total of twenty/thirty/forty utterances;or every
studentmayhaveto supplyat leastoneidea;or theymaybegivena timelimit.
The samecanthenbedonein groups,which drasticallyraisesthenumberof
studentswho canparticipate.(SeeBox 9.4,Activity 1.)
Example2: How manythingscanyou think of that are ...?
Againthis may bedonein full-classor in smallgroups.The studentsaregivena
definitionsuchas'madeof wood', 'square','sweet','workedby electricity',and
haveto find (throughdiscussionin groups,or throughindividualwriting, or by
a combinationof the two) asmanythingsasthey canthat fit it.
Recalland share
The classis exposedto somekind of material,written, spokenor graphic- for
example,a setof words or phrases.The materialis thenwithdrawn, and
studentsare askedto write down asmuchasthey canrememberof it.
Subsequently
they cometogetherin twos or threesto shareresults.FinallSthe
teachermayre-present
the originalmaterialor initiatea poolingof results.
Collaborationis seenasworthwhile if a group canget betterresultsthan an
individual:andherethis is obviouslytrue.Howeveradvanced
(or not) the
individualmembersof a group are,their pooledrecallingis almostinevitably
goingto be superiorto that of any singleoneof them.This is a good
opportunityfor cooperationand peer-teaching:
a reviewof materialfor all,
usinglearnerinteractionratherthan teacherdirection.
31,2
Designing your own activities
Example 1: Spelling
The teacher writes ten or fifteen words on the board that have been recently
learnt or are difficult to spell. After a minute or so the words are erased,and
students challenged to recall and write them down correctly. They then come
together to add to and correct each other's answers; the result is presented as a
group achievement.
Example 2: What have people said?
In order to practise forms of indirect speech,students are invited to write down
all the utterancesthey can rememberthat have been said sincethe beginning of
the lesson.In pairs or small groups they then pool their utterances and rephrase
them in indirect speech.
Doing your own thing
ln these activities each student writes or says a totally individual responseto a
stimulus. They may share responseswith each other later for the sake of interest
or to get to know each other's ideas,but there is no attempt to reach a common
result or consensus.Responsesmay be simple or sophisticated,in elementaryor
advanced language: the main objective is to get individuals to expresstheir own
ideas in their own way without feeling the need to conform to a general norm.
Example 1: Five-minute writing storms
A topic is given to the class('A good friend', 'A surpriseI had', 'A film worth
seeing') and the students are given five minutes to write down a paragraph or
two about it. They may then, if they are willing, read out their texts to each
other, or have the teacher read them out. Later, the texts may be rewritten as
formal essays,or used as a basisfor discussion.
Example 2: Metaphors
The class is given a set of metaphors for a familiar experienceor function, and
each student is asked to selectthe one that seemsto them most appropriate. For
example,they might be given the subiect 'home' and the metaphors:a pillar, a
bed, a springboard, a garden, a bank account, a chain. They then explain to
each other why they chose what they did, perhaps find others who chose the
sameand compare reasons.(For another example,seeBox 15.1.)
Fluid pairs
This is another way to activatethe membersof a large'classsimultaneously.
They are given a task which involves short exchangeswith as many other
membersof the classas they can find: a survey of opinions, for example.The
students move around the class, finding out the desired information from one
peer before mciving on to another.
Example 1: Finding twins
Studentsfill in forms answering certain questions about themselves:for
example, their favourite colour, singer,television programme, leisure-time
activity. They then try to find as many other students as they can who have the
3r3
21 Largeheterogeneousc/asses
sameanswersas they do to eachquestion,and note names.At the end the class
discussesconclusionsthat can be drawn about the most popular colours, etc.
Example 2: Marketplace
Each studentgetsthree slips of paper; on.eachof thesethey write a sentence
expressingtheir opinion on a given topic (possiblya locally controversialone),
and their name.They then find a partneg and presenttheir opinions. If the
partner identifieswith the opinion, they may'buy' it: sign their name to it, and
'When the pair have decided
take it. If not, it remains with its original owner.
what to buy, or not, of eachother's 'wares' they.part and eachfinds someone
elsewith whom to repeatthe process.The more popular opinions changehands
rapidly and amasssignatures;the minority ones move more slowly.
(Acknouledgementzl learnedthis activity from TessaWoodward.)
Passingit round
This is also a collaborativeactivity, but it involvesreading and writing and is
done quietly. Each.student(or pair of students)writes somethingon a large
pieceof paper and passesit on to their neighbour(s)who adds a further word or
sentence,and so on. The game 'Consequences',if you know it, is one wellknown entertaining example; but on the whole I prefer versions that leave the
paper open all the time so that eachparticipant has plenty to read as well as a
contribution to write.
Example 1: Gollaborative composition.
A topic is given, and each student writes a brief sentenceor phrase at the top of
their paper about ie the first ideas or associationsthat occur to them. They then
passit on; the next student reads what is written, respondsto it or continues it
on a new line, and passesit on. And so on, until there are about ten
contributions on eachpage.Someof the resultsmay be read out by volunteers,
or displayedon the wall.
Example 2: Passivepossibilities
Each pair of students is given alarge piece of paper with a subject at the centre:
'a baby', for example,or'money', 'paper', 'a pencil'. Around this subiectthey
write all the things they can think of that are done with it: 'a baby', for example,
is utashed,is played with, is loued. After not more than a minute, at a signal
from the teacher,the paper is passedon, and the next pair have a minute to read
what is written and try to add further ideas.
Application
Choose one or two of the activities described above, and try them out,
either with other teachers or, if possible, in a large heterogeneous class of
langruage learners. Aftervrrards consider and./or discuss with colleagues the
folloling questions:
- How easy was the activity to prepare and administer?
- Hor far were learners engaging with the language at a lenel appropriate
to them, and learning well?
- Hovufar did the procedure succeed in actinating all or most of the
learners in language use?
314
Furtherreading
BOX21.7: ACTIVITIESFORLARGEHETEROGENEOUS
CLASSES
@ Cambridge University Press 1995
- How interested or motivated did the participants seem?
- Were there any problems of organization or control?
There is a large number of excellentteacher'shandbooks on the market
containing descriptions of activities many of which are suitable for large
heterogeneousclasses.Someseriesyou might look at are noted at the end of
Further reading below.
Further reading
BACKGROUND AND TEACHER'S HANDBOOKS
Coleman, H. et al. (7989) Language Learning in Large ClassesResearch
Proiect, Leeds:Leedsand LancasterUniversities.
(A seriesof booklets, all project reports on various aspectsof learning and
teachinglanguagesin large classes)
Hadfield, J. $992) Classroom Dynamics, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(Ideasfor mixed-skills activity to foster good relationships,awarenessof
others,group solidarity)
Prodromou,L. (1992b) Mixed Ability Classes,London: Macmillan.
(Thought-provoking and readable; practically-oriented with suggestionsfor
activities and tasks to stimulate teacher thinking and learning)
315
2l Large hdetogeneous c/asses
ACTIVITIES
There are too many excellentindividual books to try to list here:I recommend,
amoqgothers,thoseincludedin the following series.
C-ambridgeHandbook for LanguageTeacherc,editedby Michael Swan:
CambridgeUniversity Press.
In Aaion series:PrenticeHall International.
ResourceBooksfor Teadters,edited by Alan Maley: Oxford University Press.
3r6
It has been said that teacherswho have been teaching for rwenty years may be
divided into nvo categories:those with twenty years' experienceand those with
one year's experiencerepeatedtwenty times.
In other words, sheertime on the job does not ensure fruitful experienceand
professional progress. Successfulteachersare those who continue to develop
throughout their professional lives: the completion of a pre-servicecourse and
initial qualffication are only the beginning. A pre-servicecourse should not only
enable you to start teaching with competenceand confidence:it should also give
you the tools and understanding for further development.
Part VII of this book, which consistsof only one module, addressesteachers
at any stageof their career.It looks at various aspectsof continuing professional
development, and suggestspractical ways in which you may further your own.
317
Module22:Andbeyond
reflection, sharing
This unit discussesthe nature and importance of teacher development and then
looks at ways you can progressprofessionally in the course of a full teaching
schedule:through private reflection and interaction with colleagues.
Developmentfor survival and progress
A teacher can and should advancein professional expertise and knowledge
throughout his or her career,and such advancesdo not depend on formal
coursesor external input. You have within your own teaching routine the main
tools for personalprogress:your own experienceand your reflectionson it,
interaction with other teachersin your institution. Teacherdevelopment takes
place when teachers,working as individuals or in a group, consciouslytake
advantageof such resourcesto forward their own professional learning.
Ongoing teacher development is important not only for your own senseof
progressand professionaladvancement;in somesituationsit may evenmake a
crucial difference between survival and dropping out.
The first year of teaching, for example, can be very stressful.This is true
particularlS though not onlS of those teachinglarge heterogeneousclassesof
children or adolescentsin schools.Difficult first yearscausesomenew teachers
to leave the profession; and even many of those who remain find their original
confidence and optimism significantlS if temponfily, undermined. (My own
experienceof this is describedin the Notes.)
There is also a problem of professional survival in later years of one's career,
causedby the phenomenonknown as 'burn-out'. This is not so much a feeling
of failure as one of disillusionment,boredom, loss of momentum. Burn-out
usually comeson graduallS although it may be acceleratedby personalcrises
such as family or financial problems. Sometimesburn-out may be endedonly by
retirement or a change of profession, but it may also be prevented or cured by
deliberate action on the part of the teacher.
Constant teacherdevelopmentand progresscan forestall or solveproblems
causedby both first-year stressand later burn-out. More positivelS it is a
necessarycontributor to your successand satisfactionin professionalwork
todaS and to your career in the future as teacher and/or in other allied
professions; materials writer, trainer, author, researcher.
3 18
Teacher development: practice, reflection, sharing
Personalreflection
The first and most important basis for professional progress is simply your own
reflection on daily classroom events.Very often this reflection is quite
spontaneousand informal, and happenswithout any consciousintention on
your part. Travelling to and from the institution where you teach,or at other
odd momentswhen you have nothing particular to occupy your mind, things
that happened in the classroom come to mind and you start puzzlingabout
what to do about a problem, work out why somethingwas successful,rethink a
plan in the light of the last lesson.This sort of spontaneousreflection is the
necessarybasisand jump-off point for further development: it is the hallmark of
the conscientiousprofessional.
Such reflection, however, can help you only up to a certain point, for two
main reasons.
1. lt is not organized
Your thinking in situationslike thosedescribedabove is basicallyundisciplined.
This is to someextent an advantage,as it allows you to give full rein to your
imagination and creativity and to useall your personalknowledge,but sooner
or later the disadvantagesbecomeapparent.You find your thoughts are easily
diverted into lessproductive channels (irritation at an uncooperative student or
colleague,for example);you may not have availableall the information you
needto draw valid conclusions;and later,when you wishto do so, you may not
remember what the original reflections were!
In order to get over theseproblems you will find it necessaryat some stageto
write somethingdown. This may be in the form of a brief note on a pieceof paper,
a reminder to yourself when you come to preparethe next lesson.For many
teachers,systematicjournal-writing is evenmore productive:entriesare made in
a separatenotebook at regular intervals,recordingthings that have happenedor
that are planned and that you wish to remember,noting thoughts or ideas.Such
journals can be rereadlater to contribute to further reflectionand learning.
One advantageof writing is that putting things into words forces you to
work out exactly what you mean, whereas abstract thinking does not. Many
people - myself included - only discover what they really think when they have
to expressit in writing. In a sense,writing rs thinking: but thinking that must be
disciplinedand productive.
Application
If you have not done it before, try writing donrn your thoughts about lessons
you have taught or will teach, say twice or tluee times a week. This can be
in a rough scrawl - it does not matter if it is illegible to anyone else! You can
use a separate notebook fiournal), or make brief notes at the bottom of
your lesson plans. After a while, reread yor:r notes. Do you find them
interesting? UsefuI as reminders? Thought-provoking?
2. It is solitary
Personalreflectionenablesyou to draw on your own experienceonly. The latter
is indeedthe basicand primary sourceof professionallearning,but there comes
a point when it is not enough.Even the most brilliant and creativeof us can
learn from othersthings we could not learn on our own. There are,f.or
3L9
22 And beyond
example, some problems which we can puzzle at for hours without finding a
solution, but which could be solved in a moment by the experience or different
thinking of a colleague. Also, when we find interesting solutions or have flashes
of insight or inspiration of our own, it is natural to wish to share them with a
fellow-teacher: why keep them to ourselves?
This brings me on to the next section.
Sharing with a colleague
Informal discussionswith a colleague with whom you feel at easecan contribute
a lot to your own development,as well as boosting morale. What you wish to
share may be negative or positive: on the one hand you may wish to find a
solution to a problem, confide a failue, get an idea as to how to teach
something; on the other, you may wish to tell someone about an original
solution you have found to an old problem, shareyour delight at a success,
discussa new teaching idea you have had.
1. Sharing problems
There is, unfortunately,a senseof shameor inhibitionraf.ear of losing f.acerthat
sometimes prevents some teachersfrom admitting the existence of teaching
problems to others; but once this is overcome,the results are usually rewarding.
Colleagues are unlikely to exploit your frank description of problems or failures
in order to reproach or'crow'. They are far more likely to be sympathetic,try to
stop you worrying so much, recall similar incidents from their own experience,
suggestsolutions. The awarenessthat other people have the sameproblems is
perhaps the major comfort here, and has the effect of encouraging you to look
for your own solutions. At the same time you may very well find that you are
providing a similar serviceto your colleague:problem-sharingcan contribute to
encouragementand progressall round, it is not a uni-directional process.
2. Successes
There are difficulties about sharing successes
as well!
In some institutions there is a feeling of rivalry between teacherswhich stops
them revealing professional 'secrets' to one another for fear of being 'overtaken'
in some kind of professionalrace.'Wherethis exists it will sooner or later be to
the dettimentolthe entke staff: e'veryonecan gainby \earning lrom everyone
else;and everyonelosesif they cannot do so.
A more delicatepersonal problem here is the natural reluctancesomepeople
feel about'boasting': if I tell my friend about somethingreally good I did, won't
they feel I'm conceitedand showing off? No, they will not, if your goal in telling
them is frankly stated, and they are given the choice whether to listen or not: 'I
had a marvellous experience todaS I've got to tell someone about it, have you
got time to listen?'; or 'You rememberthat problem we were talking about the
other day? I think I have an idea about how to solve it - can we find time to
talk?'.
Meetings with a colleague may take the form of spontaneous, informal chats;
or you may find it helpful to structure your interaction consciously: have a look
at Edge (7991) and Lansley (L994) for some possibleguidelines.
320
Teacher development: practice, reflection, sharing
Question
Can you recall informally sharing problems with a colleague?What was it
like, and what were its results?
In-housestaff meetings
Meetings of groups of teachersin the sameinstitution can also provide a forum
In this case,the meetingmay
for sharing reflections,problems and successes.
make
sure everyone participates and
need to be more formally structured, to
possible
following.
formats are the
benefits. Some
1. Decision-making
A problem is brought to the meetingthat may demand somespecificaction,
innovation or changein policy. For example,teachersmay feel assessment
proceduresare inadequate,or there may be a proposal to buy new materials.
Participantsdiscussthe problem in order to achieveconsensuson the solution.
The explicit objectivehere,of course,is functional rather than for the sakeof
the discussionmust involve issuesthat have
participants' learning;nevertheless,
to do with professional knowledge and action, and therefore is likely to
contribute indirectly to teacherdevelopment.
2. Individual presentation
One of the membersof staff beginsthe meetingby making a presentation:this
may be a problem they have had, a new teachingidea, a thought-provoking
experience,somethingthey have read. The presentershould preparethe session
in advance,including making enoughcopiesof any necessarymaterials.The
presentationis followed by open discussion.
3. May we recommend...?
In turn, each teacher suggestsa teaching idea they have used recently and
describeshow it went. Contributions have to be kept fairly short in order to
enableeveryoneto participate.Discussionof eachidea is thereforelimited; but
if one particular idea is seenas deservingfurther discussion,it might be usedas
a basisfor a later 'Individual presentation'sessionas describedabove.
4. Teacher training or development sessions
The staff decide together on a topic connectedwith teaching which they would
like to study. One of the members of staff initiates a sessionon this topic based
activity: one of the units in this
on a teacher-trainingor teacher-development
book, for example.There is no 'trainer', though the initiating participant may
be responsiblefor making copiesof necessaryhandouts and act as discussion
leader.
Suchsessionswork best if there is a set time-slot set asidefor them during the
week, and if members of staff take turns preparing the activity which will
function as their basis.Further ideasfor teacherdevelopmentactivitiesmay be
found in Parrott (1993) and'Woodward (79921.
Quesfions
Does your institution hold regular stalf meetings? If so, hor ale they
organized: are they only for decision-making, or do they also include any of
the other kinds of sessions suggested above?
321
22 And beyond
Few institutions have systematicteacher-appraisalsystems;and where these do
exist, they are very often for hiring-and-firing purposes rather than to assist
professional improvement and learning. The effect may therefore be stressful
and demoralizing rather than helpful.
However, for your own benefit it is important to carry out some periodic
appraisal of your teaching, on the principle that you cannot move ahead
without having a fairly clear idea of where you are now. Obvious sourcesof
feedback on your teaching are colleagues,your own students - and yourself.
Feedback from coIleag ues
Asking a colleagueto come in and observea lesson of yours and give you
feedback may present difficulties: most of us feel a little uncomfortable about
being observedteaching, and cannot function naturally when we know an
observer is in the room; and it takes some courage deliberately to expose
yourself to criticism in this way. Moreover, you may feel reluctant to impose on
(probably hardworking) fellow teachers.One possibility is to make a mutual
arrangementwith a like-minded colleague:'I'll observeyour lesson,you observe
mine, and we'll sharefeedback.'
The observer should make notes during the lesson:and it may help if they
have an observation sheetto fill in. This may be fairly open: for example, the
sheetshown in Box 22.7.7 (which is the one I myself usually use)simply asks
for the events,their timing and any comments or questions that occur to the
observeras the lessongoeson. A more detailedsheetmay relate to particular
aspectsof the lesson,the learners, the language,your own behaviour. See,for
example, the sheetshown in Box 22.'1..2which relates to learner activity. For
many other suggestionsfor observation tasks, seeWajnryb (1992).
B OX 22.1.1: OB S E RV AT I O N
S HE E T1
Comnents/Ouestions
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1995
322
Teacherappraisal
OBSERVATION
SHEET2
II
tl
(Basedon Ruth Wajnryb, C/as
ClassroomObservationlasks, CambridgeUniversity Press,
1992,p 35)
@ Cambridge
University
Press 1995
Student feedback
It is relatively unusual for teachersto ask their studentsfor feedbackon their
teaching;perhapsbecauseof a fear of undermining their (the teachers')
authoriry or of losing face.This is a pity. Studentsare an excellentsourceof
feedbackon your teaching:arguably the best.Their information is basedon a
whole seriesof lessonsrather than on isolatedexamples,and they usually have
a fairly clear idea of how well they are learning and why. Moreover, they
appreciatebeing consulted,usually make seriousefforts to give helpful
feedback;and my experienceis that the processtendsto enhancerather than
damage teacher-student relationships. (A useful spin-off is the interesting and
communicativelanguageuse!)
