Done by: Mikhos Victoria Group #401 SELF-STUDY Theme: “Comparative analysis of composite sentence in compared languages.” Plan: 1. What is a Sentence? 2. Composite sentences in English Language 3. Composite sentences in Russian Language (the explanation is given in Russian language) 4. Overview of the topic The Notional definition o f a Sentence: "It is sometimes said that a sentence expresses a complete thought. This is a notional definition: it defines a term by the notion or idea it conveys. The difficulty with this definition lies in fixing what is meant by a 'complete thought.' There are notices, for example, that seems to be complete in themselves but are not generally regarded as sentences: Exit, Danger, 50 mph speed limit."On the other hand, there are sentences that clearly consist of more than one thought. Here is one relatively simple example:This week marks the 300th anniversary of the publication of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, a fundamental work for the whole of modern science and a key influence on the philosophy of the European Enlightenment. Jespersen's Definition of a Sentence: "Traditional attempts to define the sentence were generally either psychological or logical-analytic in nature: the former type spoke of 'a complete thought' or some other inaccessible psychological phenomenon; the latter type, following Aristotle, expected to find every sentence made up of a logical subject and logical predicate, units that themselves rely on the sentence for their definition. independence of a sentence, by assessing its potential for standing alone, as a complete utterance." According to B.A.Ilyish: “The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose”. The definition proves that is quite right when he writes: “The notion of the sentence has not so far received a satisfactory definition”. Composite sentences in English Language Unlike a simple sentence that consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses, a composite sentence is built up by two or more predicative lines. It can be defined as a structural and semantic unity of two or more syntactic constructions each having a predicative center of its own, built on the basis of a syntactic connection and used in speech communication as a unit of the same rank as the simple sentence. The following characteristics should be kept in mind when discussing composite sentences: the type of syntactic connection (coordination or subordination); the rank of predicative constructions, that is, the place occupied by the predicative construction in the hierarchy of clauses; presence or absence of connectors and their character. Compound sentences Compound sentences are structures of co-ordination with two or more immediate constituents which are syntactically equivalent, i.e. none of them is below the other in rank. The formative words linking the parts of a compound sentence fall into the following types: 1) coordinative conjunctions, 2) conjunctive adverbs, 3) fixed prepositional phrases. Coordinative conjunctions are rather few in number: and, but, or, yet, for. Sentence-linking words, called conjunctive adverbs are: consequently, furthermore, hence, however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore. Some typical fixed prepositional phrases functioning as sentence linkers are: at least, as a result, after a while, in addition, in contrast, in the next place, on the other hand, for example, for instance. Coordinate connectors can establish different semantic relations between clauses. Coordinate sentence linkers can be grouped in the following way: Copulative, connecting two members and their meanings, the second member indicating an addition of equal importance, or, on the other hand, an advance in time and space, or an intensification, often coming in pairs, then called correlatives: and; both... and; equally... and; alike... and; at once... and; not... nor for neither, or and neither); not (or never)... not (or nor)... either; neither... nor, etc. Disjunctive, connecting two members but disconnecting their meaning, the meaning in the second member excluding that in the first: or, and in questions whether... or with the force of simple or; or... either; either... or, etc., the disjunctive adverbs else, otherwise, or... or, or... else, in older English other else. Adversative, connecting two members, but contrasting their meaning: but, but then, only, still, yet, and yet, however, on the other hand, again, on the contrary, etc. Causal, adding an independent proposition explaining the preceding statement, represented only by the single conjunction for: The brook was very high, for a great deal of rain had fallen over night. Illative, introducing an inference, conclusion, consequence, result: namely, therefore, on that account, consequently, accordingly, for that reason, so, then, hence, etc. Explanatory, connecting