Zulkarnain Hazim Thesis

INTERIOR DESIGN MANAGEMENT IN
PRACTICE: A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Zulkarnain Hazim
MSc.
Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
School of Design
Creative Industries Faculty
Queensland University of Technology
2017
Abstract
As most commonly practiced, interior design is a specialist area of the built environment
industry concerned with the internal spaces of buildings and how they function and have
meaning socially, psychologically and existentially. However, interior design, unlike other
spatial disciplines such as architecture, is still emerging, and in this respect, struggling to
develop and establish its identity. On the one hand, there is the argument for the profession of
interior design to better define its core body knowledge, and in so doing establish firmer
boundaries between itself and other professions such as architecture. On the other hand, are
calls for it to become more ‘undisciplined’, for the boundaries to be more flexible and the
connections more fluid, in order for it to be more responsive to changing social and
environmental conditions.
Fundamental to both positions is the urgent need, as expressed by the International
Federation of Interior Architects/Designers (IFI), for the interior design profession to, “better
understand its business, culture, knowledge, and identity”. In response, the study employed a
triangulated approach involving a grounded theory ethnographic informed case study to reveal
the nature of interior design management as currently practiced in Australia and Malaysia, at
the practice, project and design process levels. Three different types of interior design practices
in two culturally diverse cities (Brisbane and Kuala Lumpur) were chosen and studied in terms
of their actions, interactions and processes.
During analysis of the data involving interviews, artefacts, conversations and
observations of the selected practice cases, six domains emerged that characterised the nature
of interior design management in practice. Expression of existence, the first domain described,
focuses on market positioning and relevancy. The second dimension, workplace milieu,
further explores practice as a cultural setting and from this position focuses on the values,
mores, attitudes that characterise particular practice settings. The issue of competency is then
acknowledged in the form of its own domain revealing issues to do with professional
knowledge, skills, experience and predispositions. Variable factors examine more closely the
internal and external factors, which impact the practices and their management. Other views of
management are also revealed through the domain that examines how the practices manage the
relationship between output and quality. In this respect, mechanisms and processes for
i
regulating and controlling become more evident. The last domain of polemics recognises the
frustrations and anxieties of practice and their main sources. As revealed, these are both internal
and external.
These domain outcomes are then brought together in a more synthesised way as a
theoretical framework. The framework constitutes the theory generation expected of a
grounded theory approach. As conveyed in the theoretical framework, specific relationships
are highlighted involving organisational structure and scale of the practice, the types of services
provided, and the scale and types of projects undertaken. Further to this, the framework
emphasises practice as a cultural milieu with particular values, mores, attitudes and physical
settings, and which, in this study, contributed to the identification and characterization of four
practice typologies revealing specific kinds of relationships between interior design and other
design disciplines such as architecture.
As such, the framework was central to providing a structural understanding of interior
design practice and how its identity is very much tied to the diverse ways in which it is
practiced; in other words to its hybridity. While there were many frustrations and anxieties
expressed by the case participants, the cases also revealed how interior design played a key
role in providing flexibility, agility and robustness. It would appear then from the study that
interior design in a hybridized state is well placed to survive but, in saying this, requires future
research that seeks to make more apparent its interdisciplinary, perhaps even transdisciplinary
potential, and how this can be managed. It is in this respect that the study makes a significant
original contribution to interior design knowledge and to current debate about its future.
ii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ I
Table of Contents................................................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures....................................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... x
Statements of Original Authorship ....................................................................................................... xii
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1
PROLOGUE................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2
CONTEXT .................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3
RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ................................................................................... 3
1.4
OUTCOMES AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE .................................................... 4
1.5
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................................................................... 8
2.1
CONTEXT .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 The Profession of Interior Design Practice .................................................................... 10
2.1.3 Issues in Interior Design Practice ................................................................................... 13
2.2
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT ..................................................... 16
2.2.1 Organizational Culture ................................................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Organizational Management .......................................................................................... 21
2.2.3 Project Management....................................................................................................... 23
2.3
DESIGN MANAGEMENT....................................................................................................... 32
2.3.1 Design Practice Management ......................................................................................... 32
2.3.2 Design Project Management .......................................................................................... 35
2.3.3 Design Process Management ......................................................................................... 39
2.4
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN, METHODOLOGY AND METHOD ............................... 49
3.1
METHODOLOGICAL UNDERPINNING .............................................................................. 51
3.1.1 Qualitative Methodological Approach ........................................................................... 51
3.1.2 Grounded Theory ........................................................................................................... 52
3.1.3 Ethnography ................................................................................................................... 54
3.1.4 The Value of Grounded Theory and Ethnography ......................................................... 54
3.1.5 Case Study Methodology ............................................................................................... 55
3.2
RESEARCH DESIGN .............................................................................................................. 56
3.2.1 Stage 2: Pilot Study ........................................................................................................ 58
3.2.1.1 Pilot Study Case Setting ................................................................................................. 58
3.2.1.2 Pilot study Data Management ........................................................................................ 59
3.2.1.3 The Outcomes of Pilot study .......................................................................................... 60
3.2.2 Stage 3: Major Study...................................................................................................... 62
3.2.2.1 Case setting .................................................................................................................... 62
3.2.2.2 Brisbane’s setting ........................................................................................................... 64
Profile of BNE 1 ........................................................................................................................ 64
Profile of BNE 2. ....................................................................................................................... 65
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Profile of BNE 3 ........................................................................................................................ 67
3.2.2.3 Kuala Lumpur Setting .................................................................................................... 68
Profile of KUL 1 ....................................................................................................................... 68
Profile of KUL 2 ....................................................................................................................... 69
Profile of KUL 3 ....................................................................................................................... 70
3.2.3 Data Collection Procedure ............................................................................................. 71
3.2.4 Data Collection Instruments ........................................................................................... 72
3.2.5 Stage 4: Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 73
3.2.5.1 Method of analysis ......................................................................................................... 73
Coding Process .......................................................................................................................... 73
Mapping and Clustering Process ............................................................................................... 75
Triangulation process ................................................................................................................ 83
3.2.6 Stage 5: Exploring the Implication of the Findings ........................................................ 83
3.3
RESEARCH QUALITY ........................................................................................................... 84
3.3.1 Commitment to Ethical Research ................................................................................... 84
3.3.2 Research Rigor ............................................................................................................... 84
3.4
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER 4: VOICES AND STORIES .......................................................................................... 88
4.1
EXPRESSION OF EXISTENCE .............................................................................................. 89
4.1.1 Public representation ...................................................................................................... 89
4.1.1.1 Professional existence .................................................................................................... 90
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................... 91
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................... 95
4.1.1.2 Core business services.................................................................................................... 97
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................... 97
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................... 99
4.1.2 Market relevancy.......................................................................................................... 100
4.1.2.1 Establishment of attachment ........................................................................................ 100
4.1.2.2 Practice development ................................................................................................... 101
4.1.3 The relationship between expression of interest and the nature of interior design
practice and management ............................................................................................. 104
4.1.3.1 Core business services and market positioning ............................................................ 104
4.1.3.2 Professional values vs market positioning ................................................................... 105
4.1.3.3 Core business services, practice characteristics and market positioning. ..................... 106
4.2
WORKPLACE MILIEU ......................................................................................................... 107
4.2.1 Connections and relations ............................................................................................ 107