Applications to studentsshould be phrasedso as to direct their appraisal
towards themselvesas well as to you, and towards positive suggestionsrather
than negativecriticisms.A structuredquestionnaireis one possibility (seean
examplein Box 22.21:this way you can be sure that srudentswill respondto the
questions you are interested in. Another lessstructured method, which I use
with more advanced or older classes,is to write the students a letter, giving your
own feedbackto them and your opinion about how the courseis going, and
asking for their responsesand suggestionsin the form of an answeringletter.
Either way, the resultsare not always clearcuton all issues,as there may be
disagreementdue to differing studentpersonalitiesand needs,and some
responsesmay be confusingor unhelpful. Nevertheless,I have found when
trying this myself that there is usually enoughconsensuson major items to
provide useful and constructivefeedbackthat I can useimmediatelyto inform
and improve my teaching.
Self-appraisal
Personalself-appraisalshould also be done in writing. Unrecordedreflection,as
noted in the previous unit, allows you to digress,or to indulge disproportionately
323
22 And beyond
BOX 22.2: STUDENTFEEDBACK
SHEETON TEACHING
Name
Class
1. OnthewholeI feelI am learning
verywell/ fairlywell/ don'tknow/ notverywell
/ badlY
2. I findthe lessonsinteresting
interesting
/ moderately
/ boring
3. ThingsI wouldliketo do MOREin ourcourse:
pronunciation
practice
/ grammar
/ speaking
I reading
I
/ vocabulary
/ listening
writing/ literature
work
/ homework
/ groupor pairwork/ individual
Other(saywhat):
4. ThingsI wouldliketo do LESSin ourcourse:
pronunciation
practice
/ grammar
I
/ vocabulary
/ listening
/ speaking
I reading
writing/ literature
work
/ homework
/ groupor pairwork/ individual
Other(saywhat):
5. In orderto get the mostout of the course,I needto try to . . .
6. ln orderto makethe coursebetter,my suggestions
to my teacherare. . .
7. Anything
else:
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
in whatever is currently occupying your mind, whereas writing forces you to
stick to the topic in hand, and to be conciseand reasonablyordered and
balanced in your thinking. One simple system is to divide a pageinto two
columns, headed'problems' and'successes',to fill in appropriate items
as completely and honestly as you can, and then go on to consider
conclusions.
If you are currently teaching, try out at least two of the tluee methods of
appraisal suggested above. Did you find the results helpful?
Application
'
324
The first two units dealt with some ideas for professional progress and
development within the routine of a full teaching schedule.These, however, can
advanceyou only up to a point: sooner or later you will be looking for ways to
learn more, to broaden your professional knowledge and thinking outside the
immediate resourcesof your own institution. What are the possibilities?
Advancing further (1): intake
Reading
If your circumstancesdo not allow you to attend formal coursesof studg this
doesnot mean that you cannot advanceyour own learning beyond that
afforded by interaction with people within your own institution. The main
source of such further learning is simply reading.
Most institutions have a basiclibrary of professionalliterature and this is
'Vfhen
choosing what to read, it is a good idea
where you will probably start.
they
have found interesting and useful.
to
ask
colleagues
what
books
first
is
source
of
recommendations
this book: suggestionsfor reading on
Another
module;
are
appended
to
each
and some suggestionsfor reading
specifictopics
general
can be found at the end of this
and
learning
in
on languageteaching
'browse'
ideas
is
a
through the relevant sectionsof
simply
one. A third source of
journal
you
find
a
book
that attracts you.
or
alibrary or bookshop until
reading
of
material: their
Journals are an excellent and convenient source
with
than
a
full
book, and recent
articles are relatively short and easierto cope
reviews
and the
issueswill have up-to-datenews and ideas;also, the book
you
give
ideas
for further
bibliographiesthat are attachedto most articleswill
reading.
Readingis also a necessaryaccompanimentto formal studS and hopefully
continues after it. It may be, for some, a substitute for coursesand conferencesbut the converseis not true: coursesand conferencesare no substitute for
reading.
Task
Ask some colleagues what book(s) have had most influence on their
professional thinking, or proved most useful for their teaching. (They might
find it interesting to hear your own answers to the same question.)
University study
If you have the opportunity, it is of course very worthwhile taking further
coursesof study.This usually meansa degree:an academiccourseat a
university in foreign languageteaching or one of the associatedsubjects:pure or
applied linguistics,the various branchesof education,psychologyor sociology.
The attraction of such studies is not only the satisfaction of the learning itself
and its contribution to your professionalexpertise,but also the usually
internationally recognizedqualification, with its associatedprestige and aid to
promotlon.
An academiccourse provides a valuable oppornrnity to take a step back from
the demands of everyday practice, reflect quietly on what you do, and rethink
your own principles and practice in the light of other people'stheories and
research.But such rethinking works both ways: you will find that you need to
approach academictheories and researchcautiously and criticallg checking the
ideasyou are learning againstyour own experienceand if possibleapplying and
testing them in practice.
You ma5 however, find that you wish to abandon 'practical' considerations,
and engagein reading, researchand theorizing mainly for the sake of the sheer
intellectual satisfaction of it. This is, of course, a legitimate and worthwhile
pursuit, but it needsto be distinguished from the 'here-and-now' orientation of
325
22 And beyond
the professional. If you find research-and theory-oriented learning attractive,
you may wish eventually to leaveteaching and move over to academicwork
full-time!
Conferencesand i n-servicecou rses
More exciting in many ways than formal coursesare the conferencesthat are
being organized with increasing frequency for foreign language (particularly
English) teachersin many countries.These,though sometimesexpensiveto
attend, offer a rich selectionof lectures,workshops, seminars,panel discussions
and so on from which you may be able to update yourself on the latest research
and controversies,learn new techniquesand methods, becomeacquaintedwith
the latest published materials in your field and meet other professionals.
The strength of conferences- the sheerwealth and variety of sessionsand
materials available to participants - is also, however,their weakness.Usually
the scheduleis basedon a number of parallel sessionsheld at any one time, so
you can attend only a small proportion of them; and they vary widely in level
and effectivenessas well as in topic and orientation. Vhat you selectfrom the
'menu' of sessionsmay or may not satisfy you; it is unlikely that you will find
everything worthwhile; in fact, if each day you feel that one or two of the events
you attendedwere of real value to you, you are doing well!
Conferencescannot supply the systematiccoverageof topics that is provided
by formal courses,but among the large number of semi-randomencountersat
conferencesyou may well come acrossnew publications or ideaswhich,
immediately or eventuallg 'spark off inspirations or innovations of your own.
Their other major advantage,of course,is the opportunities they provide for
meeting practitioners from other places,exchangingideasand learning about
each other's problems and solutions. Arguably at least as much interesting
learning takes place betweensessionsas during them!
Short in-servicecoursesare in a sense'mini-conferences',also offering useful
learning and contact with other teachers.They can very often be more relevant
to your own needs,as they arc organized locally - in your country, district or
even institution.
Application
Find out what national or international organizations there are for the
teaching of your target lanrguage, which holds conferences in your country
or not too far away! For teachers of English in Europe, for example, IATEF|L
(the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign
Language) holds big annual conferences as well as smaller meetings for
Special Interest Groups.
Question Have you attended at least one professional conference or in-service
course? If so, how much do you feel the e:<perience contributed to you as a
professional, and horr? If feasible, compare your experiences with those of
a colleague.
326
Advancing further (2):output
Units One and Two discussedprofessional development through reflection,
discussionand learning. This unit takes the concept of 'teacher development'
one step further, and suggestsways in which you yourself can make a
contribution to the field through sharing your own ideas, innovations or
researchwith others.
Techniquesand methods
Very often the first step in this direction for practising teachersis the sharing of
a practical classroom innovation: a technique, a bit of material, an idea that
worked. You describeit to a colleagueand he or sheis enthusiastic:why not let
other teachersbenefit as well? Organizers of conferences- particularly of
national rather than international ones- are always on the lookout for
practising teacherswith new ideas and will welcome your contribution.
Moreover, participants often prefer this type of sessionto the more prestigious
lecturesgiven by international 'names'. Usually such sessionsare most effective
if built round a workshop format: a clear explanation backedup by visual
materials, followed by an experiential component (such as trying out an
example of whatever it is) and plenty of opportunity for the audienceto
participate and discuss.
The sameinnovation can reach a wider audienceif written out as an article. If
your country ot arca has its own foreign languageteaching journals, start with
these;or you may try ones with a more international circulation. Keep your
article short, and make sure ideasare clearly expressedin straightforward 'lay'
languageand illustrated by practical examples.It is a good idea to ask
colleaguesto read through your article and make comments before finalizing it
and sendingit off: often other peoplefind errors or obscuritieswhich you may
not have noticed.
Do not be discouragedif your first article is not accepted:take note of any
constructive criticisms, and keep trying.
Materials writing
Another way of contributing to the profession is by writing foreign language
teaching/learningmaterials.This often meanscoursebooks,but not always.
Today there is a need - and a market - for a wide range of supplementary
materials:books devotedto one aspectof languagelearning,such as listening,
or reading,or grammar; theme-based'enrichment'booklets;simplified readersl
videos;teacher's
computer software;visual materials;audio cassettes;
handbooks suggestingideasfor classroomtechniques.The best materialsare
undoubtedly those written by authors who are themselvespractising teachers,
or have had extensiveteachingexpenence.
The way in to this kind of writing is, again,producing and publishing
material for a local market: your own institution, your own region or country.
Publishers are constantly looking for new authors with teaching experienceand
interestingand original ideas,but they do demand also, obviouslg a high
327
22 And beyond
standard of good, clear and organizedwriting. Do not be discouragedif your
first submission is sent back. tf there are cottsirnctive criticisms, imllement
them; if not, ask colleaguesfor comments,rewrite and try again!
Classroomresearch
The term 'research'soundsa bit intimidating, but it need not necessarilybe so.
The term
Tay b9 defined,after Stenhouse,as 'systematic,self-criticalenquiry'
(in Rudduck and Hopkins, 1985: 8); as such, it doesnot have to be basedon
complicated statistics or lengthy detailed observation or experiment; nor do its
resultsnecessarilyhave to claim wide application. It does,hbwever,have to be
disciplinedand rigorous, applying objective,though not necessarily
quantitative, criteria; and it has to stateclearly its own limitations of conrexr.
some simple small-scaleresearchprojects are often an integral part of pre- or inservicetraining: there are plenty of examples(usuallylabelled 'lnquiry; or
'Experiment') in the presentbook.
Researchon foreign language teaching and learning does not need to be the
monopoly of the academicestablishment;as in medicine,any practitioner has
the right - perhaps even dury - to embark on researchin his oi her field.
However, few practitioners have the know-hoq the time or the money to
embark on the more ambitious researchenterprisesthat academicscan: we are
usually limited to more small-scaleprojects,basedon classroomsand resources
readily availableto us. Our researchis thereforenearly always context-specific
and of limited generalizability. Nevertheless,provided this is frankly sta6d, our
resultscan be of interest and real value both to fellow-professionahworking in
other contexts and to professional researchers.A bit of researchon your
classroom may spark off an examination of similar topics in mine or someone
else's,stimulate new thinking, lead to significant innovation or further research.
One model that has been suggestedas feasible for practising teachersis that
known as 'action research':researchcarried out by tiachers on phenomenain
their own classrooms.
Action research
According to one convention, action researchis meant primarily to improve the
teacher-researchertown teaching.It is basedon a cycle of inveitigation, action
an-dre-investigation,as shown in Box 22.3, and is usually done by two or more
collaborating teachers.
. For example, a teacher may be wondering whether it is worth dividing a class
into groups for oral work in spite of the noise and widespread use of the mother
tongue. A colleague might be asked to observethe activiry of two or three
specificstudents in group work and in classdiscussion, and note how many
foreign language utteiances were produced and attended to in each casefor a
similar period of time. As a result the teacher might decide to cut down or
increasethe use of group work. If the laner, then the next problem would be
how to minimalize mother-tongue use.
The main weaknessof this version of action research,in my opinion, is that it
doesnot include publication. stenhouse(in Rudduck and Hopkins, 19b5: sG-9)
insists that publication is essential,in order that the results ofteacher research
may benefit other teachers.It is necessaryalso in order to submit the resulting
328
Advancingfurther (2):output
BOX22.3: THEACTIONRESEARCH
CYCLE
1, A problemis identified.
2. Relevantdataare gatheredand recorded.
3. Practical
actionis suggestedthat might solvethe problem.
4. A planof actionis designed.
5. The planis implemented.
6. Resultsare monitoredand recorded.
7. lf the originalproblemhasbeensolved,the researchers
may beginwork on
another;if not,the originalproblemis redefinedand the cycleis repeated.
@Cambridge
UniversityPress1996
hypothesesto criticism: public discussion,or testing through further research.
The appropriate forum for publication may be simply an informal presentation
to colleaguesin the sameinstitution or area, or a talk at a conferenceor an
article in a professionaljournal.
Another weaknessis that this version of action researchis basedalmost
exclusively on observation of one's own classesas the source of data. Other
classes,surveys,interviews and so on can also provide interesting and relevant
information, although thesemay involve a greaterinvestment of time and work,
as will background reading of the relevant literature.
How much effort you can afford to put into your researchwill depend of
course on your own crrcumstancesand time or money resources.But the point I
am trying to make here is that classroom researchcan and should be done by
teachers:the resultsare valuablenot only for your own learning and
development but also becausethey can contribute to the advancementof
professionalknowledgeas a whole.
For more information on different types of researchseeunder Further
reading;in particular Cohen and Manion (1980) for an overview of educational
research,and Edgeand Richards (1993) for recentdevelopmentsin foreign
languageclassroomresearch.
Application
PIan and carry out a limited research project of your ourn. Most of the
modules in this book include at least one inquiry-orientedtask: leaf
tluough for some ideas or devise lrour own. When you have finished, sha.rre
your results with coUeagues.
Notes
Firstyear
My recollections of my first year of teaching English as a foreign languageare
on the whole negative.There were, it is true, some positive aspects:an end-ofterm play, for example,that children and parentsenioyed;the awarenessthat
the children were progressing.But my main memories are of investing an
enormousamount of work in preparing lessonsand materials,much of which
329
22 And beyond
was in the event wasted; horrific discipline problems; feelingsof disappointment
and humiliation.
The outstanding event which helped me was at the end of my first year, when
I went to the 'homeroom' teacherof one of the classesI had beenteaching and
told him I thought I was unsuited to be a teacherand wished to leave.He told
me to think lessabout my own feelings and to look at the students: to try to
assessas objectively as I could what they had acquired from my teaching:
mainly how much English they had learned,but also whether they had
progressedin learning skills, and whether their motivation and attitude to the
languagehad been enhanced.He said that if I honestly thought they had not
learned.I should leave.I stayed.
Furlher reading
FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN GENERAL
Ashworth, M. (1985) Beyond Methodology, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
(On influencesand resourcesoutside the classroom:the community
educationalpolicies and programmes,sourcesof information)
Brown, H. D. (19871Principles of LanguageLearning andTeaching (2nd edn.),
Hernel Hempstead:PrenticeHall International.
(Basic information derived from researchand study: topics such as first and
secondlanguagelearning, individual and social learning variables,
assessment)
Brown, H.D. (7994) Teachingby Principles:An InteractiueApproach to
Language Pedagogy, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall Regents.
(A readableguide to languageteaching,covering a wide selectionof topics
and including discussion questions and suggestionsfor further reading)
Ellis, R. (79901Instructed SecondLanguageAcquisition, Oxford: Blackwell.
(A comprehensivesummary of researchand thinking on subjectssuch as
classroomversus'naturalistic' learning, classroominteraction, the nature of
instruction)
Ellis, R. (L994) The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
(A very comprehensivesurvey of researchon secondlanguageacquisition,
clearly written but rather long: for selectivereading and referencerather than
coYer-to-coverreading)
Stern,H. H. (1983) Fundamental Conceptsof LanguageTeaching,Oxford:
Oxford Universiry Press.
Stern, H. H. (19921 lssuesand Options in Language Teaching, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
(The secondof thesetwo volumes is a supplementto the first: together they
give comprehensivecoverageof the major theoretical issues.A lot of reading,
but well-written and accessible)
Harmer, J. $99L) The Practice of English Language Teaching (2nd edn.),
London: Longman.
(A coursebookin foreign languageteaching;refers particularly to English, but
largely relevant to other languages:practical and readable)
330
Furtherreading
Legutke, M. and Thomas, H. (1991,)Processand Experience in the Language
Classroom, London: Longman.
(Discussion of classroom eventsand phenomena; oriented towards
communicative, learner-centredteaching)
Littlewood, V/. (1984) Foreign and SecondLanguage Learning, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
(A fairly brief and accessiblesurnmary of the main topics)
Mclaughlin, B. (1987| T h eories of Second-Langr,tageL earning, London:
Edward Arnold.
(A critical, scholarly study of some of the main language-learningtheories
and correspondingteachingmethodologies)
Richards,J. C. and Rodgers,T. S. (1986) Approachesand Methods in Language
Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(A summary of the main features of some acceptedlanguage teaching
methodologies)
CLASSROOM RESEARCH
Allwright, R. and Bailey K. M. (7997) Focus on the Language Classroom: An
Introduction to Classroom Researchfor Language Teachers,Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
(Guidance to the teacher on doing research:models, methods, problems; plus
an overview of actual researchprojects on some aspectsof classroomaction)
Brumfit, C. J. and Mitchell, R. (1989) Researchin the Language Classroom,
London: British Council with Modern English Publications; Macmillan.
(A collection of articles on various kinds of research,with examples; see
particularly the opening article by the editors, and van Lier on ethnography)
Chaudron, C. (1983) SecondLanguageClassrooms:ResearchonTeaching and
Learning, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(A scholarly overview of research;thorough and dense,not for light reading)
Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1980) ResearchMethods in Educatioz, London and
Sydney: Croom Helm.
(Clearly-written and comprehensiveguide to researchon learning, teaching,
education in general)
Larsen-Freeman,D. and Long, M. (1991) An Introduction to SecondLanguage
Acquisition Research, London: Longman.
(A comprehensiveoverview of researchon language learning)
Lightbown, P. and Spada,N. (1993) Hout Languagesare Learned, Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
(A not-too-long, readable summary of theories and researchon first and
secondlanguagelearning)
McDonough, S. (1991) 'Suwey review: approachesto researchin second
languageteachingand learning', ELf Journal, 4 5,3, 260-6.
(A useful brief critical survey of various books on foreign languageteaching
research)
Noffke, S.E. (1992\'The work and workplace of teachersin action research',
Teachingand TeacherEducation, S, 1,1549.
(On action research,its history and development, and use for and by
teachers)
331
22 And beyond
Nunan, D. (1990) 'Action researchin the languageclassroorrf in Richards and
Nunan (eds.),SecondLanguage TeacherEducation,pp. 62-81
(What action research is; with examples and illustrations from actual research
projects carried out by teachers)
Nunan, D. (1992) ResearchMethods in Language Learning, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
(A clear, critical overview of various types of research, with examples; useful
conclusionsand tasks at the end of each chapter)
Richards, K. and Edge,J. (eds.)(1993) TeachersDeuelop TeachersResearch,
London: Heinemann.