words, phrases or sentences and introducing an explanation or a particularization: namely, to wit, that is, that is to say, or, such as, as, like, for example, for instance, say, let us say, etc. Complex sentences Complex sentences are structures of subordination with two or more immediate constituents which are not syntactically equivalent. The semantic relations that can be expressed by subordination are much more numerous and more varied than with co-ordination: all such relations as time, place, concession, purpose, etc. are expressly stated in complex sentences only. To express subordination of one syntactic unit to another in a complex sentence English uses the following means: conjunctions: when, after, before, while, till, until, though, although, that, as, because; a number of fixed phrases performing the same function: as soon as, as long as, so long as, notwithstanding that, in order that, according as, etc.; conjunctive words: the relative pronouns who, which, that, whoever, whatever, whichever, and the relative adverbs where, how, whenever, wherever, however, why, etc. The following types of subordinate clauses are usually differentiated based on the semantic relations between the principal and the subordinate clause: Subject and Predicate Clauses: A subject clause may contain either a statement or a question. In the former case it is preceded by that: in the latter it is introduced by the same words as interrogative object clauses. e.g. That she wants to help us is beyond any doubt. When he is coming has not been decided yet. Commoner that the patterns with the initial that are sentences introduced by it, with the that-clause in end-position. e.g. It is clear that he will never agree to it. Object Clauses: The simplest case of such clauses are patterns in which a sub-clause can be replaced by a noun which could be then an object in a simple sentence. e.g. I know what she wants. You can take whatever you like. Attributive Clauses Attributive clauses qualify the thing denoted by its head word through some actions, state or situation in which the thing is involved. It has been customary to make distinction between two types of attributive sub-clauses: restrictive and continuative or amplifying clauses ("defining" and "non-defining") Clauses of Cause: Clauses of cause are usually introduced by the conjunctions because, since, and as and indicate purely causal relations. e.g. I had to go home since it was getting dark. Clauses of Place: Clauses of place do not offer any difficulties of grammatical analysis; they are generally introduced by the relative adverb where or by the phrase from where, to where, etc. e.g.: He went to the café where he hoped to find his friend. Temporal Clauses: Temporal clauses can be used to denote two simultaneous actions or states, one action preceding or following the other, etc. e.g. When we finished our lunch, we left. Clauses of Condition Clauses of Result: Clauses of result or consequence are characterized by two patterns: clauses introduced by the conjunction that correlated with the pronoun such or the adverb so in the main clause; clauses introduced by the phrasal connective so that. e.g. Suddenly she felt so relieved that she could not help crying. Clauses of Purpose: Clauses expressing purpose are known to be introduced by the conjunction that or lest and by the phrase in order that. e.g. I avoided mentioning the subject lest he be offended. Clauses of Concession: The following types of concessive clauses are clauses that give information about the circumstances despite or against which what is said in the principal clause is carried out: e.g. I went to the party, though I did not feel like it. Clauses of Manner and Comparison: Sub-clauses of manner and comparison characterize the action of the principal clause by comparing it to some other action. e.g. She was nursing the flower, as a mother nurses her child. Compound-complex sentences In English grammar, a compound-complex sentence is a type of sentence that contains at least three clauses—two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses—which equates to three sets of subjects and verbs. This type of sentence is a combination of a compound sentence with a complex sentence. Compound-complex sentences can clearly convey more information than your standard compound or complex sentence. e.g. “There was heavy traffic in the neighborhood, so I used the GPS to find a quicker route, and was able to get there on time.” In this example, “there was heavy traffic in the neighborhood” and “I used the GPS to find a quicker route” are two independent clauses joined by the coordinating conjunction “so,” and followed by the dependent clause, “and was able to get there on time.” Составные предложения в русском языке Сложное предложение — это предложение, которое состоит из двух и более грамматических основ. По связи между частями