4.2.1.1 Working alliance .......................................................................................................... 108
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................ 108
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 111
4.2.1.2 Mutual activities ........................................................................................................... 112
4.2.1.3 Discipline interaction ................................................................................................... 116
4.2.1.4 Career development ..................................................................................................... 117
4.2.2 Facilities ....................................................................................................................... 118
4.2.2.1 Physical establishment ................................................................................................. 119
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 119
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 122
4.2.3 Implication of workplace milieu domain ..................................................................... 124
4.2.3.1 Totally independent relation with autonomy ................................................................ 124
4.2.3.2 Centralized relation with some autonomy .................................................................... 126
4.2.3.3 Centralized relation with autonomy ............................................................................. 126
4.2.3.4 Office design and facilities influence the workplace milieu ........................................ 126
4.2.3.5 Does size matters? ........................................................................................................ 127
4.3
COMPETENCY ...................................................................................................................... 127
4.3.1 Job attachment .............................................................................................................. 128
4.3.1.1 Outgoing action ............................................................................................................ 128
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 128
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 131
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4.3.1.2 Discipline comprehension ............................................................................................ 133
4.3.2 Knowledge base expertise ............................................................................................ 134
4.3.2.1 Skills ............................................................................................................................ 135
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 135
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 137
4.3.2.2 Professionalism ............................................................................................................ 137
4.3.3 Cognitive process ......................................................................................................... 139
4.3.3.1 Intuition ........................................................................................................................ 140
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 140
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 142
4.3.3.2 Integrity ........................................................................................................................ 143
4.3.4 Implication of the competency domain ........................................................................ 144
4.4
VARIABLES FACTOR .......................................................................................................... 146
4.4.1 Progression and method ............................................................................................... 146
4.4.1.1 Reflexivity and responsiveness .................................................................................... 147
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 147
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 151
4.4.1.2 Process ......................................................................................................................... 153
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 153
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 155
4.4.2 Requirements and expression ....................................................................................... 156
4.4.2.1 Rationalization ............................................................................................................. 157
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 157
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 159
4.4.2.2 Governance enhancement ............................................................................................ 160
4.4.3 Project and task conditions ........................................................................................... 161
4.4.3.1 Task and project identification ..................................................................................... 161
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 162
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 164
4.4.4 Tools ............................................................................................................................ 165
4.4.4.1 Computer benefits. ....................................................................................................... 165
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 165
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 166
4.4.5 Implication of variables factor domain ........................................................................ 167
4.5
OUTPUT AND QUALITY CONCERN ................................................................................. 169
4.5.1 Directing ...................................................................................................................... 169
4.5.1.1 Commanding ................................................................................................................ 170
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 170
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 172
4.5.1.2 Quality emphasizing..................................................................................................... 173
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 173
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 175
4.5.1 Implication of output and quality concern domain ....................................................... 177
4.6
POLEMICS ............................................................................................................................. 177
4.6.1 Survival concerns ......................................................................................................... 177
4.6.1.1 Professionalism ............................................................................................................ 178
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 178
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 181
4.6.1.2 Economic anxieties ...................................................................................................... 182
BRISBANE ............................................................................................................................. 182
KUALA LUMPUR ................................................................................................................. 183
4.6.1.3 Technology proficiency ............................................................................................... 184
4.6.2 Physical appearances .................................................................................................... 185
4.6.2.1 Functional imperfection ............................................................................................... 185
4.6.2.2 Sharing space and facilities .......................................................................................... 186
4.6.3 Practice and academic anxieties ................................................................................... 187
4.6.3.1 Tertiary education issues .............................................................................................. 188
4.6.4 Implication of polemics domain ................................................................................... 188
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4.7
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................ 189
CHAPTER 5: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND SIGNIFICANCE................................. 191
5.1
What is the nature of interior design management as it is currently practiced in Australia
and Malaysia? .......................................................................................................................... 191
5.1.1 The way interior design work is implemented/enacted in practice .............................. 194
5.1.2 Practice and management as understood by designers ................................................. 195
5.1.3 The relationship between project type and management approach .............................. 196
5.1.4 Management levels and approaches in the different disciplines in the various
practice models ............................................................................................................ 198
5.2
How is interior design practice perceived and positioned in relation to other disciplines such
as architecture? ........................................................................................................................ 199
5.2.1 The contribution and relevancies of management theory to empirical research and
interior design’s creative process and practice ............................................................. 200
5.2.2 ‘Best’ management practice ......................................................................................... 201
5.3
What are the structural implications of practice for interior design identity? ......................... 202
5.4
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 204
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 205
6.1
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 205
6.2
Constraints ............................................................................................................................... 207
6.3
Recommendations for further research.................................................................................... 208
6.4
Concluding remarks ................................................................................................................ 209
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 212
APPENDIX A1 – HUMAN ETHICS APPROVAL CERTIFICATE ........................................... 218
APPENDIX A2 – PARTICIPANT INFORMATION & CONSENT FORM .............................. 220
APPENDIX B1 – FIRST LAYER OF MAPPING PROCESS ACCORDING TO
GROUP’S DIVISION ....................................................................................................................... 223
APPENDIX B2 – SECOND LAYER OF MAPPING AND CLUSTERING WAS DERIVED
FROM CODING PROCESS TO BUILD UP ELEMENTS .......................................................... 224
APPENDIX B3 – THIRD LAYER IS A CLUSTERING THE ELEMENTS TO
CONSTRUCT THE DIMENSIONS ............................................................................................... 225
APPENDIX B4 – ELEMENTS AND DIMENSIONS WAS MERGED TO IDENTIFIES
THE THEMES.................................................................................................................................. 226
APPENDIX B5 – THE OVERARCHING AND INTERCONNECTED WITH THEMES,
DIMENSION AND ELEMENTS LEAD TO FORM A DOMAIN .............................................. 227
APPENDIX B6 – TRIANGULATION IS A COMPARING PROCESS FOR COMMON
IDENTIFICATION AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRACTICES AND CITIES. ............. 228
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Manifestation of culture at different levels of depth (Hofstede, et al., 2010, p. 8). ............ 18
Figure 2.2: Competing values framework (Dixon, 2003, p. 19). .......................................................... 23
Figure 2.3: Nature of the project input and output (Maylor, 2002, p. 26). ........................................... 25
Figure 2.4: The uniqueness of job distinguishes project from production work (Kemp, 2004,
p. 5). ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 2.5: Project management from multiple perspectives (Cicmil1997, p. 391). ............................ 28
Figure 2.6: Project life cycle within cost, staffing and time (Project Management Institute,
2008, p.16). .......................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2.7: Life cycle of construction projects (Fewings, 2005, p. 8). ................................................. 30
Figure 2.8: Project planning process group (Project Management Institute, 2008, p. 47). ................... 31
Figure 2.9: Three areas of focus for developing successful project management systems
(Eve, 2007). ......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 2.10: Design practice and design project in the context of design management.