(A collection ofconference papers: discussionofthe concept ofteacher
research, and descriptions of particular projects)
Rudduck, J. and Hopkins, D. (1985) Researchas a Basisfor Teaching:Readings
from the Works of LautrenceStenhouse,London: Heinemann Educational
Books.
(Short extracts from Stenhouse'swriting and lectures: on the role and
function of the teacher as practitioner and researcher)
TEACHERDEVELOPMENT
Edge,J. $991,1CooperatiueD euelopment:ProfessionalSelf-deu
elopment
througb Cooperationuith Colleagues,London: Longman.
(Teacherdevelopmentthrough interaction betweencolleaguesinvolving
understanding
of and non-judgemental
responseto eachother'sproblemsand
ideas)
Lansley,C. (1,9941"'Collaborative
Development":an alternativeto phatic
discourseand the afi of.Co-operativeDevelopment',ELT ]ournaL 48,'1.,
50-5.
(A criticism of and impoftant supplementto Edge'sideas;suggeststhat
colleaguesshouldnot just empathizewith one another,but provide some
input of personalopinion and judgement)
Parrott,M. (1993)Tasksfor LanguageTeacbers,
Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
(A wide selectionof interestingteacher-trainingor developmenttasks,with
notesthat includepossibleanswersand comments)
'Wajnryb,R. (1992)
ClassroomO bseruationTasks,Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
(A very usefulresourcebook of focussedobservationtasks,with worksheets
and comments)
'Wallace, (
M. 1993) Training Foreign LanguageTeachers: A Reflectiue
Approach,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
(A rationale of the reflectiveapproachto teachertraining and development)
'Woodward,T.(7992)'Ways
of Training,London:Longman.
(A collectionof imaginativeand stimulatingactivitiesfor teachertraining and
development)
332
1:Presentations
and
Module
explanations
Note that the concept of 'presentation' as discussed
here is rather broader than the first component of
the conventional
'presentation-practice-production' model you
may be familiar with. It refers here to any teaching
act that is designedto mediate new material or
activity in order to make it accessibleto learners;
thus it may be applied to both fluency- and
accuracy-orientedlanguageuse,and to any sizeof
unit, from singlephoneme to full discourse.
) Unit One: Effective
presentation
(About an hour and 20 minutes)
The question may be used as a basisfor the sharing
of anecdotalexperienceslthis will enableyou to
check if the concept of presentationhas been
thoroughly understood, and provide further
personal illustrations.
Note the instruction at the end of the group task
to look for 'what was effectiveabout it'; try to
discouragenegativecriticism and focus the
participants on what was good about eachother's
performance.This helps them to definethe positive
characteristicsof effectivepresentation in general;
also, as this activity is likely to occur at an early
stagein the course,it contributes to the formation
of a comfortable atmosphereand supportive
relationshipsin the group.
I have, incidentally, found this peer-teaching
idea to be an excellentintroductory activity for a
teacher-trainingcourseas a whole, evenif not
specificallyassociatedwith the topic of
presentation.It puts the participants quickly into
the teaching role in a relatively relaxed situation,
teachingsomething they are confident they know.
The presentationsare usually interesting and
enjoyable,and provide a basisfor productive
initial discussionof various aspectsof teaching.
F Unit Two: Examples of
plesentation procedures
(45 minutes to an hour)
The discussionhere is similar to the one at the end
of the previous unit - analysing different
presentations- with two important differences:
first, theseexamplesare specfficallyto do with
languageteaching; and second,sincethe presenters
are not membersof the group, teacherscan express
freely any negativecriticisms. However, the two
units are sufficiently similar in their objectivesto
make it feasible,if time is short, to opt for only one
of them: whichever you feel is more suitable for
your group.
A practical suggestionfor the administration of
this task: divide the classinto small groups, and
ask eachto work on a different extract. Groups
who finish quickly may go on to another of their
choice. This allows you to limit time in advance(I
find twenty minutes is enough), and ensuresthat at
least one group will have studied eachextract.
They can then sharereactionsin a full-class
exchangeof ideasand drawing of conclusions.
) Unit Three: Explanations and
instructions
(lf the instructions are tried out in class,then an
hour or a little more; if only the discussion,then
20-40 minutes)
I find that the giving of clear explanations and
instructions is somethinginexperiencedteachers
very often do badly, partly simply becausethey are
unaware quite how difficult it is! Hence the careful
examination of the topic in this unit.
The structure of the task is the reverseof that
usedin Unit One: here the experiencecomesfirst
and the guidelinesare consideredand applied later.
333
Trainer's notes
The guidelines are thus immediately illustrated and
applied in retrospect as they are readl they will
then function as a means to raise awarenessof
what has been done, and, hopefully, polish future
performance.
Module
2:Practice
activities
) Unit One: The function of
practice
(About 40 minutes)
The purpose of this unit is to define what practice
is, what it does for the learner, and how important
it is. It may be given as a brief lecture (using the
tvyo questions for intermittent brief pair or group
discussions),or as reading. It is important to stress
that the definition of 'practice'here includes not
only'drills'but any activity whose purposeis to
reinforce knowledge or skills: thus it includes
reading, writing essays,communication activities,
etc.
The question at the end of the unit is a key one,
and worth discussingwith the full group. lThether
or not you and./oryour trainees agreewith my
statement, it is certainly important for them to
define how important they seethe teacher activity
that is concernedwith the provision of practice, as
distinct from that which has to do with presenting
new material, explaining, instructing, testing or
metalinguistic discussion.And if they do come to
the conclusion that providing practice is one, at
least, of the most important functions of a teacher,
then there are clear implications for the amount of
time and effort that should be spent on it during a
lesson.
) Unit Two: Characteristics of
a good practice activity
(About an hour)
The main purpose of the introductory task is to get
participants to engagewith the key issuein
advance,in order to heighten their appreciation
and understanding ofthe list ofcharacteristics of
good practice suggestedlater. A further purpose is
to contribute further ideas and extend the range of
the analysis.It is, however, quite difficult for
beginner traineesto define on their own
334
characteristicsof good practice in terms of
theoretical generalizations,which is why only two
such suggestionsare askedof them.
The task may be omitted if you are short of time
or feel it is too difficult, and the'characteristics'
presentedas a lecture-demonstration. In either
case,it is important to illustrate the ideasat every
stagewith examples of classroom practlce
techniques,which may be suggestedby
participants.
For further discussionof the last item, the
creation of interest, you may find it helpful to refer
to Module 19: Learner motiuation and interest,
Unit Four.
) Unit Three: Practice
techniques
(About an hour)
Many classroom proceduresand textbook
exercisesthat are intended to provide practice do
not in fact do so very effectively. Their
ineffectivenessmay not be obvious, and can only
be discoveredby fairly rigorous analysisof how the
participants (teacherand learners)are actually
investing their time and energy.This unit is
designedto sharpen teachers'critical awarenessof
some potential shortcomings of such procedures.
One particular point that perhaps should be
emphasizedis that enjoyment and motivation on
the part ofparticipants is no guaranteethat
valuable learning is taking plece, as exemplified in
the first scenario.
My own comments refer occasionally to the
characteristicsdiscussedin the previous unit; if you
did not do the latter with your teachersthen some
of theseconceptsmay need clarifying (though most
are fairly self-explanatory in context).
You may wish to add - or substitute - actual
classroom observation or descriptions of other
scenariosas a basisfor this task.
F Unit Four: Sequence and
progression in practice
(45 minutes to an hour)
Assessingthe relative difficulty of activities can be
quite hard for inexperiencedtrainees. It might be
helpful to start off with a full-class trainersupported discussionof what each activity in Box
2.3 is in fact practising and - even more important!
Module 3
- what it is not; and only afterwards ask
participants to try the ordering task.
You may find the discussionthrows up all sorts
of interesting ideas other than relative difficulty
(suitability for different agegroups, practical
administration, or whatever); and you may, of
course, decide to encouragethe development of
whatever topics the classfinds interesting instead
of doing the task originally suggested.(One of the
things that is very likely to happen, particularly in
tasks basedon a set of different scenariosor
activities, is that thesecan'take off in all sorts of
directions and produce fruitful learning in
unpredicted - and unpredictable - areas!)
An alternative way of doing this task with more
experiencedteachersis to ignore my sample
activities completely, and start by pooling ideas
drawn from the participants'own experienceor
creative thinking. These ideas can then be sorted
into a logical chronological order: the sorting
processitself will provoke critical assessmentof the
individual activities and of what is or is not
covered by the seriesas a whole. If you adopt this
suggestion,then there is of course no particular
reason for using numbers as the basic target
languagetopic; perhaps use a topic suggestedby
participants.
Once the ideas have been collected and discussed
it may be a good idea for the group to write out
their suggestedactivities, in the order on which
they have decided, and publish them as a class
booklet. The writing itself is a useful learning
activity, and panicipants may find the resulting
material of real practical value.
Module
3:Tests
Nofe; In a training course it may be most effective
to do Unit Two fust (as I usually do): it faces
participants with the raw experienceof being
tested- an excellent entry-point for building
discussionand understanding. I have put it second
in this book becausefor readersit is more logical to
start with a basic treatment of the place of testing
in teaching.
) Unit One: What are tests for?
(About 45 minutes;it is assumedthat the brief
interuieutsutith experiencedteachersand learners
on reasonsfor testingwill be done outsideclass
time. Note, howeuer, that if you intend to go on
to the test experience as suggestedin the
follouting unit, you may utish to spend a few
minutes at the end of this one teaching or
reuiewing the concepts to be tested)
There is a vast literature on the subject of language
testing, in which the topic is often treated as
something that can be isolated and discussed
separatelyfrom the teaching processas a whole.
Very often, as mentioned at the beginning of the
unit, it is assumedto be integrally bound up with
formal assessment.Here, the emphasisis different:
testing is treated, like presentation and practice, as
a part of the teaching process,and the aim of the
unit is to elicit and define some reasonsfor testing
that have to do with enabling or enhancing
learning.
As regards the definition of 'test'given at the
beginning: it may be better fust to try to elicit a
definition from the participants and discuss
critically their suggestionsin order to sharpen their
awarenessof what is, or is not, essentialto the
concept.
The distinction between practice and testing
techniques is a significant one that many teachers
and textbook writers do not seemto be sufficiently
aware of. Overleaf is a table showing the
differencessystematically; you may find it helpful if
you wish to discussthe topic more in depth.
The Inquiry stage,of asking about reasonsfor
testing, makes available to participants richer
sourcesof ideas and approachesthan those they
possesson their own. However, it is timeconsuming: simply brainstorming ideas within the
group will of course be much quicker.
The main purpose of the final discussionin Stage
4 is not so much the ostensibleone of summarizing
reasonsfor testing (or not testing) as to refine the
teachers' own general conceptions of the place of
testing in teaching. Somepeople approach the
subject with rather unthinking blanket
assumptions such as:'You have to test students
regularly'or'Testing is a bad thing'. This
discussionis intended to'destabilize' such
assumptions and get participants to rethink them,
creating more carefully defined personal theories.
) Unit Two: Basic concepts; the
test experience
(About an hoar, out of uhich 20 minutesshould
be allowedfor doing the testitself; it is
33s
Trainer'snotes
Aims
Content
Learner
.actiuity
Teacber
acttutty
Classroom
clirnate
Practice
Test
learning
feedbackon learning
process-oriented
product-oriented
cuesmost effectiveif open-ended
cuesmost effectiveif closed-ended
plenty of 'volume' and repetition
not much'volume' or repetition
learnersknow the material
learnersdo not necessarilvknow the
material
task is success-oriented
task may be success-or failure-oriented
there may be peer-teaching
no peer-teaching
givestask and helpsperlormance
givestask, doesnot help performance
monitors, reinforces
assesses
intrinsic motivation (basedon
interest.or desireto learn)
extrinsic motivation (basedon desireto
get good grade)
(relatively)relaxed
(relatively) tense
cooperative
individual or competitive
assumed that the concepts uill baue been learned
as a home assignment or in d preuious session)
This unit aims to kill two birds with one stone: to
get participants to learn some basic theoretical
conceptsconnectedwith the topic, as well as to
refresh their memories of what it feelslike to be
tested as a basisfor later reflective discussion.
The source information can be given, as
suggested,by asking participants to read the
literature; or delivered in lecture form within a
previous session.You may, of course,wish to add
further information beyond the set of concepts
given here (for example,'progress'maybe added
to 'achievement' and 'proficiency' tests).
\7ith my own group of trainees I pretend that
this is a serious test, in order to get as authentic
reactions as possible. I tell them the week before
that they are to be tested on some given material,
and will be given a percentagegrade on the results.
The trainees are only told that it is a simulation
after they have finished (they usually hear the news
with a smile; some sigh with relief or
disappointment, others tell me they guessed
becausethey felt the task did not suit my training
style: there had to be a catch somewhere!). We
then go through the answerstogether, and finally
discusstheir reactions and feelings, basedon the
given questions.
Other topics that sometimesarise during the
336
discussionare: the question of competition
between testees;how easypeople found it to
concentrate; how much effort they put into doing
the test; cheating.
An important result of this discussionis often
the discovery of how differently people react to
tests- and henceappreciation of how
inappropriate it is to make 'black-and-white'
pronouncements on their positive or negative
effects on learners.
) Unit Three: Types of test
elicitation techniques
(About an bour and a half; but only 45 minutes
or so if the trainees haue studied and commented
on Box 3.3 as a preuious horne assignment)
The short paragraph on formal and informal
testing aims to raise teachers'awarenessof how
often they in fact do test: tests,if you accept the
definition given at the beginning of the module, are
not always explicitly labelled as such.
I suggestyou check through Box 3.3 to seeif I
have omitted some techniqueswhich you think
important: you will need to remedy this by
bringing yoru own examples.Equally, of course,
you may wish to omit some of the given list.
It can be quite tedious to present and discussthe
elicitation techniques one by one in discussion.
Module 1
Alternative methods are: ask participants to choose
two or three items each to analyse,perhaps as a
pre-sessionassignment,then to present in the
session;or selectfor analysis only a few of the
items (those most commonly used locally; or those
which are most interesting and productive to
discuss).
If you chooseto omit Unit Four (which asks
participants to write their own tests) you may find
it interesting and useful to apply some of the points
suggestedin Box 3.4 within the present discussion.
F Unit Four: Designing a test
(The test-utriting itself and possibly trying-out
utill be done elsewhere;the discussion may take
about 45 minutes)
This is a useful'hands-on'experience,but there is a
problem of time: both the test-writing assignment
itself and the provision of feedback are very timeconsuming. A shorter, easieralternative is to take a
ready-madetest they know and discussit in the
light of the Guidelines in Box 3.4 (those that are
appropriate) together with the four questions
asked under the heading Analysing elicitation
techniqaesin the previous unit.
If the participants do write their own tests,then
probably the most helpful feedback to them is that
which you yourself give, combined - if practicable
- with the results of the actual administration of
the test to learners.
F unit Five:Test
administration
(45 minutes to an hour)
In the selectionand formulation of the questions
and my own answersthe emphasisis cleady on the
test as a tool for teaching: a way to enhance
learning, to encourage,to help learners make and
feel progress;the'judging'aspect is played down.
Note that my suggestedanswersare inevitably
specificto my own situation, and to be used (if at
all) only as an illustration of one possible
approach, or as a basis for criticism and further
discussion.
pronunciation
Module
4:Teaching
) Unit One: What does
teaching pronunciation
involve?
(About an bour)
This may be presentedas an input session,using
the 'To check understanding' tasks for brief group
or full-class discussioninteraction. Note that you
will need dictionaries with phonetic transcriptions
for the tasks.
F Unit Two: Listening to
accents
(Tbe preliminary home assignment of recording
accentstakes about half an hour; classdiscussion,
if there are seueral recordings studied first in small
groups, about an hour and a half in all)
You may prefer to use one previously prepared
recording for the entire group to study. In this case
you will have lessvaried samples,and participants
will lose the experienceof preparing and recording
and may feel lessinterested in the analysis;on the
other hand the whole processwill go much faster
and the whole-group discussionis simpler and
easierto organize.
Ifyou do ask your trainees to prepare recordings
as describedin the unit, it is a good idea to take in
at least a selectionof the recorded cassettes
between Stages2 and 3, and fill in a worksheet for
yourself for each one. This is additional work: but
it does help you to make the information-sharing
processof Stage3 more effective, by drawing
trainees' attention to errors they may not have
heard, and by defining those that they may have
heard but find difficult to describe.Your
participation will also make it easierto exploit the
use of phonetic, stressand intonation symbols for
the definition of errors.
) Unit Three: lmproving
learners' pronunciation
(An hour to an hour and a halfl
This unit can be presentedas an'interrupted
lecture', the questions being used as stimuli for
337
Trainer's notes
short'buzz'sessionsbetweenpairs or small groups
of participants. The secondand third questions
may be usefully followed by application:
participants try out their testsor explanations on
learnersas a home assignment,and report back in
the following full session.
The task at the end of the unit is probably best
done as pair or group work, followed by general
pooling.
F Unit Four: Further topics for
discussion
(About 45 minutes)
associatedwith the pronunciation-spelling
correspondences,whereasBox4.6 and the
attached task deal with practical teaching ideas.
The main part of the task may be done by you and
the classtogether, pooling ideasfor appropriate
texts.
Module
vocabulary
5:Teaching
) Unit One: What is vocabulary
and what needs to be taught?
(An hour to an hour and a half)
If you wish your traineesto do some reading on
thesetopics (seethe Further readingsection), it
may be better to get them to do it after the
discussionrather than before. If they read before,
they tend to come to the discussionwith
borrowed, ready-madeideasand lose the
challengeof thinking things out for themselves,
whereasif they go to the literature after seriously
considering the topics on their own, they are likely
to find the reading interesting, and will be more
informed and selectiveabout what they learn from
it.
A thorough study of some or all of the questions
can be ensuredby adopting a three-stageprocess:
group discussion-+ reading -+ summarizing
answersin writing.
The section Somepossibleanswers will
probably be superfluousif you have had a fullclassdiscussion;though perhaps participants will
be interestedin reading it as a follow-up and
comparing my ideaswith theirs.
) Unit Five: Pronunciation and
spelling
(About 45 minutes)
This unit will be useful for those teaching English,
or other languageswhose spelling is difficult; it
may be unnecessaryfor those teaching languages
whose spelling is more or lessphonetic.
The topic of spelling is treated as associated
with pronunciation rather than as part of writing,
sinceits teaching usually emphasizesthe learning
of accuratediscreteitems, rather than fluent use as
a part of written communication.
The questionsare aimed mainly at raising
teachers'linguistic awarenessof the problems
338
This unit may be presentedas input (from you),
using the questionsas stimuli for brief clarifying
discussions.
For examining aspectsof meaning: in class,I
would use a dictionary sparingly; it is more
interesting and produces better learning to rely on
yow and your trainees' own intuitions. The
dictionary may then be used as a retrospective
check.
If your target languageis not English, you will
needto substitute different examplesfor some of
the questions.
) Unit Two: Presenting new
vocabulary
(About 45 minutes)
This task contextualizesin practice many of the
conceptsintroduced in Unit One, and can be used
as a follow-up to it.