сложные предложения делятся на два типа — союзные (сложносочиненные и сложноподчиненные) и бессоюзные. В первом случае части соединяются союзами и союзными словами, во втором — по смыслу. Всего выделяют 3 вида сложных предложений. Сложносочиненное предложение Сложносочиненным (ССП) называют сложное предложение, имеющее два и более независимых простых предложений в составе. Это значит, что их можно разбить точкой, при этом смысл не потеряется. Части таких сложных предложений связаны союзами и союзными словами: соединительными (и, да, также и т. д.), противительными (а, но, зато и т. д.), разделительными (либо, то… то, не то… не то и т. д.) или их комбинациями. Примеры: Хотелось пирога, и яблоки уже созрели. Хотелось пирога, но яблоки еще не созрели. То мать пирогов напечет, то бабушка с булочками приедет. Иногда части сложносочиненных предложений связаны без сочинительного союза и союзного слова — по смыслу. Такие предложения называют бессоюзными. Пример: Лето заканчивалось лихо: на улице резко похолодало, листья начали алеть и чахнуть. Знаки препинания в сложносочиненных предложениях В предложениях с союзами и, да, однако, либо и т.д. принято ставить запятую. Кроме случаев, когда: В бессоюзных сложносочиненных предложениях части делятся не только запятыми, но и тире, двоеточиями и точкой с запятой. Сложноподчиненное предложение Сложноподчиненное предложение (СПП) — это вид сложного предложения, в составе которого одно простое предложение по смыслу и интонации подчиняется другому. В этом случае зависимое предложение называется придаточным, а независимое — главным. Пример сложноподчиненного предложения: Мне было сложно понять, как ей удалось так быстро привыкнуть к новому городу. Значения придаточных предложений в СПП Придаточные предложения в составе сложных делятся на группы, а далее — на подгруппы по смыслу и виду связи с главным. Знаки препинания в сложноподчиненных предложениях Между главной и придаточной частями сложного предложения принято ставить запятую. Если одна часть стоит в середине другой, выделять запятой ее нужно с обеих сторон: Когда мы вернулись в город, все горести остались за плечами. Сейчас, когда мы вернулись в город, все горести остались за плечами. Если предложения со словами лишь, только, еще и, прежде всего, именно, очевидно, вероятно связаны составным союзом, он разделяется. Тогда перед словом что нужно ставить запятую: Он согласился лишь потому, что я хорошо попросила. Если мы выделяем интонацией изъявительные или условные придаточные и ставим их перед главным предложением, между ними ставится тире: Кто желает — тот получит. Если по главному предложению понятно, что придаточное его пояснит, нужно ставить двоеточие. То же правило относится и к бессоюзным сложным предложениям: Он вдруг осознал: дальше не стоит и пытаться. Overview of the topic Sentences in compared languages may be also composite. In general composite sentences in compared languages are divided into compound, complex and compound-complex. A compound is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. (The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighting. Картошка жарилась на сковороде, от неё шёл ароматный запах). A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. (He steps quicken as he set out from the hotel. Многие видели, как фокусник это сделал). Subordinated clauses may be of different types: subject (Where I am going is unknown), object, predicative (with link-verb), attributive, adverbial and etc. A compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. (We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong). Hence, general differences and similarities of a complex sentence of three compared languages can be seen from their classification according to its structure below: In English they are divided into three big groups: Composite sentences are divided into Compound, Complex and CompoundComplex. In Russian they may be classified into two big groups which contain several subgroups according to its structure, meaning, interconnection and head part: Composite sentences are divided into Syndetic and Asyndetic. Syndetic is divided into Compound and Complex. INTERNET SOURCES 1. http://window.edu.ru/resource/740/67740/files/tula_tsu_099.pdf 2. https://skysmart.ru/articles/russian/slozhnoe-predlozhenie#1 3. https://edu.kpfu.ru/pluginfile.php/101217/course/summary/%D0%9A%D1% 80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BA%D0% BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%20%D0% BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%A1%D0% A0%D0%9B%D0%AF.pdf 4. https://skysmart.ru/articles/russian/slozhnoe-predlozhenie#1 USED LITERATURE 1. Yusupov U.K. Contrastive linguistics of the English and Uzbek languages. Tashkent, 2013. 2. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков. Ленинград, 1979. 3. Соловьёва Н. Н. Весь русский язык в таблицах: От фонетики до синтаксиса М., 2009.