Adapted from Harpum (2007). ............................................................................................ 34
Figure 2.11: Project structure diagram in an executive project management model
(Fewings, 2005, p. 12). ........................................................................................................ 36
Figure 2.12: Graphical map of design process (Lawson, 2005, p. 40).................................................. 42
Figure 2.13: A simple four-stage descriptive model of the design process (Cross, 2000, p. 30). ......... 43
Figure 2.14: Iterative design process (Fewings, 2005). ........................................................................ 44
Figure 2.15: Seven stages of the design process method (Cross, 2000, p 58). ..................................... 44
Figure 2.16: Design process management framework (Harpum, 2007, p 47). ..................................... 45
Figure 2.17: Design process stage gate control framework (Harpum, 2007, p. 47). ............................. 45
Figure 3.1: Alignment of research methodologies with research questions. ........................................ 51
Figure 3.2: Research plan process. ....................................................................................................... 57
Figure 3.3: Comparison of process. ...................................................................................................... 61
Figure 3.4: Reception and discussion area at ground floor of BNE 1. .................................................. 65
Figure 3.5: Working area/studio at mezzanine floor of BNE 1. ........................................................... 65
Figure 3.6: Reception and key personal area of BNE 2. ....................................................................... 66
Figure 3.7: Working/studio area of BNE 2. .......................................................................................... 66
Figure 3.8 Reception and meeting area of BNE 3. ............................................................................... 67
Figure 3.9: Working/studio area of BNE 3. .......................................................................................... 68
Figure 3.10 : Reception, meeting area and principal room of KUL 1. ................................................. 69
Figure 3.11: Working/studio area of KUL 1. ........................................................................................ 69
Figure 3.12: Reception area of KUL 2. ................................................................................................ 70
Figure 3.13: Working/studio area of KUL 2. ........................................................................................ 70
Figure 3.14: Private club as a meeting place for KUL3........................................................................ 71
Figure 3.15: Restaurant area of private club. ........................................................................................ 71
Figure 3.16: ‘Livescribe’ recorder pen, dot paper and soft copy note. ................................................. 72
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Figure 3.17: Analysis stages for case.................................................................................................... 73
Figure 3.18: First layer of mapping process according to group’s division. ......................................... 76
Figure 3.19: Second layer of mapping and clustering was derived from coding process to build
up elements. ......................................................................................................................... 77
Figure 3.20: Third layer is a clustering of the elements to construct the dimensions. .......................... 78
Figure 3.21: Elements and dimensions were merged to identify the themes. ....................................... 79
Figure 3.22: Themes were derived from the earlier process. ................................................................ 80
Figure 3.23: The overarching and interconnection with themes, dimensions and elements formed
a domain. ............................................................................................................................. 81
Figure 3.24: Triangulation was used as a comparative process for common identification
and differences between practices and cities. ...................................................................... 82
Figure 3.25: Factors influencing quality of grounded theory research (Birks & Mills, 2011, p. 34). ... 86
Figure 4.1: The six domains identified in the study. ............................................................................. 88
Figure 4.2: Similarity of BNE1 office with their project. ..................................................................... 93
Figure 4.3: Similarity of BNE2 office with their projects. ................................................................... 94
Figure 4.4: Promoted services offered on website and in brochures. ................................................... 98
Figure 4.5: Architectural models in BNE2 office. ................................................................................ 98
Figure 4.6: Promoted services as on the website. ................................................................................. 99
Figure 4.7: Implication of ‘expression of existence’ to interior design management in practice. ...... 103
Figure 4.8: BNE2 morning tea meeting. ............................................................................................. 111
Figure 4.9: KUL1 physical layout and design. ................................................................................... 112
Figure 4.10: One of BNE2 directors establishes and develops project structure (Observation
Notes, BNE2, 7/12/2011). ................................................................................................. 115
Figure 4.11: The condition of BNE3. ................................................................................................. 116
Figure 4.12: Layout plan of BNE2. .................................................................................................... 120
Figure 4.13: Workstation for directors and associates in BNE2. ........................................................ 121
Figure 4.14: Office layout and design of BNE3. ................................................................................ 122
Figure 4.15: Cramped and congested space of KUL1. ....................................................................... 122
Figure 4.16: Workstation and discussion area of KUL2. .................................................................... 123
Figure 4.17: Private club as a business venue of KUL3. .................................................................... 123
Figure 4.18: The implication of ‘workplace milieu’ to interior design management in practice. ....... 125
Figure 4.19: Design development process and lunch time workshop in BNE2. ................................. 137
Figure 4.20: Working conditions in BNE1. ........................................................................................ 139
Figure 4.21: The implication of ‘competency’ to interior design management in practice. ............... 145
Figure 4.22: Design process in BNE3. ............................................................................................... 154
Figure 4.23: Computer facilities and server in BNE1. ........................................................................ 166
Figure 4.24: Implication of variables factor in interior design management in practice. ................... 168
Figure 4.25: Weekly meeting chaired by the practice manager highlights important issues. ............. 171