At Stage4, it is worth devoting a few minutes to
a discussionof the role of translation, which is
particularly controversial. My own feeling is that
translation, if the teacherspeaksthe mother
tongue ofthe learners,is often a quick and
convenient way to convey meaning, particularly if
the concept is one that it is difficult to explain in
the target language.But it may sometimesbe
inaccurate and misleading and appearsto invite
learnersto think in their own languagerather than
in the target one. It can be used,perhaps,to
facilitate first understanding,to be followed by
techniquesthat emphasizeuse of the item in targetlanguagecontexts.
Module 6
F Unit Three: Remembering
vocabulary
(About an hour)
This looks a little long and tedious to do, but it is in
my experiencequite enjoyable,and effectivein
termsof learningoutcomes:graduatesof my
coursesoften quote it as one ofthe sessionswhose
processand conclusionsthey rememberbest.
The group experiment is most easily and
efficiently done if you yourself lead the proceedings
with clear instructions and strict timekeeping. If
the sheetshown in Box 5.4 is copiedonto a
transparencyand projected on the OHP then
resultscan be displayed as soon as they are counted
at the end of eachround; this enablesparticipants
to keep track of the results as they develop and
addsmomentum and interest.
Other aspectsof vocabularylearningcan also be
examined, making the experiment more complex:
for example, you might ask half the teacherseach
time not to teach eachother, but to study the lists
silently, as individuals; and then check whether the
cooperative teaching-learning did in fact produce
on averagebetterresults(in my experienceit does).
Or you might add lists of nonsense-syllables,
and
look at how well they are learned, and what
strategiesare used.
) Unit Four: ldeas for
vocabulary work in the
classroom
(An hour to an hour and a half, assuming
participants baue prepared their ideas in aduance;
more than that becomestedious)
This unit's main aim is simply to give participants
more ideasfor vocabulary-practiceproceduresthat
they can usein the classroom;and critical
discussionof eachhelpsto increaseawarenessof
what exactly they are doing and why.
You should also contribute an activiry, perhaps
to start the sessionor to end it.
It is a good idea to ask participants to write out
descriptionsof their activities after the session.
This affords them an opportunity to reflect on and
refinetheir ideas;it also makesit possibleto copy
and distribute a useful set of vocabulary-teaching
activities to all membersof the group.
F Unit Five: Testing vocabulary
(About half an hour to study the examples, which
can be done at bome; an hour for discussion)
The set of examplesprovided here doesnot, of
course,representa comprehensivetaxonomy of
test types: if you wish to go into the topic in depth
you may wish to refer teachersto the books
suggestedunder Further readinginModule 3:
Tesls.The main teaching point here is not testing
as such, but awarenessof what aspectsof
knowledge of lexis are in fact elicited through the
different techniques.
grammar
Module
6:Teaching
) Unit One: What is grammar?
(About 45 minutes)
An alternative to the preliminary processsuggested
here is to staft by asking participants 'What is
grammar?',eliciting ideas,and working towards
an acceptabledefinition by'socratic' critical
questioning of their suggestions.One important
point is to make them awarethat'grammar'is not
necessarilyabout complete sentencesor complete
words.
The exercisegiven in the secondquestion is
intended to clarify, through examples,the meaning
of a 'structure'; it may be sufficient to elicit
examplesin one language.
The third section is worth spendingrime on, for
the sakeof awareness-raising.
F Unit Two: The place of
glammar teaching
(lf preliminary study is done at home, the
discussionsessionwill take about half an hour)
This is a fairly demanding and academictask, so
perhaps more suitable for relatively knowledgeable
or advancedtrainees.Probably the most effective
useof classtime is to ask participants to read and
preparetheir commentsat home, then discussin
class.
Your interpretations and criticisms of the
readingsmay of course be different from mine. The
main aim is to get the participants to engagewith
the problem of the usefulness,
or uselessness,
of
339
Trainer's notes
grarnmar teaching as a component of foreign
Ianguageteaching, and to arrive at some kind of
conclusion:'This is what Vwe think.'You might
wish to challengethem by suggestingdifferent
teaching contexts: would you say the sameif you
were teaching adults in a languageschool?
Primary-school children in a lessdeveloped
country? Adolescentsin a large heterogeneous
class?
F Unit Three: Grammatical
terms
(Up to two hours, depending on participants'
preuious knouledge)
If you feel your traineesneed some kind of
explanation of grammatical terms, then this is
probably best done as a kind of lecture, eliciting
the examplesfrom them as you go along. If,
however, they are already fairly well informed on
the topic, the definitions may be elicited from them
themselvesin order to refresh and consolidate
knowledge. A third possibility is to give them the
terms and ask them as a home assignmentto find
out, or check, their meanings,using reference
books; then go over results in class.
As noted, this section is necessarilybasedon
English, but much of it may be found relevant and
helpful for grammar descriptions of other
languages.The tasks given in the questionsmay of
course be done on the basisof non-English texts.
) Unit Four: Presenting and
explaining grammar
(About an hour if based on peer-teaching;about
30 minutes if the actual teaching is done
elseuthere)
Ifyour traineeshave accessto classesof.'real'
foreign languagelearners,then the experimental
presentationsshould be done there. Ifnot, and they
have to be done as peer-teaching,there will
probably not be time for more than four or five
volunteers to present; the others should, however,
prepare and write down how they would have
presented.
In Stage1 I have made the consultation of
grammar books optional, becauseI feel it is quite a
helpful exercisefor teachersto explore their own
intuitions about the languageand try to put them
into words, using the grammar book later (in Stage
340
2) to supplement and improve their ideas.It is,
however, obviously quicker to consult the books
first, and you may wish to do it this way round.
Similarly, the guidelinessuggestedby the questions
in Box 6.2 may be studied before the actual
presentationsrather than after.
Make sure that Stage3 is done very soon after
the pr'esentation,so that the eventsare still clear in
participants' minds.
The task can end at Stage3. Ifyou continue,
Stage4 may provide the basisfor a class
discussion,while Stage5 could be usedas a followup home assignment.
Stage6 is most relevant for people who are
regularly teaching classesof foreign language
learners.
) Unit Five: Grammar practice
activities
(About 45 minutes)
The aim of this is mainly to make participants
aware of the wide variety of activity-types
available, and of the importance of not confining
themselvesto conventional form-focussed
grammar exercises.They should be encouragedto
invent their own activities as well as recalling or
reading about them.
If participantslook at coursebooks,as suggested
at the end of the unit, and find results similar to
those I suggest,then the obvious conclusion would
be that the teachershould make up the deficit by
supplementingthem with activities of his or her
own. You might selectone such coursebook unit
and discusswhat sorts of grammar-practice
activities might be introduced as supplements.
F Unit Six: Grammatical
mistakes
(About 45 minutes to an hour, not including the
preliminary gatbering of data)
If you feel that you need a section on practical
grammar testing as such, it is possibleto take the
last sectionof Module 5:Teachinguocabularyand,
redesignthe items, or ask your traineesto do so, as
gfammar tests.
A list of important'mistakes could be based
only on an introspective brainstorm on the part of
the participants and yourself; this is of course
much lesstime-consuming. However, I feel it is in
Module 7
principle preferable to go to the primary sourceof
information, the learnersthemselves,rather than
relying on subjectivejudgement, which may not
always be reliable. Hence the Inquiry task.
With regard to the section Using the
information: teacherstend to think of errors only
as basesfor correction, and it is important to draw
their attention to the more positive teaching
activities which knowledge of probable errors can
contribute to: initial presentation and remedial
practice.
Module
7:Topics,
situations,
n0ti0ns,
functions
) Unit One: Topics and
situations
(About an hour)
Practical ideasfor introducing new topics or
situations may be brainstormed by the classbefore
they look at Box 7.l.;the box materialmay then
simply be usedto supplement or confum ideas.
In the task I recommend having all the groups
work on the samesuggestion:this then highlights
the variety of proceduresthat may be usedfor a
singletopic or situation. The actual peer-teaching
may be time-consuming, particularly if the
preparation is done in class.It is therefore
preferable to give this preparation as an out-ofclassassignment:the participants then have time
to searchfor or make up texts or dialogues,usea
thesaurusto find appropriate vocabulary items,
and so on.
) Unit Two: What ARE notions
and functions?
(About half an bour)
As noted, there are in fact different definitions of
thesetermsl but the one given here seemsto me to
be afairly useful and widely acceptedone. It is
basedon that usedby Van Ek (1.990).
Functions are usually defined by gerund verb
forms (informing, greetingretc.) and notions by
nouns (time, difference,etc.). The forms usedin
Box7.2 are baseverb or noun forms throughout,
in order not to 'give away' the solutions.
) Unit Three: Teaching chunks
of language: from text to task
(About an hour)
The issueof learning by heart as a contribution to
meaningful learning is an interesting one that you
might like to discusswith participants. Ask them,
perhaps,to recall their own experiencesof
learning by heart in school, and whether in
retrospect thesewere helpful or'deadening'. If
both positive and negative outcomes are recalled,
perhaps they can pinpoint some of the factors
which contributed to the difference?Sucha
discussionshould help participants to realizethat
learning by heart is not in itself a 'bad' thing, but
can contribute to overall learning and'ownership'
of knowledge and ideasprovided that it is
combined with thoughtful reflection and
discussionof content.
The dialogue task demandsfairly creative,
divergent thinking: participants will probably find
a good many more, and better, ideas than those
suggested!As a follow-up, you may wish to repeat
the task using a dialogue from a local textbook.
![ith regard to the final task: note that many
coursebooksprovide situational dialoguesor
texts, but then proceedonly to'milk'them for
factual reading comprehension,vocabulary and
grammar, without doing anything to explore
further the basic topics, situations, notions and
functions through more meaning-orientedtasks.
Theseare the kinds of tasks the teachersshould be
looking for, and perhaps suggestingideasto
supplement.
F Unit Four: Teaching chunks
of language: from task to text
(About an hour)
The technique of starting from a communicative
task and eliciting from the results the languageto
be taught has beenrecommendedby some
methodologists: its main advantageis, as
mentioned in the unit, that it doesfocus learners'
and teacher'sattention unequivocally on the
communicative use of the languagerather than on
form and possiblyreplicates'natural'or
'immersion' learning.
It is not, however, in fact very widely
implemented in the classroom.The question is
whether this is due to conservatismon the part of
341
Trainer's notes
teachers,or whether it is becausethe technique is
in fact lesseffective or a difficult one to implement.
The role-play experiment suggestedhere is one
way to try to explore this question; it also gives
teachersfirst-hand experienceof a method which
they may not have had other opportunities to see.
F Unit Five: Gombining
different kinds of language
segments
(About an hour)
This unit moves away from practical classroom
technique, and back into languagestudy: it is an
attempt to pull together this set of four modules
and clarify participants'thinking on the
relationshipbetweenthe'communicative'
languagecategoriesof notion, function, etc. and
the'non-communicative' ones of grammar,
vocabularyand pronunciation.
If the examplesgiven in the body of the unit are
understood and the question is successfully
tackled, you may find that the final task, which is
fairly time-consuming,may be skipped. Another
possibility is to do (part of) the task fairly briskly
on the board through full-class discussion,rather
than individually or in groups.
Module
8:Teaching
listening
) Unit One: What does real-life
listening involve?
(About an hour)
The first stageof the task is fairly easy:perhaps let
the traineeswrite down ideasfirst for a moment or
two, and then'pool'them on the board. The
secondis considerably more difficult: they will
needmore time for preliminary thinking and
writing, and you may needto hint, encourageand
add further ideasin order to facilitate the pooling
stage.It may help to provide them with a copy of a
transcript of a typical listening situation - as in Box
LL. L, for example.
Alternatively, the secondstagecan be omitted,
and the content given as a mini-lecture. This would
lead immediately to the question about applying
the guidelinesin Unit Two.
The application task is intended to illustrate and
342
clarify the precedingrather theoretical ideas by
applying them to a particular situation fresh in the
participants'memory. The ongoing sessioncan in
itself provide an example.
) Unit Two: Real-life listening
in the classroom
(About an hour)
One way of doing this is to have the 'real-life
characteristics'listed briefly in a left-hand column
on the board or OHP, and invite traineesto suggest
implications for teaching to fill in appropriate
spacesin the right-hand column. Invite them to
start at whichever item they like.
As guidelinesfor teaching are suggested,
encouragetraineesto think critically: to suggest
possibledisadvantages
or problems,as well as
extra (pedagogical)advantages.
F Unit Three: Learner problems
(45 minutes' discussion,assurningthat interuieuts
taitb learnershaue been done owtsidetbe
classroom)
If you have traineeswho are not native speakersof
the target languagein the classand who learnt the
languagethrough formal coursesnot too long ago,
they might be able to function as 'interviewees'
(Stage2 of the Inquiry), supplying the learner
insights through recalling their own experience.
In the discussion(Stage3), keepparticipants
steadily focussedon the main objective: to tliink
about what we, the teachers,can do to help
learnerswith theseproblems.
) Unit Four: Types of activities
(About 45 minutes, assuming you demonstrate
briefly some of the types of actiuities)
This is straight input, and difficult to absorb in the
concentratedform in which it is given here. One of
the purposesof the following task - to look at a
coursebookand seeif thesetypesof listeningtasks
appear - is simply to get participants to re-process
the categoriesthrough having to apply them
themselves,and thus to absorb the ideasbetter.
This may, of course, be done as a home
assrgnment.
If you are giving the list of categoriesas lecture-
Module 9
type input, then provide some short illustrations
for some of the items; this will make the ideas
clearerand easierto absorb.aswell asmore
lnteresting.
F Unit Five: Adapting activities
(About an hour to an hour and a balf, including
trying out)
Encourageparticipants to adopt the suggestionin
rhe task to try out the activities in small groups
before criticizing them; this can be surprisingly
revealing.lfhere'recordings' are needed,the texts
can be read aloud by one of the participants.
Ifyou have done previous units, this can be
related to as a summing-up activity: recall with the
participants previously discussedcriteria for the
designof effectivelistening activities (doesthe
activity take into account real-life aspects,
pedagogicalconsiderations,learnerproblems?),
and encouragethem to apply them here.
The activities can be discussedin small groups
and suggestionsthen sharedin a full-class
summary.
speaking
Module
9:Teaching
) Unit One: Successful oral
fluency practice
(About 45 minutes)
After noting the importance of fluent speechin the
foreign language,and agreeingon how you would
describea successfulspeakingactivity, you might
invite participants to brainstorm problems they
have had, or anticipate, with getting studentsto
talk in the classroom.Then usemy and/or your
own ideasto refine or extend the list inBox9.2.
The practical conclusionsat the end of the unit
may provide a starting-point for a collection of
'tips' suggestedby you and the classtogether.
) Unit Two: The functions of
topic and task
(About 45 minutes; allot about three to fiue
minutes each for trying out the two actiuities in
Bo x 9 .3 )
This is usually an enjoyable and profitable session,
clarifying the contribution of'task'to a fluency
activity. You are likely to get the sameresults as I
do (seeWhich is better?l unlessyou are working
with a fairly sophisticatedpopulation familiar with
debate-typeopen discussion.
It is preferablenot to reveal in advancethe basic
topic/task distinction beftveenthe two activities:
tell the classonly that they are going to do two
different kinds of discussions,and you want them
to note how well eachworks; hopefully they will
arrive at the distinction(s) through their own
following analyticdiscussion.
) Unit Three: Discussion
activities
(Timing dependson hout many of the actiuities
you look at, and whether you try them out during
the session:allow not more than ten minutes for
trying out each, and up to fifteen minutes for the
following discussion)
If you wish at this point to give your traineessome
practical adviceon the organization of group
discussions,
seeModule 16: Classroom
int eraction, Unit Three.
Either different groups of participants within the
sessioncan try different activities, then give
feedback;or individuals go away and try them out
with 'real'classes,reporting back later. The latter
will get'truer' and more interestingresults,but is
more time-consuming.
If you are short of time, you may prefer simply
to use the activities as a basisfor critical discussion
without the trying-out stage.Ones they like should
be noted by participants for future usein the
classroomlyou might direct them to some of the
referencesinthe Further reading sectionfor
additional ideas.
F Unit Four: Other kinds of
spoken interaction
(About 45 minutes)
Someof the reading here is quite healy, perhaps
too difficult for some lessadvancedgroups of
trainees,
trainees;my (non-native-speaker)
however, cope with it satisfactorily. I sometimes
ask them to read the entire first chapter from
Brown and Yule (1983) from which Extract 2 is
taken: the topics of long/short turns and
343
Trainer's notes
transactional and interactional speechare
discussedthere in more detail, as well as several
other interestingand important issues.
The final section is of course suitable for fullclassdiscussion.The main point is that the
participants should reach decisionsabout what
they think about theseaspectsof spoken language,
and how (or if) they plan to teach or give practice
in them.
Notes; if possible use a video rather than just an
audio recording. Then ask them to compare and
justify their assessments.
reading
Module10:Teaching
) Unit One: How do we read?
F Unit Five: Role play and
related techniques
(About 45 minutes)
If your trainees have no experienceof simulation
or role play, it may be worth trying out an activity
with them as an introduction to this unit; you
might use one of the examplesgiven within the text
of the unit, or take an idea from Porter-Ladousse
(1,987).
Teachers'attitudes to role play vary according to
their personalitiesand backgrounds: some are
enthusiastic,others cautious or evenreluctant to
try it. The main objectivehereis not to'advertise'
role play, but simply to familiarize teacherswith
the various options, clarify what they can
contribute to oral fluency and suggestsome
practical ideas.
F Unit Six: Oral testing
(About 45 minutes)
I have supplied a ready-made summary of some of
the advantagesand disadvantagesof oral testing in
Box9.6, but it might be better, particularly if you
are working with experiencedteachers,to elicit
ideasin a preliminary brainstorm.
This is a good context for reading background
literature: either a selectionof articles, as the two
suggestedhere, or others that you recommend. If
you do the debating task, then the reading may be
done before it, so that participants come to the
discussionwith some background knowledge; or
after it, in which casecontributions to the debate
will be lessinformed, but the reading itself may be
more interesting, sinceparticipants will already
have explored the issuesand their own approach to
them.
A follow-up task might be to listen to a
recording of learner speechand invite your trainees
to try to assessit using the scaleshown in the
344
(About half an hour)
This unit is a practical introduction to the idea that
understanding meaningstakes precedenceover
decoding of letters in successfulreading.
One effective way of displaying the various texts
in the boxes is to use an overhead projector, with
strips of card to hide and reveal the texts. Thus the
'knight'text in Box 10.4 can be displayedvery
briefly in order to encouragefast reading.
The implications of each little experiment are
best elicited through classdiscussion.The
reformulation of the original statementsin Box
10.1 may also be elicitedthrough discussion,
though you may wish to add further ideas.
Most important here is the idea of reading as
'constructing'(rather than'gathering') meanings
through a combination of topdown strategies,
involving the activation of schemata,and
bottom-up onesthat are text-dependent. If they
have not met it before, participants may find it
difficult to let go of the idea of reading as a passrve
reception of a unidirectional flow of ideas,and will
appreciatethe opportunity to hear about and
discussthe concept of interactive reading and the
role of the reader as constructor of meanings.
F Unit Two; Beginning reading
(About 45 minutes)
Many textbooks - particularly those teaching
languagesbasedon the Roman alphabet - take it
for granted that the learners'mother tongue has
the samealphabet as that of the target language,
and do not teach the new one systematically.If the
teachersyou are training need to teach a new
alphabet, they may have to compose
supplementary materials for the purpose, and will
therefore find it useful to discussthe issuestreated
here.
The questionsin Box 10.5 can be used for open
discussion;if this is thorough and productive, then
Module 11
my own suggestedguidelinesmay be unnecessary.
The practical reading/writing tasks shown in the
Notes can be criticized, changedor added to. If any
of your classare currently teaching beginners,they
may be able to try out some of the resulting ideas.
) Unit Three: Types of reading
activities
(An hour to an hour and a half; most of the time
should be spent on discussingalternatiue reading
tasks)
For the secondand third tasks I have shown rather
short, made-up activities becauseof space
constraintsl it is preferable,if you can, to make
copiesof and usesirnilar, full-length activities that
actually appear in locally-usedtextbooks (for Task
3, simply separatethe comprehensionquestions
from the text, and distribute them fust).
It is important for participants actually to
experiencedoing the three sampleactivities, not
just look at them. S7henthey do so, the difference
betweenthe secondtwo in terms of interest and
motivation is quite startling, and provokes lively
olscusslon.
The task on thinking of alternative reading
activities can be prepared as a home assignment,
and ideaspooled in the following session.
) Unit Four: lmproving reading
skills
(About 45 minutes; the application to teaching
materials may take another hour, but can be done
at bome)
The'implications for teaching'items askedfor in
the task can be preparedby participants in smallgroup discussionsor as a home assignment,but it is
a good idea to refine and summarizethem in a
discussionwith the whole classtogether.The useof
theseconclusionsto evaluateand criticize actual
teachingmaterials,as suggested,is time-consuming,
but may help traineesto learn the ideasmore
thoroughly and apply them better in teaching.
F Unit Five: Advanced reading
(About an hour)
The criteria for designingand assessingadvanced
reading materials presentedhere are basedon the
assumption that the languageis being taught for
generalcommunicative purposes.If your trainees
are concernedwith teaching the foreign language
for academicsnrdy, or for specialprofessional
purposesthen criteria will of courseneedto be
adapted accordingly. The main point is that
participants should approach the materials
applying consistentcriteria which they understand
and accept,so that they can give reasonedand
coherent rationales when suggestingalterations or
additions.
For the practical work on texts and tasks you
may prefer (asI do) to have participants work on
materials taken from local textbooks rather than
the onesprovided here; or you may let them
choosetheir own. They can work on eachitem
individually before comparing their ideaswith
eachother's and yours.
Module
11:Teaching
writing
F Unit One: Written versus
spoken text
(About half an hour)
Participants can be askedto produce their own
written and spoken texts: invite them to improvise
instructions, a description or a story into a cassette
recorder, and then write out a careful account of
the samething. Then their own texts can be usedas
the basisof the comparison. This is obviously
much more time-consuming,but makesthe
exercisemore personal, and the resultsmore
memorable.
The comparison itself I usually do as an open
classbrainstorm, writing up suggestions,clarifying
connectionsbetweenthe different ideasas they are
given, and supplementingmyself where necessary.
The question at the end is optional: it may be
usedas a basisfor follow-up discussion.
) Unit Two: Teaching
procedures
(About an hour)
Writing as a means or an end
You may prefer to use instancesof writing
activities from books familiar to vour trainees
345
Trainer's notes
rather than the onesgivenin Box 11.2.
Peopleare likely to disagreeabout where exactly
to place the activities on the scalegiven; and my
own answer in the Notes is not the only possible
'right' one. This does not matter: the main purpose
of this task is not to get a 'right' answer but to
come to grips with the issue:to affempt to evaluate
the real objective of given proceduresthrough
thinking and discussion.
for the writing; but on the whole, people find it
easierto write effectively in this sort of situation
where the topic is a problem to which they have to
suggesta solution, and about which they know
something from their own experienceor study.
A point-by-point considerationof the questions
raisedin Box 1 1.5 can serveas a good basisfor the
discussion;and implications for teachingcan be
suggestedin the courseof this discussion,rather
than waiting until after it.
Writing for content or form
This is, I think, a lessimportant issuethan the
previous one, and could be omitted if you are short
of time. It is again a 'diagnostic' task, attempting to
definewhat a specificprocedure is in fact trying to
do. The 'form versuscontent' issuein giving
feedbackis dealt with in more depth in Unit Five.
) Unit Five: Giving feedback on
writing
(About 45 minutes)
(About an hour)
You may preferto elicit'Advice'from the classin
responseto the problems, or suggestyour own,
rather than asking them to evaluatethe 'Advice'
given here. In any case,an important objective is to
encourageparticipants to evaluateany advice in
the light of their own experienceand knowledge,
not to acceptit uncritically.
You may wish to changethe criteria suggestedin
Box 1 1.3 in order to make them more relevantto
your class;or you may decideto selectonly part of
the rather long list of writing activities given in Box
11.4.
Module12:Syllabus
) Unit Three: Tasks that
stimulate writing
F Unit Four: The process of
composition
) Unit One: What is a syllabus?
(About an hour if uriting is done in the session)
(About 20 minutes; an hour if you do the
Application task)
Participantscan be askedto do the writing at home
in advance,which savesclasstime; but I usually
prefer to do it in class,so that the discussiontakes
place when the writing processis still fresh in
everyone'smind. About twenty minutes, or a little
more, should then be allowed for the writing, and
about 30-40 minutes for the discussion.
Usually, people find it quite easyto concentrate
and do good writing in class.Various things can
help: for example, if you make it clear in advance
that they are likely to spendmuch of the time on
apparently non-productive thinking rather than
writing, and that that is normal; if you tell them
that you do not expect them to produce a finished
version; if you insist on absolute silence;if you
write yourself at the sametime as the class.
You may wish to suggestdifferent writing
topics. In principle, any topic will serveas a basis
The definition of a syllabus suggestedin this unit is
not, of course,limited to languagesyllabuses;you
may find it edifying and interestingto bring in
syllabusesfrom other subjects,and invite
participants to apply to them the criteria suggested
here.
If you basethe study of this unit, as suggested,
on application to a specificsyllabus,make sure
participants acquire copiesin advance:preferably
all should work on the sameone, to facilitate
interchangeof ideasand discussion.
An alternative with more experiencedteachers
who know what a syllabusis and have usedone, is
briefly to run through the'characteristics of a
syllabus'without immediateapplicationto an
example: the aim being simply to systematizeand
'surface'the information. For theseteachers,it
may be appropriate to spendmore time on the
346
Module 13
;ritical discussionsuggested
in the Application
:ask.
Module
l3:Materials
) Unit Two: Different types of
languagesyllabus
) Unit One: How necessaryis a
coursebook?
About45 minutes)
(About45 minutes)
Thisunit asit standsaimsonly to getparticipants
to appreciatethe differentpossibilitiesof syllabus
design,andhow thesemay bemappedonto, or
contributeto, their own conceptions.
However,
rhediscussionsuggested
in the taskat the endof
rheunit is likelv to leadto a morecritical
evaluative
debateabouttheadvantages
and
disadvantages
of thedifferentkindsof syllabus,
andhow appropriateeachis to teachingsituations
participantsknow about.
Thefirst questionmaybediscussed
by thefull
group;or participantsmaynotedown their
responses
individually.In anycase,it is a good
ideato recordanswersin writing: partly because
theactualwriting processforcesparticipantsto
definetheir stancemoreclearly;andpartly sothat
answerscanbeeasilyreferredbackto when
discussing
the secondquestionlater.
Anotherinterestingway to engagewith the
ideasin this unit is to havea debate.Regardless
of
their actualpreferences,
participantsaredivided
into two groups,oneof which is to arguefor and
oneagainstadoptinga coursebook.Eachgroup
preparesits arguments,thenelectstwo main
speakers,
who presentits case.Afterthefour
openingspeakers
havefinished,the discussion
is
openedfor freeparticipation.At somepoint you
maychangetherules,andinvitepeopleto express
tnerrown, genurnepomtsot vrew.
A conventionaldebateendswith a votefor and
against:you mayor maynot feelthis appropriate
here.If you do, participantsshouldcasttheir vores
accordingto their own views,not accordingto
their group's;andmakeit clearto themthat the
resultwill reflectonly the distributionof opinions
within this group,not anykind of generally
accepted'right'answer.
If you decideto do the debate,I suggestyou use
thelist of arguments
givenin Boxes13.1.1-2as
follow-upreading:to giveit earliermay deprive
participantsof initiativeandchallengein
preparingtheircase.
) Unit Three: Using the
syllabus
rAbout45 minutes)
Youmayfind it usefulto point out themain
variablesthat influenceteachers'decisionsasto
how to usethe syllabus:the affluenceor povertyof
theinstitution;the amountof leewayallowedthe
reacher
by hisor herimmediate
superiors;
the
knowledgeandpersonalityof the teacher.
The basicissueis oneof freedomversus
structure,or flexibilityversusrigidity - thoughit
rvouldbean over-simplification,
evenmisleading,
ro presenttheseasmutuallyexclusiveoppositions.
.Manyteachers- myselfamongthem- find it far
easierto becreativeandflexibleon thebasisofa
clearandstructuredsyllabusthanwhenleft to
themselves
with theinvitation'dowhateveryou
Iike'.
Thequestions
basedon Box 12.2will, it is
hoped,leadto a discussionabouthow bestto use
thesyllabusin teachingsituationsthat participants
knowabout;andalsoto a sympathetic
consideration
of differentones,and an
understanding
of theconsiderations
that leadto
Jecisions
whichmayat fustsightappear
unacceptable.
) Unit Two: Goursebook
assessment
(Anhourto an houranda balfl
Oneimportantunderlyingmessage
of this unit is
thattherearesuchthingsas'good'or'bad'
coursebooks!
- theyarenot iust appropriateor
inappropriateto a particularcontext.An
enormousnumberof foreignlanguage
(particularlyfor the teachingof
coursebooks
English)areavailableon the market;it is
347
Trainer's notes
important for participants to be aware that some
of theseare rather poor, and to know how to
distinguish which are worth buying and using, and
why.
You may prefer to elicit from participants their
own criteria for assessingcoursebooks,rather than
usingthe list given in Box 1.3.2-lneithercase,the
essentialprocessesin this unit are: first, somekind
of decision-makingas to which criteria are
important and which are relatively trivial; and,
second,the application of the criteria to locallyusedmaterials.
raise participants' awarenessof the different kinds
of materials available; and secondto induce them
to think carefully about the relative usefulnessof
the various types in their own teaching situation,
and about some of the factors affecting the
materials'contribution to learning and userfriendliness for teacher and learners.
The decisionsabout what to buy on a limited
budget are oneswhich many teachersmay indeed
need to be involved with in the courseof their
careers,so this simulation may provide a useful
preparationfor real situations.
) Unit Three: Using a
coursebook
F Unit Five: Teachenmade
worksheets and workcards
(Half an hour in class,follouted by home
assignment)
I usually presentthe first part of this unit as an
'interrupted lecture', or lecture-discussion,in the
courseof which the 'questions' and 'implications'
may be altered or added to. The Application
activity is then given as a home assignment.The
resulting notes are taken in to be read and
commented on; alternatively they may be
discussedin class,or exchangedand discussedin
small groups. Participants may all work on the
sameunit, or on different ones.
It is important to discussat some stagehow far
the participants in their 'home' context will
actually be allowed to deviatefrom and./or
supplementtheir coursebook: what are the local
constraints?
You will probably have noticed that the fust
three units of this module are gradually narrowing
their focusfrom the'macro'to more'micro'
aspectsof a coursebook. A further narrowing may
be provided to complete the process:ask
participants to select,or give them, specific
exercisesor texts-with-tasks and ask them to
definewhat prior knowledge theseassumeon the
part of the learner and what their oblective is.
F Unit Four: Supplementary
materials
(About 40 minutes)
This unit is suitable for teacherswho are working,
or likely to work, in relatively well-resourcedand
well-equipped institutions.
The objective of the Simularion task is first to
348
(Up to an hour and a balfl
This is a very practical workshop, valuable for
inexperiencedteachersor trainees,who very often
underestimatethe difficulties of making their own
materials and can benefit from guidance.
I find it helpful to demonstratethe classroom
useof workcards with the group in a previous
session.A set of cards with questionson topics we
have recently learned in our courseare prepared,
and laid out on a central table in the room:
participants take a card, answer in writing, and
then compare their answerswith sample
acceptableonessupplied in an open file on my
desk. They then take a new card, and repeat the
process.This not only givesparticipants the 'feel'
ofthe workcard process;it alsoprovidesan
opportunity for useful review of coursecontent.
Module
14:Topiccontent
) Unit One: Different kinds of
content
(About an hour)
This is a very context-bound topic, which you will
needto relate closely to your trainees' own
situations. You may, for example, needto replace
or supplementthe examplesillustrating the items
in Box 14.1 with more relevantones.It may be a
useful exerciseto elicit such examplesfrom them.
The order of the sessionmight be: a preliminary
discussion,clarifying some advantagesor
disadvantagesof the different kinds of content,
Module 15
iollowed by the writing of personalsummaries
similar to the one I have done for my own context
in the Notes at the end of the module.
) Unit Four: Literature l2l:
teaching ideas
) Unit Two: Underlying
messages
This unit necessarilyprovides only a small sample
of the huge range of classroomprocedureswhich
can be usedfor literature teaching. You may wish
to add extra blank spaceto Box 14.4 in order to
elicit or suggestmore ideas,and/or refer your
teachersto the books listed under Fzrther reading.
Specifictypes of technique usedin literature
teaching which you might find it interesting to
discusswith teachersare:
(An hour to an hour and a half)
Participantsshould be introduced to this topic
rhrough brief input from you, or independent
reading (seeFurther readingl; but the main part of
rhe sessionwill be basedon critical examinationof
rnaterials.
Note that it is not suggestedhere that all
rrnderlyingmessages
are necessarilybad! The point
rssimply that teachersshould know of their
cxistenceand nature,in order not to find
rhemselves
in the position of blindly passingon
\omeoneelse'sattitudes.Awarenessof what the
rnessages
are empowersteachersto take their own
clecisionsas to whether to adopt, make explicit or
try to counteractthem.
The task is a very interesting one to do, and may
producesomesurprisingresults.Participantsmay
rvork in small groups on different books or on
differenttasks,sharingtheir resultstowards the
end of the session.
F Unit Three: Literature (11:
should it be included in the
coutse?
iAbout 45 minutes)
fhis can be run as a'for and against'debate,with
rrr without the support of the ideasin the boxes.
fhe main objectiveof this unit is not the drawing
,rf a final conclusion- which, of course,dependsto
.r largeextent on the kind of coursesyour trainees
rre or will be involvedwith - but rather a thorough
erploration ofthe arguments,and thoughtful
rr,eighingof their importancein teaching.
If you have chosento do the literature units at all
'his probably meansthat the teachingof literature
s at leasta feasibleoption in your trainees'
'ituations. So the direction the discussionis likely
:() take will be a basicconsensusthat yes,literature
.hould be includedin the foreign languagecourse,
',rllowed by seriousconsiderationof the very real
:.roblemsinvolved and someattemptto suggest
. ol u ti o n s.
(An hour to an hour and a halfl
-
Iearning texts by heart
preparing recitation or reading aloud
using role play or simulation
putting on plays
creativewriting inspired by the literature
written criticism.
F Unit Five: Literature (31:
teaching a specific text
(About an hour)
You may choosea text and ask all your traineesto
prepare the sameone for teaching; or each
participant may prepare a different text of their
own choosing. On the face of it, the secondis the
more attractive option; but I have found that more
interesting and useful learning actually results from
the first, sinceit revealsthe surprising variety of
ways a singletext can be taught; and participants
can learn from one another's interpretations and
ideas,or talk through differencesof opinion in
order to arrive at thoughtful conclusions.
planning
Module
15:Lesson
) Unit One: What does a lesson
involve?
(About 40 minutes)
This unit studiesthe lessonin the abstract, as a
phenomenon of social organization. The
metaphors activity is an enjoyable introduction to
the topic, whose aim is to raise awarenessof some
perspectivesthat participants may not have
thought of.
349
Trainer's notes
Note that it is important at the first stagefor
participants to choosetheir own metaphors
individually, uninfluenced by their friends'
opinions.In subsequentsharing,thereshould be
no implication that one choice is in any way better
than another;the main aim should be to open
participants'eyesto new approachesand
interpretations.
The article by Prabhu (1992) referred to
provides some interesting background reading
which you may find it useful to ask your traineesto
study beforeor after this activity.
A shorter alternative is to omit the metaphors
activity and simply discussthe sectionA spectsof
the lessonas it stands.
F Unit Two: Lesson preparation
(About 40 rninutes; more if the interuieuing is
done in class)
The interviewing will normally be done as a home
assignment.
Another possibiliry is to interview selected
teachersyourself in advance,and then hand out
copiesof their answersto the group for analysis
and discussion.If the participants do the
interviewing, then you yourself should perhapsbe
one of the interviewees.
Comments on some of the questions:
1. Most experiencedteachersactually prepare
lessonstwice: they have ready in advancea
generalsyllabusof what activities, texts, etc. they
want to get through during a certain period of
the course;and then they plan the actual
sequenceof componentsfor a specificlessonand
prepare supplementarymaterials a day or two
before.
2. All good professionalsI know write lessonnotes;
though some are very brief and sketchy.
5. Traineesare usually exhorted to write down their
objectives;research,however, indicatesthat
experiencedteachersrarely if ever do so, though
they are capableof defining them retrospectively
(Calderhead,1987).
7.Many teacherskeep notes until the volume
becomesunwieldy and then throw them away!
There are, however,valuable'nuggets'in lesson
plans that are worth keeping: activities that we
may want to useagain, or something about our
own teaching that we have learned. It is a pity, in
my opinion, that more teachersdo not find the
time to go through their lessonnotes afterwards,
350
reflecting and picking out for further reference
things they have learned.
At the Conclusionsstageit is advisableto discuss
and clarify ideasas a whole group, with your own
active participation. This may be followed by
individual writing of conclusions.
) Unit Three: Varying lesson
components
(About an hour)
The gathering of ideason variation of activities
within a lessonis probably bestdone as a general
classbrainstorm; participants usually have plenty
of ideasif challengedto suggestthem, though they
do not always demonstratethe sameawarenessin
practice! The discussionand follow-up observation
tasks at the end are designedto encouragethis kind
of transferof awareness.
F Unit Four: Evaluating lesson
effectiveness
(About 45 minutes)
As with many tasksin this book, the processis
probably more important than the result. The hard
thinking that has to be investedinto a prioritizing
exerciselike this forces participants to clarify and
articulate their ideas:why should one criterion be
more important than another, and what are the
implicationsfor my teaching?The task should lead
to the destabilizing of conventional or over-facile
assumptionsand stimulate interesting and
productive discussion.