Figure 4.26: Implication of ‘output and quality’ in interior design management in practice. ............ 176
Figure 4.27: Discussion and director area on ground floor. ................................................................ 186
Figure 4.28: Decoration and furniture items in transit in BNE1. ........................................................ 186
viii
Figure 4.29: BNE3 office layout shared with others. ......................................................................... 187
Figure 4.30: Implication of ‘polemics’ to interior design management in practice. ........................... 189
Figure 5.1: Interior design practice models. ....................................................................................... 192
Figure 5.2: Theoretical framework of interior design management in practice. ................................. 194
ix
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Old Economy and New Economy Paradigms (Stephenson & Frankel, 2002, p. 130). ........ 14
Table 2.2: The old economy and new economy relationship matrix (Stephenson & Frankel,
2002, p. 132 & 133). ............................................................................................................ 15
Table 2.3: Value dimensions of culture (Hofstede, Pedersen, & Hofstede, 2002, p. 4). ...................... 18
Table 2.4: Project life cycle stage gate. Adapted from Kemp (2004, p. 70). ........................................ 29
Table 2.5: Roles of project team at each stage of implementation (Fewings, 2005, p.14). .................. 37
Table 2.6: Comparison of project management plan of work. .............................................................. 38
Table 2.7: Interior design services guideline. Adapted from The Design Institute of
Australia (2001b). ................................................................................................................ 38
Table 3.1: Pilot study case setting. ....................................................................................................... 58
Table 3.2: Conceptual questions categories. ......................................................................................... 59
Table 3.3: Data analysis process ........................................................................................................... 59
Table 3.4: Design practice competencies and goals towards new economy paradigm. ........................ 61
Table 3.5: Case study design. ............................................................................................................... 63
Table 3.6: Open coding framework. ..................................................................................................... 74
Table 4.1: The influential factors of public representation in the Brisbane cases. ................................ 89
Table 4.2: The influential factors of public representation in the Kuala Lumpur cases. ...................... 90
Table 4.3: The influential factors of market relevancy in Brisbane cases. ......................................... 101
Table 4.4: The influential factors of market relevancy in the Kuala Lumpur cases. .......................... 101
Table 4.5: The influential factors of connection and relations in Brisbane cases. .............................. 107
Table 4.6: The influential factors of connection and relations in Kuala Lumpur cases. ..................... 107
Table 4.7: The influential factors of facilities for Brisbane cases. ...................................................... 119
Table 4.8: The influential factors of facilities for Kuala Lumpur cases. ............................................ 119
Table 4.9: The influential factors of job attachment for the Brisbane cases. ...................................... 128
Table 4.10: The influential factors of job attachment for the Kuala Lumpur cases. ........................... 128
Table 4.11: The influential factors of knowledge base expertise for Brisbane cases. ........................ 134
Table 4.12: The influential factors of knowledge base expertise for Kuala Lumpur cases. ............... 134
Table 4.13: The influential factors of cognitive process in Brisbane cases. ....................................... 140
Table 4.14: The influential factors of cognitive process in Kuala Lumpur cases. .............................. 140
Table 4.15: The influential factors of progression and method for Brisbane cases. ........................... 147
Table 4.16: The influential factors of progression and method for Kuala Lumpur cases. .................. 147
Table 4.17: The influential factors of requirements and expression for Brisbane cases. .................... 156
Table 4.18: The influential factors of requirements and expression for Kuala Lumpur cases. ........... 156
Table 4.19: Task and project identification influential factors for Brisbane cases. ............................ 161
Table 4.20: Task and project identification influential factors for Kuala Lumpur cases. ................... 161
Table 4.21: Computer benefits influential factors for Brisbane cases. ............................................... 165
x
Table 4.22: Computer benefits influential factors for Kuala Lumpur cases. ...................................... 165
Table 4.23: Directing influential factors for Brisbane cases. .............................................................. 169
Table 4.24: Directing influential factors for Kuala Lumpur cases. ..................................................... 169
Table 4.25: Survival concerns influential factors for Brisbane cases. ................................................ 178
Table 4.26: Survival concerns influential factors for Kuala Lumpur cases. ....................................... 178
Table 4.27: Physical appearances influential factors in Brisbane cases. ............................................ 185
Table 4.28: Practice and academic anxieties for Brisbane cases. ....................................................... 187
Table 4.29: Practice and academic anxieties for Kuala Lumpur cases. .............................................. 187
xi
Statements of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements
for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and
belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except
where due reference is made.
Signed: QUT Verified Signature
Name: Zulkarnain Hazim
Date: 19 / 6 / 2017
xii
Acknowledgement
I would like to extend my gratitude to my principal supervisor Professor Jill Franz for her
inspiration, encouragement, expertise and the high level of the critical challenges provided
during my research journey. I would also like to thank my associate supervisor Mr. Michael
Molloy, who helped supervise areas of this study.
My wife Hazlin Nina and kids, Shakinah and Naufal have made endless sacrifices to allow me
to complete this work. I would like to thank to my parents Hazim and Latifah for their support
and encouragement. I owe much to them, as without their ongoing support and understanding
this thesis would never have been completed.
This study could not have taken place without the support from practice industry. I am very
grateful to all participants for giving up their time and energy to participate in this study.
xiii
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1
PROLOGUE
Interior design is increasingly regarded as a specialist field operating in a professional
sense as part of the built environment industry. Such emergence, however, is very recent,
particularly when compared to architecture (Friedrichs, 2002). According to several notable
interior design authors including Poldma (2008) and Plunkett (2013), interior design, as we
understand it today, emerged around the 1960s with increasing public presence and
responsibility for the health, safety and welfare of the public.