Nevertheless,I do not wish to underestimatethe
importance of personal decisionson what is
important and what is not. The task should be
pursued to its end; though the final decision on
ranking the different items may perhaps be left to
the individual rather than made as a group
consensus.
If your traineesdo the Follow-up task suggested
at the end of the unit by evaluating one of their
own lessons,it will be difficult to give them any
useful feedbackon the resultsunlessyou yourself
have seenthe lesson.It may be useful, however, to
have people sharetheir reflectionsand evaluations
with eachother in a later session.If they usethe
lessonreport given in Box L5.5, you may find my
comments in the Notes useful as a basisfor
discussion.
Module 15
) Unit Five: Practical lesson
management
About 45 minutes)
This final unit consistsof very practical advice,
halancingthe rather theoretical orientation of Unit
On e .
The key problem is that expressedin the
Postscriptzhints like this - however true and useful
rhey appear - rarely result in real learning (that
transfersto practice) when they are given, as here,
Jetachedfrom experience.The aim of the
;uggestedinteraction betweenexperiencedand
inexperiencedteachersin the followjup Discussion
raskis to supply a link, albeit vicarious,with
experience:the experiencedteachers'personal
anecdotesand opinionscan help to make the
.rdvicemore real and personal for the
inexperienced,while clarifying their own thinking
rn the process.If your group is composedonly of
trainees,they may have to do this part of the unit
.rsa home assignment;alternatively, you may like
ro invite an experiencedteacherin to discussthe
'Hints'with the class.
You may feelyou needto add somemore'Hints'
vourself!
Reference
Calderhead,
Teacher
I. 0987)Exploring
Thinking, London: CassellEducation.
Module
16:Classroom
interaction
facilitate or improve performance; whereasin the
latter the basic interaction is betweenparticipants.
It may be worth making sure that participants are
clear about the difference before embarking on the
task.
) Unit Two: Ouestioning
(About 45 minutes)
Much has beenwritten on the topic of questioning:
you might like to ask participants to read, for
example, the article by Brown and Edmondson
(1984) or an extract from Sinclair and Coulthard
(1e7s).
The topic is an extremely broad and complex
one: I have necessarilyhad to selectone aspectof
it, the one which I consider most useful for
languageteachers.Other aspectsyou may like to
discusswith teachersare: techniquesof nominating
responders;pace and waiting (for answers)time;
the fustificationfor'display' versus'reference'
(genuine)questions (seeBrock, 1986).
The decision to focus on theseparticular criteria
(especially'availability' and 'extension')was based
on my observation that most teacherstend to
overuseclosed-ended'test' questions,and that
therefore it is worth raising awarenessof the
importance of using open-endedonesthat
stimulate multiple and longer answers.
An alternative procedure is to invite participants
to identify their own criteria (for effective
questioning), perhapswithin specificcontexts, and
justify them.
) Unit Three: Group work
(About 45 minutes)
) Unit One: Patterns of
classroom interaction
(About half an hour, not including the
obseruation task)
As the opening sentenceindicates,the'IRF'
interaction pattern is dominant, not always
justifiably,in most classrooms;this unit draws
attention to other possibletypes of interaction, and
to their value in activating students.
Note that I have introduced a perhaps
unfamiliar distinction between'collaborative
work' and'group work': in the former, the basic
rnteraction is betweenstudent and learning task
and the function of the collaboration is merely to
It may be appropriate here to refer to a recent
group-work activify you have actually done in
your own (training) sessions,and ask your trainees
to think about how far the guidelinesin Box 15.5
applied to this. Which was/were used?\ilflhichare
perhapsnot suitable within a teacher-training
context, but would be in a languageclass?
) Unit Four: Individualization
(45 minutes to an hour)
If you have a currently functioning self-access
centre in your institution, it is certainly worth
taking participants to visit it and seeit in action.
351
Trainer's notes
However, on the assumption that many teachers
do not have this facility, the objective of this unit is
to give ideasfor and encourageindividualized
procedureswithin the conventional classroom.
(Somelearners,incidentally, actually dislike selfaccesswork and prefer direct teacher-fronted
lessons:it may be worth discussingwhy.)
The grid in Box 16.7 may be drawn on the board
and filled in fairly quickly through group
discussion.The conclusionssuggested- that
usually, but not inevitably, more individualization
teacherprepaiation - ar6 perhaps
-.r.r, investigating
-or.
worth
further in the light of
participants'own experience.
F Unit Five: The selection of
appropriate activation
techniques
(About 45 minutes)
One thing about this task that is a little disquieting
is that it implies the existenceof teacherthinking
that is in f.actrare: objectivesare not usually
definedin the way imagined here, even by
experiencedpractitioners. Many teacherswill, for
example, go through a reading passageand then do
the textbook comprehensionquestionsthrough
'IRF' as a mafter of course,without asking
themselveswhy. Thus a secondary- perhaps,
ultimately, most important! - aim of this task is to
get participants to becomemore aware of
objectivesin the useof texts or materials - and the
implications of thesefor the planning of
interaction patterns.
Module
17:Giving
feedback
) Unit One: Different
approaches to the natule and
function of feedback
(About 45 minutes)
You might start by eliciting participants'own
definition of'feedback' in teaching,and get them
to define their own approachesto the usefulnessof
assessmentand correction before presentingthe
various theories.
I usually presentthe various theoretical
352
approachesvia my own input, encouragingcritical
commentsthroughout rather than waiting to the
end. In this way, by the time we reach the end most
of the participants have more or lesscrystallized
their own views and reactions.
F unit Two: Assessment
(About 45 minutes)
Summativeevaluation is an interesting and
complex topic which could in itself provide the
content of a full course.It is, however,
questionablewhether the amount of time and
effort neededto master this topic fully is a good
investment, relative to its importance in practice. I
have contented myself herewith a brief unit that
raisesawarenessof the nature and complexity of
summative evaluation in general,and some of the
lessconventional options available to the
evaluator.
Your traineesmay, however, be in a situation
where this topic is of particular importance, and
you will therefore wish to go into the topic more
fully. One possibility is to invite them to do some
background reading on the various topics, using
the referencesgiven under Further reading,before
discussingor writing answersto the questions.
) Unit Three: Gorrecting
mistakes in oral work
(About 30 to 45 minutes, assuming the interuieuts
and obseruation are done elsetubere)
A discussionof the questionis an essential
preliminaryto study of how to correct;it is a
specificaspectof the generaltopic of the place of
correction which was discussedin Unit One. The
following inquiry project presupposesthat the
participants have defned under what
circumstancesthey would correct in the fust place,
and exploreshow bestto do it.
The summary discussionshould result in some
redefining of theories in the light of the evidence:rn
particular, the declaredpreferencesof learners.It
might be useful after the end of the discussionfor
participants actually to write down what they see
as their own (future) policy with regard to oral
correction. But, as noted at the end of the section
Hou tbe correction is expressed,teachersshould
be cautious and sensitiveabout applying such
policy in practice: it is useful- evenessential- to
Module 18
havesome generalprinciples, provided you are
aware that they do not necessarilyapply in every
specificcase.
The final Observation and inquiry task might
also throw up some thought-provoking
discrepanciesbetween both the perceptionsof
different observers,and betweenthe perceptionsof
observerand observed.Suchdiscrepancies
needto
be talked through and an attempt made to decide
rvhich perception was probably nearer the truth;
rhis is not a placewhere you can smooth away
conflictsby sayingit is'a matter of opinion'.
) Unit Four: Written feedback
(An hour to an bour and a half)
I usually ask traineesto do their marking of the
tlifferent assignmentsat home, and bring them to
classthe next day. Comparing differencesin pairs
or threesgivesrise to some useful thinking, which
can be followed by a generaldiscussionof the
;rointsraisedinBox 1.7.4.
One practical problem which is not raised in this
unit due to lack of spaceis that of the amount of
rime and work necessaryfor correcting written
rssignments,particularly in largeclasses.You
might wish to discussthis with participants, and
t.xploredifferentways of easingthe load: taking in
,rnly part of the class'sassignmentseachtime; peer.orrection; self-correctionland so on.
F Unit Five: Glarifying personal
attitudes
About 45 minutes)
fhe most convenientway to do this unit is to have
Participantsfill in their answersin Box 17.5
rndividuallyand then shareand discussin groups
,rl in a full-classforum. Do not let them look at my
,rpinionsas expressedin the Notes while writing
rlreir own, in casetheseinfluencethem - though
rhey(my ideas)may be usefullater in the
.iiscussionas a basisfor deeperprobing.
You may wish to fill in further statementsto
rgreeor disagreewith yourself, before presenting
: Iretask to your trainees;or, of course,elicit these
'rom them.
I find that my traineestend to go for over-facile,
rbviousanswers(for example,that of course
.ositivefeedbackis'good' and negativeis'bad');
he objectiveof the discussionshould be to
examine such assumptionscarefully in order to
work out what seemsreally true and valid in the
light of the participants' own experienceand
critical thinking.
Module
18:Classroom
discipline
) Unit One: What is discipline?
(30 to 45 minutes)
It is possibleto try to elicit a definition of
'classroom discipline' directly, instead of doing so
in the roundabout way I suggest;but in my
experiencethis tends to result in a set of very
widely differing definitions, eachfocussingon a
different aspectof what is, after all, a very complex
concept, and I usually end up by doing what is here
suggestedin the first place: pooling key concepts,
and eliciting a final definition basedon them. If you
do it this way, check my list of conceptsin Box
18.1 to make surethereis nothing missingthere
that you consider important.
The optional follow-up activity of distinguishing
betweenpairs of conceptshelps to clarify thinking,
and is bestbasedon reading.
You may find it appropriate here to discussthe
different norms and behaviours associatedwith
classroom discipline that areacceptablein different
cultures.
) Unit Two: What does a
disciplined classroom look like?
(30 to 45 minutes)
This unit aimsto'destabilize'conventional
assumptionsthrough first'surfacing' them (putting
plus or minus signsby the statementsin Box 18.2),
then re-examining them in the light of the
following critical Comments, and finally restating.
The re-examination and restatementmay be done
through classdiscussion,item by item; and of
coursethe final'verdict'does not needto be
expressedonly through participants' reconsidered
decisionson which symbol to put by each item:
you may find it more appropriate actually to
reword or expand the statementsin order to
expressconclusionsmore precisely.
353
Module 19
Module
19:Learner
motivation
and
interest
Note:Learner motivation as an aspectof cognitive
psychology or psycholinguisticshas beenfaidy
extensivelyresearched;but the topic of teaching
for motivation has beenrelatively neglectedin
modern books on languageteaching methodology.
In my opinion the subject is crucial and well worth
rhe investment of thought and study.
Another possibility at this point is to watch films
or read books about teachers- preferably ones
basedon true stories!- and analysehow the
teachermotivated the students.The film Stand and
Deliuer is one interestingexample: it recounts in
fictionalized form the true story of the successof a
mathematicsteacherworking with previously lowachievingHispanic American studentsin
California.
) Unit Three: Extrinsic
motivation
(30 to 4S tninutes)
F Unit One: Motivation: some
background thinking
(About 45 minutes)
The unit represents,of course,only the tip of the
iceberg:there is an immenseamount of literature
and researchon learner motivation. You may wish
to expand on my summary) or selectcertain topics
to dwell on.
The text may be simply read by trainees;or
deliveredorally in lecture form, by you or by
(prepared)participants; or they may be askedto
read some of the background literature themselves.
In any case,it is useful to relate eachof the
theoreticalpoints (asI havetried to do) to
classroompractice: emphasizinghow awarenessof
them might affect teaching behaviour or attitudes
to learners.
F Unit Two: The teacher's
responsibility
(About 45 minutes)
Recallinggood teachersand then trying to analyse
what made them good is a useful training activity
in itself, evenif not related specifically,as here, to
motivation. It doestend to castdoubt on the
popular illusion that good teachersare usually
loving and gentle! - and setsparticipants delving
ratherdeeperfor'good teacher'qualitiessuchas
respectfor their studentsand belief in their ability,
the ability to explain clearly, enthusiasm,love of
teaching,sheerhard work . . .
In any case,every time I have done this activity it
has revealedthe typical teachercharacteristicof
the fostering of student motivation - which is why
it is particularly useful for awareness-raisinghere.
There is quite a lot which you may find
controversial here: whether or not you agreewith
my ideas,they are probably worth discussingwith
trainees,along the lines suggestedunder the
Summary discussiontask. Note that I have
stressed,in the task, the useof experienceas a basis
for critical comment as well as intuition and
generalaftitude: if there is a conflict betweenthe
two it needsto be brought into the open and
resolved.For example:participants may find the
idea of motivating through the threat of a test
repugnant in principle, but know from their own
experiencethat it appearsto work; can they define
a viable, acceptablepersonal approach to the use
of teststo motivate, taking into account both
aspects?
) Unit Four: Intrinsic
motivation and interest
(About 45 minutes)
A useful preliminary to this unit is a discussionin
which participants sharetheir perceptionsof how
motivated they think their studentsare, on the
whole, to study the foreign languagefor its own
sake,and why: for example, is it becausethe
languageis seenas high-prestige,or connectedin
their minds with various positive images?The
discussioncan then move on smoothly to a
consideration of how this initial motivation can be
enhancedand encouragedby teachersin classroom
practice.
The discussionof factors that arouseinterest I
usually run as a full-class brainstorm, not using the
box, except for my own reference,and
supplementingparticipants' contributions with
further suggestionsof my own if necessary.It is
355
Trainer's notes
important not to leavethe results of the brainstorm
as a massof raw ideas,but to go on to some kind
of critical awareness-raisingprocess,as suggested
in the final stageof the task.
and discussedin the light ofexperience rather than
research;you may find a pooling of participants'
own experienceas learnersvery helpful and
relevant here.
F Unit Five: Fluctuations in
learner interest
F Unit Two: Teaching children
(The obseruation is done elsewhere;follou-up
discussion takes 30 to 45 rninutes)
I have in the past usedthis observation processas
the basisfor a trainee classroom researchproject,
written up in a term paper. The main positive
result was a rise in the trainee's awarenessof her
students' level of interest and attention, and of
what sheherself could do to affect it.
An optional summarizing activity might be the
drawing up of a list of 'dos' and 'don'ts'for the
teacher,basedon what people have found out
through their observation. For example: 'Don't
carry on one kind of activity too long: if you detect
signsof restlessness,
make a change.'
Module
20:Younger
andolderlearners
) Unit One: What difference
does age make to language
learning?
(About 45 minutes)
This unit aims to re-exarninepopular assumptions
about the way different agegroups learn, in the
light of experienceand research.
The first trvo statementsin Box 20.l,to do with
the popular beliefthat younger children are better
at learning languages,are at least dubious, if not
actually false, as indicated by the research
literature referred to and further confirmed by the
thinking of many experiencedpractitioners
(myself, incidentally, included). They are, however,
firmly believedby many people and you may find
your traineesunwilling to forgo them! The aim
should be at least to introduce some doubt, and
make them more cautious about making overgeneralized,assumptionsthat may be usedas a
basisfor policy decisions.
The next three statementsare lesscontroversial.
356
(45 minutes to an hour)
This may be run as a short input session,followed
by some examining of relevant material and ideas.
I would suggestif possibleproviding a display of
materials: posters, magazinepictures, books and
booklets, ideasfor games.Such a display may be
set up by the participants themselves,or drawn
from materialsavailableat your institution.
The final Application activity can lead to a
pooling of ideasfor children's language-learning
gameswhich can be written out and collated into a
booklet of practical suggestionsmade available to
all participants.
F Unit Three: Teaching
adolescents: student
prefelences
(About 20 minutes' classpreparation of the
suruey and about 40 minutes' discussionafter)
It is worth going through the questionnaire in class
and inviting participants to expresstheir own
opinions: this processfamiliarizes them with the
items and clarifies any obscurities, as well as
raising speculationsand expectations that will be
re-examined in the light of student responseslater.
Each participant then goesoff to interview one
or two adolescentacquaintancesand in the next
sessionthe resultsare pooled and discussed.
My own traineesfind this project interesting and
learning-rich: there are inevitably discrepancies
between their own preconceptionsand what most
respondentstell them, which result in thoughtful
and fruitful discussionand re-evaluation of
theories.
F Unit Four: Teaching adults: a
different relationship
(About 45 minutes)
This unit definesand invites participants to think
about different kinds of relationships between
teachersand adult classes.The Commenls simply
Module 21
explore the implications of eachrelationship and
their relevancero the teaching of adults, with little
implied judgement or preferences.A frank group
discussionmay, however, lead to interesting and
valuable exchangesof ideason participants' own
beliefsand priorities.
Module
21:Largeheterogeneous
classes
) Unit One: Defining terms
(About half an hour)
The aim ofthe categorization task is to get
participants to think carefully about the meanings
and implications of the different problems, and
their overall importance in effectiveteaching.The
discussioncan be'sharpened'stillfurther, if you
demand an actual order of priority of the items,
one by one, insteadofthree rough groupings.
The final (matching) task has a similar objective.
It is rather easyto say: 'Oh yes,that' (the useof
collaborative work, for example) 'is a nice idea',
without actually defining specificallywhat its
contribution is and what problems it is likely to
help to solve.This task forcesparticipants to think
about links betweenproblems and solutions,
thereby making it more likely that the samelinks
may occur to them and be exploited in classroom
teaching.
A critical examination of what in fact the terms
'large' and'heterogeneous'mean is a necessary
preliminary to any study of practical problems.
The secondterm is discussedmore in depth.
Participants are askedto think about three
connectedpropositions:first, that any classis to
some degreeheterogeneouslsecond,that the term
'mixed-ability'is unsatisfactory as a synonym for
heterogeneousclasses,and why; and third, that
heterogeneityinvolves a lot more than mere
differencesin proficiency.
For the third topic an effectiveprocedure is to
haveparticipants brainstorm ideas,which are
pooled on the board and may be added to by you
or by referenceto Box 2l.7.Havingdone this, it
may be appropriateto point out to participants
that the brainstorming technique they have just
performed is itself an excellent 'heterogeneous'
activity, inviting contributions that may be of
different levels,expressdifferent ideasand interests
and which result from differencesin experience
and personality.
The principle of 'compulsory + optional' is a very
helpful and effectiveone: I am always surprised
how little it is exploited in learning materials. It
might be worth looking at local coursesto seeif
and where it is usedin them.
The experiment at the end of the unit can be very
easily done on the spot, with you role-playing the
teacherand group participants the learners,in
three proficiency groups as suggestedin the
Preliminary Note. The results are usually fairly
clear; but it is useful, if there is time, to have
teacherstry out the samething again in 'real'
classesand report back.
) Unit Two: Problems and
advantages
) Unit Four: Teaching
strategies (2): open-ending
(About half an hour)
Someof the problems vary, of course,from place
to place: those teaching highly motivated adult
groups may find that they have no problem of
discipline or boredom; for teachersof
schoolchildrenthesemay be major issues.
However, the items to do with materials, effective
learning for all and participation are likely to be of
high priority for all teachers.
) Unit Three: Teaching
strategies (1): compulsory +
optional
(lf the experiment is done in classas peerteaching, then the sessionuill take about 45
minutes)
(45 minutes to an hour)
Again this is an extremely useful type of stimulus
for interaction in the classroom,and again sadly
under-used,both by textbook writers and by
teachers.Both teachersand many learnersoften
say they prefer closed-endedquestions,saying they
are easier(not true: difficulty dependson whether
the learnersunderstand the question and whether
they have the knowledge neededto answer it, not
357
Trainer's notes
on the number of possibleanswers).This
preferencemay perhaps be basedon the feeling of
false security that closed-endedquestionsgive both
sides:the comforting assumption that there rs only
one possible right solution, there is one straight
road to tread. But this is no more true of language
than it is of life in general:an illusion that we, as
educators,should surely not encourage.
Box2L.6I presentas a worksheetor display
using an overheadprojector; I then invite
participants to suggestways of open-endingthe
exercisesand add my own ideas if necessary.
It is probably worth spendingmost time and
effort in this sessionon the work on local
textbooks suggestedin the task at the end of the
unit: either invite participants to choosetheir own
material, or chooseand make copiesof
appropriate varied samplesyourself. Discussion
should not be limited to suggestingopen-ended
variations of the material as illustrated in this unit,
but should include any creative ideasparticipants
can suggestthat will make it appropriate for large
heterogeneousclasses.They should, however, be
asked in every caseto definewhy their suggestion
will have such an effect: the fact that it is a pleasing
or original idea is not enough.
D Unit Five:besigning your
own activities
(About an hour)
This can be very enjoyable if run as a practical
workshop session,trying out as many of the
activities as possible and gradually filling in a
'mind map'on the board as appropriate.There is
not, of course,usually time for all of the activities:
some will simply be explained.
Instead of doing the Application task at the end
of the unit you can use it immediately after each
activity.
You might like to continue this sessioninto
further creative work by inviting participants to
take the'mind map'and draw in more linesand
ideas:ideas for additional 'families' of activities
suitable forlarge heterogeneousclasses;or other
activities basedon the 'families'given; or further
variations on the activities alreadv described.
Module
22:,Andbeyond
Noae:All the units in this module are optional:
choosethose which are appropriate for your
trainees.No time estimatesare given, sincethe
tasks here are basedon personal reflection and
action rather than structured group activity, and
will therefore vary a greatdeal according to
individual situation and need.
Theseunits may be usedin the final stagesof a
pre-serviceprogramme, if traineesare regularly
teaching, or for in-servicecoursesor teacher
development.They are lessappropriate for those
who are not engagedin at least part-time
professional practice.
The underlying messageis of encouragementto
new teachersto look beyond their daily routine:
that professional activity is not just lesson-giving,
but also constant personal and professional
progress:learning, changing and producing.
F Unit One: Teacher
development: practice,
reflection, sharing
If you are using this unit at the end of a pre-service
course,then this is an appropriate time to discuss
the problems of new teachersin their first year or
two of professional practice. It is important to get
acrossthe messagethat'first-year stress'isan
entirely normal phenomenon (my anecdotein the
Notes may help), and to suggestsome ways of
dealing with it.
The reservationsthat participants usually
expressabout the suggestionsmade in this and the
next unit is that they are time-consuming and need
a lot of initiative: both commodities being hard to
come by when you are engagedin a full teaching
schedule!Again, this is something that needs
discussing:both time and initiative can be found if
teachersfeel the objectivesare important enough.
Meanwhile, they can be askedto try out some of
the ideasas part of the presentcourse.
F Unit Two: Teacher appraisal
If your traineesare at the end of a pre-service
course,they are probably used to having their
(by you). Here,
classroomperformanceassessed
358
Module 22
the objective is to get them to start taking
responsibility for their own self-assessment.
My own experienceis that of the three sources
of appraisal suggestedhere by far the most useful
and productive is the studentsthemselves.
However, in some situations cultural and social
norms may make it difficult if not impossibleto ask
studentsto criticize their teachers;if this is true of
your trainees'teaching context you may wish to
omit this section.
F Unit Three: Advancing
further (11:intake
This is an informative and awareness-raisingunit,
mainly aimed at getting participants to think about
the various possibilities for learning available to
them, and the advantagesand disadvantagesof
eachmode.
F Unlt Four Advancing further
(2): output
A useful bit of experiencehere can be supplied by
organizing your own in-house conference,where
participants can sharetheir ideaswith eachother
in semi-formal sessions,and get a first taste of what
it feelslike to talk to a professional audience.
Similarly, a journal can be published, either within
your institution or together with nearby'sister'
institutions: in this way novicescan gain some
experienceof writing, editing and publishing
professionalmaterial.
As regardsthe research:if the participants have
beenfollowing the courselaid out in this book,
they will have already had some experienceof
carrying out and documenting inquiry basedon
observation, interview and questionnaires.They
have probably not, however, tried to initiate their
own: hencethe importance of the Application task
at the end of the unit.
This is something I do regularly with my own
trainees:it is the major assignmentof their course.
Each choosesa topic that they are particularly
interestedin or worried about and formulates a
question or hypothesisthey wish to examine. I
provide individual guidancein planning the
researchmethod, suggestappropriate background
reading, and make extensivecomments on the fust
draft of the resulting paper before it is finalized.
The papersare then presentedin an'in-house'
conJerenceas suggestedabove. All this is extremely
time-consuming, but resultsin excellentlearning
and somevery interesting research.
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Pagenumbers in italic indicate
boxed material.
abstractconceptualization, 6, 6,
accents,listeningto, 50--2,51,
55 ,337
accuracy,103-4
criteriain oral tests,135
achievementneedsof learners,
275
achievementtests,44
'accusations'presentation,14, 15
action research,328-9, 329
activation techniques,237 -8,
238
'activator-activated'relationship,
2 9 5 ,296
activeexperimentation,6, 617
activefearning, 219, 219, 221
'active-passive'lessonvariations,
217
adapting activities(listening),
1 1 5 - 18, 115- 17, 34 3
adjectives,80
administration
of coursebookactivities.189
o f te sts , 424, 43, 337
adolescents,
2904, 29 1, 301,
3s6
teachingpreferences,2904,
291
adults,294-6, 295, 30t, 3 5 6-7
ability to learn,287-8
advancedreading,'J.
50-6, 15 14,
345
adverbials.79
adverbs.80
ageof learners,'17
3, 286-301,
355-7
adolescents,
2904,291
adults,294-6,295
children,288-90
learning differ ences,27 3,
286-8,286
learningpronunciation, 55
ageism,200
Alice in Wonderland reading
text, L52,'J,55
allophones,52
alphabets,56-7
order.'142
phonetic,48
ambiguity toleranceof learners,
275
analysisstage,literature
teaching,204-5,205
anger,and discipline,266
antonyms,52
appearance,teachers',29 1, 292
applied sciencemodel of teacher
l e a rn i n gSrT
,
rS -9
appraisal,teacher,3224, 322-3,
3 2 4 ,3 5 9 -g
appropnatenessof vocabulary,
6 1 ,,7 3
arbitration strategies,266, 257
articles, journal,327
aspirations of learners,27 5
244-5 8, 3 52-3
assessment,
correctroncompared,242-3,
352
coursebook,184-7, 1 85,
1,934
criteria 245-6
different approaches,243
information as a basisfor.
24s
students'opinions,29 1, 293
seealso tests
'assessor-assessed'
relationship,
2 9 5 ,2 9 5
assistancewith practrce actrvltles,
23
association dominoes,297
artention
in effectivepresentations,12,
1.7
evaluatinglessoneffectiveness,
criterion for, 21.9,221.
fluctuations. 282-3
attitudes
about feedback, 25 3, 25 4,
2s6-7
expressedin teaching
materials,1.99-200
audio equipment,1.90)1.91,195
'audio-lingualism'
assessment,
243
correction of mistakes.244
authenticity of reading
texts/tasks,150
'authoritarian' v.'authoritative'
discipline,259,270
authoritative demands.as factor
in motivation, 279
authority as characteristicof
goodteacher,291,292
'authority-subjectsto authority'
relationship,294-5, 295
automatization, L9,20
autonomy in skill learning,
19-20,20
auxiliary verbs, 80
'availability' of questions,230
grammarpractice,
'awareness'
84
backgroundinformation,
reading,L48,'1,49
backwash,44, 135
'Bay lfindow Restaurant'151,
1.54-5
'Beat the Burglar' text, 153, 155
book reports and reviews,1.64-5,
1.65
booksas supplementary
materials, 190, 190-1,,194
boredom in practiceactivities,23
357
lndex
'bottom-up' suategies,1.41,344
brainstorming, 68-9, 31.2
brevity
of explanations,17
of informal spoken discourse,
1,06
'burn-out', 318
caring, importance of, 291, 292
5
cassetterecorders,190, 191.,'1.9
charismatic authority, 260, 261,
checkingtest answers,37
children, 288-90, 297, 299-300,
3s6
ability to learn languages,
286-7
learning pronunciation, 55
motivation,288
choral responsesr228
'chunks' of language,see
functions; notions;
situations;topics
clarity
of instructions, 12, 26 5
of goals,281
of questions,230
of test items, 42
classroomdisciplinesee
discipline,classroom
classroominteraction see
interaction
classroomresearch,327-9, 328,
331.
79,87-8
clauses,
'climbing a mountain' metaphor,
21 3 ,22 3
closed-endedcues,228, 239,
310
309-'t').,309,
cloze activities,113
in tests,38,40,44-5
'cognitive code-learning' view of
mistake corr ection, 2 4 4
co-hyponyms,62
collaboration, 228, 237 , 23940
291,293
adolescents,
large heterogeneousclasses,
306, 31. 2- L3 ,3 1 4
'collaborative composition'
technique,314
colleagues
feedback from, 322, 322-3
sharingproblems and
successes,
320-1, 358
368
collocation, 6L
combining skills, 151
'common characteristics' activity,
1 2 6 ,7 2 8
communication, as lesson
evaluation criterion, 21.9,
2 2 0 ,2 2 1.
communicative approach to
mistake corcection,244
community language learning,
298
'comparison' reading activities,
145
competition as factor in
motivation,2T9
complements of sentences,79,
88
'completion' test items, 38, 39
composition, 767-9, 1 67, L6 8,
1 7 3 ,3 4 6
comprehensionquestion
activities,'!"43-5,
L43, 1,44,
145,203,238
'compromise' discipline strategy,
266
'compulsory plus optional'
strategy,306, 307-9, 3 57
computers,190, 190, 795
concentrationspans,288
concepts defined, 3-5
concreteexperience,6, 6, 7, 64
conferences,326,327
connotation,61,173
content
balancewith form, L63
of book 1-2
of languagecourses,175
reading texts, 1,47,1.4 I
topic seetopics: content
'continue the story' activity,746
245
continuous assessment,
control and discipline,259, 260,
2 6 7 ,2 7 0
studentpreferences,29 1, 292
controlled drills, 84
'conventional construct' aspect of
lessons,214
'conversation' metaphor, 21-3,
224
cooperationand discipline,260,
261,
co-ordinates,52
corporal punishment,291, 294
correctionof mistakes,'J.70-2,
246-52,255-6
242-3,
compared,
assessment
243,244,255,352-3
246-7
duringfluentspeech,
in grammar,85-7, 340-1'
in oral work,246-9,249
in pronunciation,524, 53, 58
in written work, 1,67,1.69,
1.70-'1,250-2, 25L-2, 253
relationship,
'counsellor-clients'
295.296
1.83-9,7934,
coursebook,
347-8
1 86,1,934
assessment,'1.84-7,
1.87,L88
coverage,
1.834,184,
for andagainst,
185
listeningactivities,114,
115-18,115-1.7
necessity,
1.83,784,185, 193
g, 1.89-91.,790
supplementin
using,187-9,188
courses,teacherdevelopment,
325,326
187,
coveraBe
of coursebooks,
188
craftmodelof teacherlearning,
5,7
crisisavoidancer266
assessment.
criterion-referenced
245-6
'critical period' for language
learning,287
'cue'itemsr2T
cues;
seealsoclosed-ended
open-ended
cues
culturalcontent,197, 198,
't99-200,208
g, staffmeetings,
decision-makin
321,
decoding,'1.38,1.40
'definition guessing'activities,
113
delivery,grammarpresentations,
82,83
denotation,6L,73
density,of written text, L60
'describing'activities
pictures,96-97, 97, 125,1'28,
312
writing, 155,1,65-6
lndex
detachment,of written text, 151
determiners,80
development, teacher,317,
318-32, 358-9
advancingfurther, 324-9, 328
appraisal,3224, 322-3, 324
practice,reflection, sharing,
318-2r.329-30
diagnostictests,44
dialogues,94,137-2
presentationexample,14, 15
dictation
in spelling/pronunciation
practice,58
i n te s t s ,38, 40, 70, 72
dictation-translationtests,70, 72
difficulty of Iesson,variations in,
217
discipline,classroom,212,
2 5 9- 72, 3534
s, 260-2, 2 60,
characteristic
271
dealingwith problems,264-6,
267
definition,259, 259,270
267-70,259
episodes,
classes,
largeheterogeneous
3 0 4, 304, 305- 6
practical hints, 253
teacheraction, 2624, 263
'discoursecomposition' practice
activity, S4
'discrete-point'tests,44
discrimination (betweenwords),
58
discrimination (preludice),
199-200
discussionactivities,124-8,
1 2 5- 7, 343
distractors,multiple-choice
items,45
'do-ability' of test items,42
'do-it-yourselfquestions'activity,
L46
'doctor consultation' metaphor,
2 1 3, 224
'doing your own thing'
31.3
techniques,
dominoes,297
doodles.297
d ri l l s,84
'eatingmeal' metaphor, 2L3, 224
education,3
educationalcontent, 198
effectivelearning for all, in large
heterogeneous
classes,304,
304.305
ego-involvementof learners,275
elicitation techniques,tests,
3 7 4 7 ,3 8 -9
emotions,talk basedon, 129,
130.1,31,
correctingoral work, 246-9,
249
different approaches,242-3,
243,244
group work,234
personalattitudes,2534, 2 54,
2s6-7
self,3234
students',323, 324
on writing activities,t7O-2,
346
written, 250-2, 25 L-2, 253,
255-6
feelings,talk basedon,129, L30,
13l
'film music' activity, 165, 1'66
films, 113
'finding twins' activity, 313
fi rst-yearteachingdiffi culties,
encounterstage,literature
teaching,202-3,203
'end', writing as an, 162
ending groupwork,234
enjoyment,21.9,221, 29 1, 293
'enrichedreflection'model of
teacherlearning,6-9, 7
entertainment,7 13, 28 L
errors in pronunciation, 5 1-4,
318,329-30
58
'fi ve-minutewriting storms',
seealso correction of mistakes
313
theories,4
espoused
flow of speech,49
essaytests,39, 41
evaluationof lessoneffectiveness. fluency,103, 135,343
correctingoral work, 246-7
219-21,222,225
criteria in oral tests,135
seealso assessment
successfulpractice,'l'20-2,
examinations,157
1.21,123
examples,useof, 17, 82
'fluid pairs' techniques,313-1'4
expectations,listeners'107, 108
'football game' metaphor,213,
experientiallearning theory, 6-7,
224
6
foreign accent/pronunciation,
experientialwork, 1
50-1
explanations,16-t8, 3334
foreign languageteaching,
grammar,81,-3,82
definition,4-5
explicitness,of written/spoken
form/content balance,writing
texts compared,150
activities,153
extendedresponseactivities,
formal testing,37
114
formative ev aluation, 244
extension, in effective
questioning,230
'free choice' aspectof lessons,
214
extrinsic motiv ation, 27 6,
free discourse activity, 14
2 7 7 -8 0 ,3 5 5
'free sentencecomposition'
activity, S4
failure, as factor in motivation,
29 1,293
friendliness
of teachers,
278
full-class inter action, 22 8
fairness,291,2293
fun in classroom,29 1.,293
familiarisationwith text, 23 8
functional-notionalsyllabuses,
in literature teaching,2034,
1,78
204
functions,46, 92-3, 93, 100,
feedback,'I..8,
212, 242-5 8,
341-2
352-1,
combining languagesegments,
244-6,255
assessment,
98-100.99
colleagues',322, 322-3
369
lndex
task to text,96-7,97
text to taskr 93-5, 94
game-likeactivities,281
games,190, \91, t9 5, 281
for children, 289-90, 297,
300-1
gap (slot)-filling activities
large heterogeneousclasses,
31 0 ,3r L
reading,746
test items,3 8, 39, 70-1, 72,
1.1.4
generalknowledge content, 198
'giving in' discipline strategy,
266
global motivation, 276, 280
goal orientation of learners,27 5
'goal-orientedeffort' aspectof
lessons,214
goals,see obiectives
'good marriages'text, 154,156
'good teacher'characteristics,
277, 284
gradesof assessment,
246
grammar, 46,7 5-89, 33940
definition, 7 54,87
of informal spokendiscourse,
106
learner activ ation, 2 3 8
mistakes,85-7
place in foreign language
teaching,7 6-8, 77
practiceactivities, 83-5, 84
practicescenario,25, 26-7
presenting and explaining,
8't-3,82
terms, 78-80
of vocabulary,60-l
grammatical syllabuses,178
grammaticaVlexical syllabuses,
778
group work, 228, 232-3, 234,
239,35't
speakingactivities,12L
studentpreferences,29 1, 293
guessingactivities,113
'hangman' game,24, 25, 3'1.
'hard work', as student
preference,
291,293
He Treats them to lce-cream text.