Very simply, interior design focuses on internal or interior spaces. Pile (2003) describes
how interior designers deal with the basic organization of spaces and technical as well as
aesthetic issues, similar to architecture but with a focus on interior environments. For Portillo
(2002), the interior designer is more artistic, curious, energetic, sensitive, and spontaneous than
architects or engineers. In all, interior design is “…a broad and versatile discipline that
interfaces with architecture, design, and the humanities”, with interior designers “…working in
the residential market, retail, leisure industry, bars and restaurants, offices and workplaces, set
and exhibition design, hospitality, health care, education, and public buildings” (Spanjers, 2013,
p. 80)
Despite growing into a discipline “…that accounts for three-quarters of all global design
practice” (Plunkett, 2013, p. 102), there is a widely held perception that “the discipline of
designing interiors remains fractured and generally misunderstood” (Caan, 2011, p. ii). Such is
the situation that has prompted statements by the like of Coleman (2002a) as follows:
It’s in the designer’s nature to solve problems. But now, it’s time for interior
designers to solve problems and design solutions for their own profession. Our
profession must become a group of people who speak with one voice on matters of
regulation, legislation, ethics, and excellence. We must coalesce as an assembly of
well-educated minds that, focused on a research question or a matter of social
policy, can create, hold, and perpetuate new knowledge that will contribute to the
universal intellectual enterprise (Coleman, 2002a, p. XV).
1
Such is the situation that has also demanded international attention by the International
Federation of Interior Architects/Designers (IFI) and a global assessment of the interiors
discipline to better understand “…its business, culture, knowledge and identity” (Caan, 2011,
p. ii). For this professional organisation and others, the need to do this is associated with the
desire to better define its core body of knowledge and boundaries, particularly in relation to
other spatial design disciplines, such as architecture. In contrast is other discourse in interior
design that advocates for exploring how, as a profession, it can capitalise on and consolidate its
hybridity to work in more fluid ways, as demanded by the changing nature of the world.
Irrespective of the position one adopts, it is timely, indeed necessary, to better understand the
nature of interior design practice, in this case through a culturally-oriented focus on how it is
managed. Unlike in architecture, there is a severe lack of empirical research specifically related
to interior design practice and how it is managed in a range of settings. This thesis argues that
any movement forward relies on addressing this gap.
1.2
CONTEXT
Mention was made in the previous section to changing social circumstances. Prompted
by the appreciation of the sensitivity of organizations operated as businesses, this thesis is
particularly interested in how interior design practice is managed. Design practices are
businesses and no design practice can exist in the long term if its products or services are not
financially robust (Rogers, 2002). Along with other design practices then, interior design firms
need to embrace business and organizational issues by implementing best management practice.
However, the transformation from an old economy to a new economy in the current millennium
era is affecting “…the way design work is implemented which is more interactive and no longer
follows the traditional linear pattern of design process” (Stephenson & Frankel, 2002, p. 131).
Quality is accepted as the norm, with efficiency and speed forming the basis of competitive
advantage demanding greater focus on strategic design and planning (Coleman, 2002; Ikeda,
2008). As such, interior design practice, like any other design practice, must have a good
business foundation to thrive in the world today (Wheeler, 2010), with attention drawn to
“…how everyone engaged in designing and constructing the built environment approach their
practice to achieve the speed, responsiveness, and innovation that clients require” (Friedrichs,
2002, p. 16).
2
Gray & Hughes (2001) describe the design project as a complex process that continues to
grow in complexity. The leading challenge of a project may derive from its complexity of scope;
the involvement of multiple consultants, companies, governments, and cultures; its physical
demands; and the increasing exposure to risk through human error (Project Management
Institute, 2001). As a result, the boundary between project and design scope, in terms of
management, demands further attention.
As “…the broader design world has experienced an explosion in research and an
exponential growth in new forms of “Design” disciplines, interior designers still struggle to
define who…” they “…are and what they do” (Poldma, 2008, p. vi) demanding, then, a greater
understanding of what happens when an interior designer makes decisions. While recent
research, as described in the following chapter, highlights the need to give greater attention to
how design is managed, there is no research that maps how it is actually managed at the various
levels of practice. It is in this regard that the study reported in this thesis was undertaken.
1.3
RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Specifically, then, the research aims to address a theoretical gap by describing cases of
how interior design is managed in terms of process, project and practice. The cases selected
represent different types of interior design practice settings located across two culturally diverse
countries – Australia and Malaysia. The decision to do this is in recognition of the desire to
resist the temptation to assume a homogenized appreciation of design practice, which seems to
be the case when organizations such as the International Federation of Interior
Architects/Designers (IFI) speak on behalf of interior design. Specifically, the research asks the
following questions:
•
What is the nature of interior design management as it is currently practiced in
Australia and Malaysia?
•
How is interior design practice perceived and positioned in relation to other
disciplines such as architecture?
•
What are the structural implications of practice for interior design identity?
In terms of the first question, the decision was made to extend the study beyond the
Australian context recognising, as just stated, the need for the research findings to have wider
3
relevance. Cases in Brisbane were selected because Brisbane typifies a modern Western city.
Promotional literature presents it as ‘Australia’s new world city’. In contrast, Kuala Lumpur
represents a typical highly developed Asian city emerging as it is promoted ‘towards a worldclass city'. Kuala Lumpur is typically similar with other Asian cities like Singapore, Beijing and
Hong Kong.
While on the surface there appears to be no difference between these two cities in terms
of interior design practice, according to (Yap, 2007, pp. 71-72) the interaction between national
cultures and organizational cultures will influence values in the workplace. As stated:
The Australian society emphasizes a lot on equality and is generally not status
conscious... Australians treat each other as equals. This is another uniquely Australian
concept that differentiates it from Malaysia – the concept of “mateship”. Corporate
executives dressed in expensive suits have no qualms sitting next to a road repairs
worker and having “a cuppa” (a cup of coffee) together...Malaysians, on the contrary,
are relatively status conscious... While most people view protocol as a funny thing and
do not take it seriously, Malaysians regard protocol as very important and take it very
seriously... Australia is a highly individualistic society while Malaysia is the opposite –
it is a more collectivist society. This is quite interesting because the concept of mateship
– watching out for your fellow man or woman – is very strong in the Australian society.