207,209
370
heterogeneity
of practice activities, 22-3
of test items, 42
heterogeneousclasses,273,
302-76,357-8
'compulsory and optional'
strategies,307-9
defining terms, 302-3, 303
activitiesfor, 31 1-15, 315
open-endedcues,309-L 1, 309,
310
problems and advantages,
3 0 3 -7,304,305,305
'hidden curriculum', 799:200
'holistic' view of learningr93
'how many things ...' activity,
31,2
'Human Rights' text, 754, 75 5-6
humanisticmethodologies,giving
feedback,243
humiliation potential of
feedback,254,256
hyponyms,52
'ideal school', activity, 1,66
impact stage,literature teaching,
plusoptional,
306,
compulsory
307-9
'instrumental'motivation,276
'integrative'motlvation,275
'integrative'tests,44
2L2,
interaction,classroom,
22742,351.-2
groupwork, 232-3,234
individualization, 233-5, 236,
239
patterns,
227,228,238
questioning,
228-32,229,230,
231
spoken,kindsof, 1,29-31,130
237,238,
techniqueselection,
23940
'interaction'aspectof lessons,
2r4
interactional talk, 729, 13 0, 1.3'1.
rnterest
fluctuations in,282-3
intrinsic motiv ation, 27 6,
280-1,281
large heterogeneousclasses,
304,304,306,306
practice activities, 234
questions,230
202-3,203
speakingactivities,1.20,121,
importance, written/spoken texts
1,22
compared, 161
incomprehensiblevocabulary,
test items, 42
1 4 8 , 149
interesting lessons,student
'individual awareness'problems,
preferences,
291,2934
'interlanguage' view of mistake
3 0 4 ,304,306-7
individual-referenced assessment.
coffectlon,244
246
interpersonalrelationships,and
individualiza tion, 228 , 233-5 ,
discipIine,262
interpretation activities, 1 L4
236,239,240
interpretation stage,literature
large heterogeneousclasses,
teaching,204-5,205
306,3s',t-2
291, 293
intonation, 47, 48-9, 56
studentpreferences,
informalspokendiscourse,
105,
intrinsic motivation, 27 6, 280-7,
281,355-6
108
informal testing,37
intuitive imitation, 55
IRF (Initiation-Responseinformationgap,281
inhibitions,talking activities,1.21
Feedback),227,237
in-housestaffmeetings,
321
'items' of vocabulary, 60
Initiation-Response-Feedback
|rRF\,227,237
input, 1
in-service
courses,
325
instructionsheets,
L 55,1,65
instructions,1,6-'1,8,3 334
clarityof,1.2,265
'job application'activity, 1 65, 1.66
journal artic\es,327
journal writing, 319
'keepingin touch', and discipline,
265
lndex
'keepingup', 7LL, 1.1.2
'known words' activity, 69
Ko l b , D .A . , 5- 7, 6
language
componentsr45
grammaf presentations,82, 82
individual choice,235
as topic of study, 198
written mistakes,170-1
written/spoken texts
compared,151
languagelevel
readingactivities,L47, L48
speaking activities, 120, 1'21'-2
largeclasses,302
classes
seealso heterogeneous
learnerdifferences,27 3, 27 4-31.6
learningand discipline,260, 260
learningand teaching,4
learning by heart, 93-5, 94
learningvalue of questions,230
learnt skill, written/spoken texts
compared,L61
lessons,272,213-26
aspects,21,3-214,213, 2234
discipline,260, 261, 252, 265
evaluating effectiveness,
2 1 9 - 2' 1. , 219, 222, 2 2 5
management,222-3, 223
planning, 21.3-26, 349-51
preparation,21.5-L6,21 5,
224-5
varying components, 216-78,
217
'letter answering' activity, L65,
166
lefters as assessmentgradesr246
level of tasks, and individual
choice,235
lexical syllabuses,178
listening,103, 105-19, 342-3
adapting activities,1 15-18,
115-17
classroom, 107-1,0
111
learnerproblems, 1.1.'/."-L2,
practicescenario,24-6, 25
real-lifesituations,l0 5-7,,1.05
ta sks,108, 110
texts,108, 109-110
typesof activity, ll2-1'74
lists,syllabusesas,176
literature, 175, 198, 2OO-7,349
advantages/disadvantages,
200-2,20L
specifictexts,206-7, 206, 207,
208-9
teachingideas,202-5, 203,
204,205
'long gap-filling'activity,114
long turns,speakingactivities,
129,L30,'1,3'1.
listening'longerresponse'
activities,ll3
looking,andlistening,107,1.08
of lessons,
222-3,
management
223,262
'marketplace'activity,3L4
markingof tests,42
291, 293
students'preferences,
text,L54, 156
'marriages'
matchingactivities,3 1.0, 3lt
in testitems,38,40,70,71-2
materials,175, 177,183-96,
347-8
of coursebooks,
assessment
184-7,186,L934
largeheterogeneous
classes,
304,304,306
183,
necessity
of coursebooks,
184,185,193
189-91,,L90
supplementary,
worksheetsand
teacher-made
workcards,1J2-3,1.93
187-9,
usingcoursebooks,
L88
wrltlng oI, 32 /
meaning relationships, 62
'meaningfuI drills' practice
activity, S4
meanings
grammarrT6
reading,1.38,13941
vocabulary,61.-2
means,writing as ar 1.62
memorizing,64-7, 65, 66
'menu' metaphor, 2L3, 224
metaphors
activity example,3L3
lesson,213-1.4, 2 13, 2234
method shaing,327
methodology,262
'teaching' compared, 4-5
'mistake detection' activities.
7 ' t3 ,1 4 6
mistakes,seealso correction of
mistakes
in grammar, 85-7
in pronunciation, 5L-4, 58
mixed ability classes,273,
302-3
classes
seea.lsoheterogeneous
mixed syllabuses,178
modal verbs,80
mode, lessonvariations in,217
models of teacherlearning,5-9,
617
monitor theory of mistake
cofiection,244
monologuetest items,39, 41
mood, lessonvariations in,217
moral content, 198
morphemes,79,88
mother-tongue use, speaking
activities,121,1,22
motivation, 27 3, 27 4-B5, 355-5
adults',295,295-6
background thinking, 27M,
274
characteristicsof motivated
learnerl,27 5
children's, 288-90, 297
compared to aptitude, 27 4,
274-5
in a disciplinedclassroom250,
261,262
extrinsic,276,277-80
fluctuations in interest, 282-3
global,276
integrative vs. instrumental,
276
intrinsic, 27 6, 280, 28 1
as lessonevaluation criterion.
279,219,221
in reading, 148,'1.49
in speaking,120,12L
teacher'sresponsibility,27 6-7
in testing, 37
'motivator-motivated'
relationship, 295, 29 54
mouth position, and
pronunciation, 53,53
multiple-choice tests, 3 8, 39, 44,
45
vocabulary,70,71
multi-strand syllabuses,178
'names' garnes,297
371
lndex
names of students, teachers'
knowledge of,291.,293
narrative writing, 1 65, 1'65
necessityof coursebooks,183,
784, 185, 1. 9 3
need for achievement,275
'news reports' activity, 1.65,'166
'no overt response'listening
activities,11,3
'noise',106
non-native teacheras model, 56
non-repetition, in informal
spoken discourse,105, 108
nt, 246
norm-referenced assessme
note-taking,114
notional syllabuses,178
notions, 46, 92-3, 93, 1'00,
paraphrasing,L14
participation
large heterogeneousclasses,
304,304,307
speakingactivities,120, L21,
1,22
'passingit round'techniques, 314
'passivepossibilities'activity,
31.4
peer correction, 771.-2,25 4,
257
'people description' activity, 1 65 ,
1.66
perception, effective
presentations,12
permanence of written text,
1.59-60
perseveranceof.learners,27 5
341,-2
combining language segments, personalreflection,319-20, 358
personalstories,1 55, t65
98-700,99
personalizationof tasks,281,
task to text,96-7 , 97
306
text to task,93-5, 94
phonemic alphabet,4S
n o uns , 80
phonic rcading,1.42
numbers activities, 28-30, 29
phonology, 47-8,48
phrases,79,88
'obeying instructions' activity,
as assessmentgr ades,246
tt3
pictures, 1-90,1.91.,1"95, 289, 300
t7 6, 238, 28L
objectiveness,
brainstorm activiry, 3 1.2
anddiscipline,2 60, 26'1.-2
description activities, 97-8,
andinterest,281
1 .2 5 ,' t28,372
79, 88
objectsof sentences,
differences,12 5,'1.28
observation,6, 7, 322-3, 322,
play-acting,281
323
seealso role play
'odd oneout'test itemsrT0rTl
see ageof learners p l a y s ,1 3 2
olderlearners,
cues,228, 239, 240, political content, 198, 1.99
open-ended
portfolio assessment,245
281
classes, positive feedback, 25 4, 247
for largeheterogeneous
positive task orientation of
306,309-t1,309,31.0,
learners,275
357-8
posters,790,L9t,19S
'optional'tasks,305, 307-9
postponement strategres,26 6
options,multi-choiceitems,45
power hierarchies,254, 256
oral skills,seespeaking
'power' v.'authority', 259, 270
organisation,of written text,
practice activities, 70, 79-32,
1,61,
'organisation'lessonvariations,
2L7
overheadprojectors,190, 1,91,,
795
own activities,designing,
372-L5,315,358
own experience,astopic content,
L98
372
334-5
characteristics,2l,4
designingown, 31.2-15,3 LS
function,1.9-20,2L
grammar,83-5,84
for heterogeneous
classes,
307
andprogression,
sequence
27-32.29
and test techniques, 24-7,
25-6,336
practice
definition,contrastwith
theory,34
praise,254,257
'prediction'activities,58, 148,
1,49
'preface'readingactivity,146
prefxes,62,73
prejudices,199-200
preJearning,
andpractice
activities,22
pfeparation
givingexplanations,t 6-1'7
Iessonplanning,21.5-l 6, 2 15,
224-5
prepositions,80
'pre-question'readingactivities,
1.46
presentations,
L0, 11-18, 3334
effective,ll-13
examples,73-1.5,L4
and instructions,
explanations
15-18
grammar,81-3,82
groupwork,234
321
in in-housestaffmeetings,
of topicsand situations,90-1,
91
of vocabulary,634
pressurefr om teachers,279
problemsharing,320
problem-solving
activities,LL4,
127,1,28
778-9
proceduralsyllabuses,
'processdescription'activity,
165,166
processof groupwork,234
179
processsyllabuses,
professionaldevelopment,
see
development
grades,
profiles,asassessment
246
progressionof practiceactivities,
27-30,29
pronouns,80
pronunciatio
n, 46, 47- 59, 337-8
agein learning,55, 56,286
47-9,48
concepts,
issues,
54-6, 55
controversial
errors,514, 58
improving,524,53,54
lndex
in informal spokendiscourse,
106
intuitive learningof, 55, 56
listeningto accents,50-1, 51
mo d e l .J J . ) J - 6
and spelling,56-8, 58
of vocabulary,60
purpose
of listener,707,108
of reader,148,149
questioningby teacher,22 8,
229-32, 229, 23 0, 23L, 239,
2 4 0 .357
310,
open-and closed-ended,
3 1 0 - 11
questlons
l i ste n i n g, 114
readingcomprehension,
1 .4 3- 5, 143, 144,L45
test,38, 39
quiet,and discipline,260,261,
265
rationale for course.3-9
reading,103, 138-58, 34,1-5
advancedactivities,150-5,
1514
about, 138
assumptions
beginning,741.-2,L42, 156-8,
156-7
in classroom inter action. 23 6
comprehensionactivities,
1.43-6,143, 144, 145, 146
improving,1,47-50,148,
149
n a tu reof , 138- 41, 138 ,L 3 9 ,
140
for teacherdevelopment,
324-5
readingaloud activities,58,237,
239
'readingwords' presentation,14,
1 1 3 - 15
real-lifelistening,105-7, 105,
342
in the classroom,L07-10
'recall and share'techniques,
31,2-1,3
redundancy,L05
reflection,319-20,358
reflectivemodel of teacher
Ie a rning, 5, 6- 9, 6, 7
reflectiveobservation,6, 6, 7
relationships,talk basedon,129,
1 3 0 ,1 3 1
reliabiliry of test items,44
remembering vocabulary, 64-7,
6 5 .6 6
repetrtron
of explanations,17
in informal spokendiscourse,
1 0 5 ,1 0 8
needfor, listeningproblems,
1 1 1 .1 1 ,2
're-presentationof content'
reading activity,146
research,classroom,327-9, 3 28,
3 3 1 .3 5 9
'resource-users'
relationship,
2 9 5 ,2 9 6
re s p e c t,2 9 1 ,2 9 3
'responding'readingactivities,
146
'responseto listening'
interaction,236
responsesto listening,1,1,3-14
o n g o i n g ,1 0 7 ,1 08,110
rewrrtlng
corrections,L7l.
testitems,38,40
rhythm, 47,48,56
'role-basedculture' aspectof
lessons,214
role play, 96-7, 130,'l'31-3, 28L,
344
rules, gramm atical, 82, 83
'shopping list' activity, 126-7,
1,28
'shopping' metaphor,213, 224
'short response'listening
activities,71,3-14
short-term memory, in effective
presentations,1.2
short turn, 130
simulations,1,32,28L
'situational' motivation. 27 6
situational syllabuses,178
situations,46, 90-L, 9 1, 93-100,
341,-2
combining languagesegments,
98-100,99
speakingactivities,1.29,1.30,
1.3r
task to text,96-7,97
text to task,93-5,94
skill, theory, 1.9-20,20, 30
243
assessment,
'skill' lessonvariationsin.217
skimming,113
slot-filling exercises,see gapfilling exercises
socialproblems,198
socialorientation of
coursebooks,200
'soliloquy' presentation,14, 15
songs,1L3
sounds,47-8,48
listeningproblems with, 111,
1,11
speaking,103, 1,20-37,3434
correctingmistakesin, 246-9,
249
'satisfying'aspectof lessons,214
discussionactivities,124-8,
scanning,1,13,147, 148
125-7
scores,and testing,37
fluency,1.20-2,120, 121, 23 I
228, 233
self-access,
functions of topic and task,
self-appraisal,3234
1,224, L23
nt,245
self-assessme
other kinds of interaction,
self-discipline,254
' t29-31,,L30
'seller-buyers'relationship,295,
problems, 127-2, 12L
296
role play, 131-3
'sentencecompletion' test items,
successfulactivities,120-2,
7 L ,7 2
122
sentence,parts of, 79, 87-B
testing,133-5, 134, 344
'sentences'test items, 70, 71
written texts compared,
sequenceof practiceactivities,
1.59-61,160,172,345
2 7 -3 0 ,2 9 ,3 3 4-5
speech,parts of, 80
sexism,1,99-200
sharingproblemsand successes, speed
individualchoice.235
3 2 0 -1 , 3 5 8
373
lndex
reading activities,147, 148
speech,'1.'1.1.,
I1..2
written/spoken texts
compared, 161
spelling
and pronunciation, 56-8, 58,
33 8
practicescenarios,24, 25, 30,
syllabuses,
175, t76-82,346-7
charucteristics, L77
definition,'1.76-7, 177
for heterogeneousclasses,307
types,L77-9
using, 179-8 1, L 80
'symphony' metaphor, 21 3, 224
synonyms,62
31,31,3
of vocabulary,60r 372
staff meetings,32L
standard language, of written
text,161
stems in multiple-choice items,
45
'stir-settle'lessonvariations.217
stories, 113, 289, 300
personal,165,165
strategiesfor word-lea rning, 67
stress(anxiety), and tests, 35
relieving,424,43
stress(pronunciation),47,48, 56
structure-basedpractice
activities, 84
sructures
grammatical, T5
presentationof,82,82
student activation techniques,
237-8,238
student opinions, 29M, 291
feedbackfrom,323,324
student-teacher relationships,
2944,294
subject matter, seetopics
'subjective'test items, 44
subjectsof sentences,79, 88
success,as factor in motivation,
278
success-orientation
of practice
activitres,22
successsharing with colleagues,
320
suffixes, 52
suggestions,in-house staff
meetings,321
summarisingactivities,1.14,146
summative evaluation, 244-s
superordinates, 52
supplementary materials,
189-91., 790, Ig2-3, 193,
194-5
survival, professional, 3 18,
329-30
374
taking things person ally, 26 5-6
talk, teacher,228,240
outsidethe classroom,291,
294
talking time, learner, L2 0
target language use in speaking
activities,121,122
tasks in languageJearning
activities,96-7, 97, 98, 341
authenticity, 1.50
coursebook,188-9
functions of, 1,224, 123, 343
'task' motivationr2T6
teacher
appearance,
291,292
appraisal,3224, 322-3, 324
practiceactivities,
assistance,
23
development,3l9:2L
a good,277,284,355
learningmodels,5-9, 6, 7
reactionsto learnerresponses,
230
trarning,321
teacher-made
worksheetsand
workcards,192-3,1.93
teacher-student
relationship,
291,293,294-6,295
teaching
definitions,4-5
process,
1-0
techniquesharing,327
Teeueeliteraturetext, 207,
208-9
tempo,lessonvariationsin,277
terminology,grammar,82, 82
tests,10,3345, 245,335-7
administration,
424, 43
basicconcepts,
35-7, 36
designing,47,42
elicitationtechniques,
3747,
38-9
grammarr85
for heterogeneous
classes,
308
motivation to do,279
reasonsf.or,334,34
speaking,133-5, 134, 344
vocabulary, 69-72, 70-1, 339
text in language-learning
activities, 93-5, 94, 341,
authenticity, 150
comprehensionquestionson,
143-5, L43,144,145
in coursebooks,187-8
seealso literature
textbook seecoursebook
textbook exercises,235
theatrevisits, 113
theory
definition, contrast with
practice, 3-4
threats,and discipline,265
'ticking off items' activity, 113
time schedules,tTT
tiredness,111, ltz
'title' reading activity, 146
tolerance of ambiguiq, 27 5
'top-down' strategies,141, 344
topic, 46, 9 0-1, 9 0, 9 3-700,
341,-2
combining language segments,
98-1.00,99
content, 1,75, L97-21,L, 3+8-9
different kinds, 197, 798,
207-8
literature,
200-7, 201,203,
204,205,207
underlying messages,
799-200
functions of, 1.224, 123, 343
individual choicein, 235
lessonvariations in, 2L7
syllabusesbasedon, L78
task to text, 96-7, 97
text to task, 93-5, 94
trainee
learning from course, 8-9
notes, x-xi
tralner
notes,xi-xii, 333-59
role of,7-8
training
definition, 3
teacher,321
'transaction' aspectof lessons,
214
lndex
transactional talk, 13 0
transformation test items,38, 40
translation, 52
Iistening activities, 1 14
test items, 38,40
vocabulary tests, 7 1.,72
'transmitter-receivers'
relationships, 29 5 ,29 5
true/false activities
Iistening,113
test items, 38,39
'twin finding' activity, 313-74
1.99-200,
underlyingmessages,
349
understanding
effective presentations, 12
listeningproblems, 1 1 1,
l1,l-12
literature teaching, 2034, 204
reading, 1.3I, 1394L, 1 50-1,
university study, 325
validity
of practice activities, 2\-2
of test items,42,44
values,underlying course
content,200
'variety show' metaphor, 213,
223
variation
of lessoncomponents,276-1'8;
217
of situation, etc. in speaking
activities,129, 730, 131,
of topicsand tasks,236,281
verbalisation in skill learning, 19,
20
verbs,79, 80, 88
vicarious experrence,7, 7
video, 113, 190, l9l, 195
'view description' activity, 155,
166
visibility of speakers,107, 108
visuals,28-1
vocabulary,46, 60-74, 338-9
definition,60-2
grammar of, 60-1
incomprehen sibIe, 14 8, 1.49
of informal spoken discourse,
1.06
practice scenario, 26, 27
presentingnew, 63-4, 63,64,
238
remembering, 64-7, 65, 66
suggestedac:civities,67-9
testing,69-72,70-1
volume
in practice activities, 22
written/spoken texts
compared,161
warmth ofteachers,291, 293
'wedding' metaphor, 213, 224
'what have peoplesaid' activity,
313
w o rd s ,7 9 r8 8
as assessmentgrades,246
f.ormation,62,73
remembering,64-7,339
workcards and worksheets,155,
15 5, 157, 792-3, 193, 23 6,
348
world knowledgecontent, 198
writing,'1,03,159-7 4, 3'1.3,
345-6
composition process,167-9,
167,168,1,73
for content/form, 153
correcting assignments,3 04,
304,306
evaluating activities, 1.64-6,
154,165
feedback, 170-2, 2 5 0-2,
25 1-2, 253, 255-6, 346, 3 53
learner activ ation, 2 3 8
as means/end,162-3, 163
for personalreflection,319
written text
spoken text compared,
t5g-5t,160, t72
stimulating, 1.64-6, L65
teaching materials, 327
teachingprocedures,'l'62-3,
163,173
younger learners,see ageof
learners
'zero-content'topics, 1.97,198,
208
375
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