In terms of the second question, this reflects an appreciation of the, at times, much debated
relationship that exists between interior design and architecture professionally, as spatial design
disciplines involved in creating environments for human habitation. Such a relationship is, in
many respects, implicated in developing a clearer understanding of interior design and its
potential to challenge current boundaries; a situation explaining the inclusion of the third
question to do with its identity.
1.4
OUTCOMES AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE
As will be presented in detail in this thesis, the responses of the participants in this study,
utilizing an ethnographic informed grounded theory methodology, revealed a complex interplay
between the nature of interior design management and the cultural demographics of the practice
itself.
4
For example, if the practice is predominantly architecture-led, interior design will occupy
one of two places:
•
As a sub-discipline playing a complementary role to architecture, or
•
As one of several disciplines contributing in either a complementary way in their
own right, or together on an equal footing with another or other disciplines. This
differentiation was most evident in network practices, with local conditions
determining the role of interior design.
If, on the other hand, the practice is interior design-led, interior design will occupy one of
the following places:
•
As one of several disciplines contributing in their own right, or together on an
equal footing with another or other disciplines. This situation was most associated
with single practices.
In all the practice cases, as reflected in the work of Hofstede et al. (2010), there were
relationships between what a practice does and how it does it. Further to this, there were
distinctive relationships between the nature of what the practice does and the nature of how it
does it, with both playing an integrative role in defining practice culture. In this sense, then,
management plays a central role at all levels of practice. From an interior design perspective,
the study demonstrated the way in which various approaches to management enabled practices
to negotiate competing values, as outlined by Dixon (2003) that in this study are discipline as
well as market driven.
One of the significant findings from this study is how management practice culture is
integrally linked to the disciplines that are in relationship to interior design, such as architecture;
to the nature of this relationship, and generally, correspondingly, to the nature and scale of the
projects pursued and undertaken. By analysing data involving interviews, artefacts,
conversations and observations of the selected practice cases, six domains emerged that
characterised the nature of interior design management in practice: expression of interest;
workplace milieu; competency; variable factors; output and quality; and polemics. ‘Expression
of existence’, the first domain described, focuses on market positioning and relevancy. The
second dimension, ‘workplace milieu’, further explores practice as a cultural setting and from
this position focuses on the values, mores, attitudes that characterise particular practice settings.
The issue of ‘competency’ is then acknowledged in the form of its own domain revealing issues
to do with professional knowledge, skills, experience and predispositions. ‘Variable factors’
5
examines more closely the internal and external factors that impact the practices and their
management. Other views of management are also revealed through the domain that examines
how the practices manage the relationship between ‘output and quality’. In this respect,
mechanisms and processes for regulating and controlling become more evident. The last domain
of ‘polemics’ recognises the frustrations and anxieties of practice and their main sources. As
revealed, these are both internal and external.
These domain outcomes are then synthesized as a framework to highlight
interrelationships involving organisational structure and scale of the practice, the types of
services provided, and the scale and types of projects undertaken. Further to this, the framework
emphasises practice as a cultural milieu with particular values, mores, attitudes and physical
settings, and which, as previously noted, contributed to the identification and characterization
of four practice typologies revealing specific kinds of relationships between interior design and
other design disciplines such as architecture.
In all, the framework was central to providing a structural understanding of interior design
practice and how its identity is very much tied to the diverse ways in which it is practiced; in
other words to its hybridity and, correspondingly, its adaptability, agility and robustness. In this
sense, it would appear from the study that interior design is well placed to continue to survive
but, in saying this, requires future research building that seeks to make more apparent its implicit
transdisciplinary potential and how this can be managed.
1.5
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this thesis reports in detail the approach adopted in undertaking, the
resultant findings and their theoretical and future research implications. Specifically, Chapter 2
presents a review of literature relevant to the research topic. It includes both interior design as
well as management research. The critique of literature exposes deficiencies in existing
literature in relation to interior design management pointing to the need for a study such as this.
Chapter 3 follows by describing how the study was designed and implemented. It provides
detail on its underlying ethnographic informed grounded theory methodology, and how this
guided data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study in the form of
categories which, when brought together, comprise a theoretical framework for representing the
structural nature of interior design management in practice. The theoretical significance of the
findings in responding to the research aim and questions is then explored in Chapter 5 through
6
consideration of the literature reviewed in Chapter 2. Chapter 6 concludes the thesis
highlighting the role of the thesis study as a platform for future research.
7
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
This chapter presents a critical review of key literature related and relevant to interior
design practice and management. In this project, interior design is defined as a design
specialisation in the built environment industry dealing with internal space. Interior design
management is understood to be integral to the practice of interior design and the delivery of
services as part of the built environment industry. Here, practice is used interchangeably with
firm or office and is the place where interior design discipline knowledge is applied in the design
and delivery of built environments and/or aspects of the environments.
For the purposes of this review, interior design management incorporates practice
management, project management and design process management. Before focusing on how
these are conveyed in literature, the chapter establishes context by providing a general
introduction to emerging issues in design, particularly the spatial design fields. It then examines
literature in relation to the profession and practice of interior design. This provides a lead-in to
a review of organizational culture and management including project management, with this, in
turn, providing the theoretical context for a closer examination of interior design management
as elaborated previously.
In its conclusion, the chapter highlights gaps in knowledge regarding interior design
practice, in particular how it is practiced. Drawing on research, the chapter argues that
addressing this gap is fundamental to interior design’s evolution in a rapidly changing world.
2.1
CONTEXT
2.1.1 Background
Design plays a major role in our life. Every single thing produced involves the act of
design. However, what is design? “Design comes from the Latin word “designare” meaning to
define, to describe, or to mark out. At a certain point in history, design shifted from a term that
generally described a great number of human activities…”, towards “…its current status as a
defined and professional practice” (Erlhoff & Marshall, 2008, p. 104). Zeisel (1984) discusses
how design is hard to define as it is bound to many intangible elements such as intuition,
imagination, and creativity. Lawson (2005) and Zeisel (2006) define the term ‘design’ as a noun
8
in the form of “a plan or drawing produced to show the look and function of something before
it is built or made”; while as a verb it is the process of deciding upon the look and function of
something through imagining, representing and testing. In addition, it can also refer to the end
product.
From his research, Cross (2006, p. 2) concludes:
1.
The central concern of Design is “the conception and realisation of new things”.
2.
It encompasses the appreciation of material culture and the application of “the arts of
planning, inventing, making and doing”.
3.
At its core is the language of ‘modelling’; “it is possible to develop students’ aptitudes
in this ‘language’ equivalent to aptitudes in the ‘language’ of the sciences (numeracy)
and the ‘language’ of humanities (literacy)”.
4.
Design has its own distinct “things to know, ways of knowing them, and ways of
finding out about them”.
In summary, design can be described as:
1.
A medium for expressing how something will look before producing it.
2.
The process to produce it.
3.
The end product.
Schneider (2007, p. 214) reports how “a wide range of scientific disciplines from the
fields of the human, social and engineering sciences, on the one hand, and industry,
administration and culture on the other…”, need designers to solve highly complex problems.
Dorst (2008, p. 8) refers to designers as experts, classifying expertise into six categories,
including “novice, advanced beginner, competent designer, expert, master and visionary”. Each
category carries different roles requiring distinctive qualifications and skill in order to meet the
requirements of design task and quality.
The designer’s role is also influenced by social changes affecting people’s perceptions
and attitudes (Stephenson & Frankel, 2002). Schneider (2007, p. 209) states, since the “…19th
century, design has been ideologically committed to transforming the world for the benefit of
human beings and to helping to find intelligent solutions to problems”. “Design established
itself as distinct professions because its specific practices aligned with the material and
9
economic processes associated with housing, manufacturing, media, technology, clothing, and
so on” (Erlhoff & Marshall, 2008, p. 108). In this sense, design became ‘disciplined’, with
respective disciplines such as interior design attempting to provide orientation and a way of
simplifying and rendering comprehensible complex masses of data, information structures,
processes and objects. More recently, “design fields have further subdivided with the emergence
of fields such as service design and strategic design” (Erlhoff & Marshall, 2008, p. 108).
Given these changes, Augustin & Coleman (2012, p. xiii) argues to resolve the complex
issues through integration in different areas of expertise and their own professional practice and
place experience. It is interesting to note that while this discussion is taking place there is also
contrasting discussion by the likes of the interior design profession about the need for interior
design to be more overt and clear about its differentiation with other design professions,
especially architecture; in other words, for it to become more ‘disciplined’.
The interior design profession and its challenges are the focus of attention in the following
two sections.
2.1.2 The Profession of Interior Design Practice
The proclaiming of a field of practice as a profession represents elevated status as well as
responsibility/liability. Emerging discourse on interior design constantly references its struggle
for its professional status to be recognised by other design professions and society in general.
Poldma (2008, p. vi) reports how interior design is struggling as a discipline to find itself. While
this is attributed in part to interior design being seen as decoration and dealing chiefly with the
spaces left after architectural intervention (Brooker & Stone, 2010), it is more widely explained
in terms of interior design’s inability to define its unique body of (discipline) knowledge, in
particular a body of knowledge that separates it from architecture. Winton (2013) reports how
the superiority dominance of architectural theory compels the development of interior design
theory. Perusing this further, Winton (2013, p. 49) writes: “…studies of the interior must
embrace the marginality of the interior and further elucidate the implications of this marginal
condition if interior design is to break away from the discipline of architecture, both in theory
and in praxis”. In this respect, Rodgers (2005, p. XIV) argues designers should be flexible to
assimilate information and willing to cross the design boundaries and learn from other
disciplines. Doing this Augustin & Coleman (2012, p. 1) claims will “…encourage[s] greater
acceptance of design as a political, economic, technological, material, and cultural activity.”
10
Unlike architecture then, scholarly research to do with interior design and its development
as a discipline and profession appears to be more open to recognising and consolidating its
interdisciplinarity. For Brooker & Stone(2010, p. 12), “…interior design is an interdisciplinary
practice that is concerned with the creation of a range of interior environments that articulate
identity and atmosphere through the manipulation of spatial volume, placement of specific
elements and furniture, and treatment of surfaces”. Additionally, it is also concerned with the
remodelling of the interior environments of existing buildings. It is a complex and deeplylayered activity serving human needs in their totality, including “…those less-easily defined
aspects of human existence: the desire for emotional substance and for meaning” (Coles &
House, 2007, p. 169). Spatially, it “…encompasses both the programmatic planning and
physical treatment of interior space” (Yelavich, 2008, p. 230).
Piotrowski (2002, p. 5), referring to the National Council for Interior Design Qualification
(NCIDQ), defines “…the interior designer as a person qualified by education, experience, and
examination to enhance the function and quality of internal spaces”. Coleman (2002, p. 40)
describes the interior designer as a qualified person who has the “technical knowledge to
integrate architecture and construction and the ability to create interiors that are not only
efficient, cost-effective, comfortable, and aesthetically pleasing, but that make workers more
productive”. Portillo (2002, p. 20) regards the interior designer as more “…artistic, curious,
energetic, sensitive, and spontaneous compared to the architect or engineer”. In all, the interior
designer relies on substantial specialised knowledge and skills, in both science (including the
behavioural sciences) and art.
For several years, the profession of interior design has been recognised as still evolving
and gaining recognition as a profession, both in the minds of the interior design practitioner and
the minds of the public (Piotrowski, 2002). Brooker & Stone (2010) points out that interior
design is a relatively new profession with the need to have such a specialization only recently
become apparent. For Friedrichs (2002, p. 5), the infancy of interior design as a profession and
its struggle to establish itself as a legitimate profession is attributed to its hybridity; to “…roots
that trace back to architecture, the fine and decorative arts, graphic design, and even home
economics”. Following the Second World War, the profession of interior design began to
flourish and to enjoy improved status. The Incorporated Institute of British Decorator (IIBD),
founded in 1889, added the title "Interior Designers" in 1953 becoming the British Institute of
Interior Design (BIID) in 1976 followed by Charted Society of Designers (CSD) in 1987. In
11
America, The American Institute of Interior Decorator was founded in 1931 and became the
American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) in the 1970s.
The hybridity of interior design is reflected to some extent in the nature of the settings in
which it is practiced; settings, which for most interior design graduates, involve, as previously
highlighted, a particular kind of relationship with architecture. Informed by the International
Interior Design association (IIDA) report, Keane and Keane (2002, p. 111) identifies four types
of interior design practice models:
1.
The cooperative model featuring architecture firms that have various design and
technical teams working collaboratively on what are generally large corporate
projects.
2.
The separated model where in the case of office refurbishment, for example,
architects oversee project management, while interior designers specify colour,
materials, and treatments.
3.
The interior design model where firms traditionally focus on decoration. This work
is mostly residential.
4.
The architectural firm model involving architects working as “master builders”
integrating both external and internal space conception, detailing, and completion.
While this, in a way, reflects interior design’s hybridity, it still represents a dated and
narrow snapshot when examined against where and how interior design practitioners are
educated. An alternative indicator is the diverse array of interior design related courses that have
emerged over the last thirty years with titles such as spatial design, environmental design, as
well as interior architecture, and interior design. It is also interesting to see where these courses
are located. Some, for example, reside in design schools with architecture, some in architecture
schools, some in the arts and humanities, and some in the home sciences. Despite this diversity,
the traditional place of practice for interior design graduates remains largely the design firm,
undertaking small to large building related projects ranging from commercial to residential.
Given this as a dominant profile for professional practice, the review now shifts to the issues
faced by this type of interior design practice.
12
2.1.3 Issues in Interior Design Practice
As previously outlined, some of the issues facing interior design practice are internally
driven by the interior design professional bodies seeking for their members greater autonomy
and legitimacy. Despite the diversity of interior design practice, these bodies assume
sovereignty over the interior design practice as a whole advocating for a more defined
knowledgebase. For example, Thompson & Blossom (2015, p. 2) reports “…designer
approaches design in pr actice are dependent on a personal conception, then a shared
appreciation of this abstract knowledge of design is essential”. In this respect, there is a tension
created between the perceived need to define and draw boundaries around a specific body of
knowledge, and practice dealing with the external demands of a changing world that some
theorists suggest demands a greater capitalisation of hybridity and fluidity of practice.
As already noted, many of the issues impacting interior design practice are also impacting
other design disciplines and disciplines in general. Barnes (2015, pp. 173-174) describes these
as;
1. New forms of public-private relationships that change how design projects are
financed.
2. Integrated project delivery that changes collaboration in term of transparency with
clients.
3. Legislation changes that give more responsibility to designers.
4. Changing demographics that shift expectations and design demand.
5. Increasing global awareness and business.
Wheeler (2010) states that in today’s global economy interior design practice must have
a foundation of good business practice to thrive. Stephenson & Frankel (2002, p. 131) highlights
how the transformation of the global economy in the current millennium era “…affects the way
design work is implemented; which is more interactive and no longer follows the traditional
linear pattern of the design process”. They add that in the old economy, “…quality was the
measurement for which companies competed but in the new economy quality has become the
norm, and speed has replaced quality as the basis of competitive advantage” (p. 131). Table 2.1
shows the paradigm shift from the old economy to the new economy. In recognition of this,
Friedrichs (2002, p. 16) argues that “…design professionals should rethink linear and
segmented processes and begin to envision how everyone engaged in designing and
13
constructing the built environment should approach their practice to achieve the speed,
responsiveness, and innovation that clients require”.
Old Economy
New Economy
Theory of limited good
Propinquity
Local knowledge
Command and control
Technology backbone
Centralization
Fixed hard cost
Opacity
Tangible assets
Rigid
Dedicated use, single task
Long life
Bricks and mortar
Theory of unlimited good
Synchronicity
Ubiquity of access
Influence and trust
Appliance peer-to-peer
Network
Variable soft cost
Transparency
Intangible assets
Flexible
Multi-use, Multi-task
Half-life
Clicks and mortar
Table 2.1: Old Economy and New Economy Paradigms (Stephenson & Frankel, 2002, p. 130).
Stephenson & Frankel (2002, p.131) point out how “the designer’s new competencies rely
on a broader literacy about all subjects concerning the user”. They describe how “in the old
economy, the designer’s training was geared to issues important to the sponsor such as image,
function and efficiency” (p. 131), whereas nowadays more emphasis is placed on “…how work
gets done become the basis for design decisions and recommendations” (p. 131). The
comparison of paradigms presented in Table 2.2 reflects the need for an associated revolution
in the role on how design should be practice and conducted. For Duffy (2002(a), p. 267), this
view of a new economy based on “the exchange of knowledge rather than trading of goods”
demands that “design become more open ended, participative, and interactive”. To respond to
the current situation, Coleman (2002) argues the need for some design firms to move into
strategic design and planning, and other highly specialized areas of the design practice and
processes. According to Ikeda (2008, p. 373), strategic design “…is intended to promote the
performance and efficiency of a company in the eyes of its designers, consumers, and
competitors alike”.
Whatever the reasons, Best (2006, p. 12) advocates as necessary the need to
“…understand how and where design sits within a wider context, and how the true potential of
design can be exploited, professionally managed and utilised as a tool for innovation and
change”. Friedrichs (2002) argues that if an interior designer is attentive, they can anticipate
future demands and react to these demands appropriately. Arguments are also made for research
to become “an integral part of the practice of interior design” (Heerwagen, 2002, p. 329).
14
The Old Economy Relationship Matrix
Competencies
Goals
Responsibilities
Public
perception
Work
Relationship
Designer
Visualize
Technical
Problem solve
Function
Image
Budget
Concept
Drawing
Overview
Implementation
Client/owner
Contractor
Technical
Consultants
Specialized
Competitiveness
Futurize
Enabler
Support
Expertise
Designer
Client
Sponsor
Facilitate
Image
Function
Budget authority
Ownership
Contractor
Manage
Construct
Designer
User
Finance
Real Estate
Architect
Owner
Vendor
Vendor
Produce
Support
Support
Contractor
User
Value
Receive
Enable
Budget implementation
Time/schedule
Quality of products
Performance
Quality
Budget conformance
Internal information
Direct
Disburse funds
Manage
Vision
Conformance
Direct, finance
Drawing, intent, time
Supplier of information
Compliant
Client
Containment
Review
Control
Invisible
Client
Function
Image
Budget development
Interpretation
of strategic goals
Translation of
management objectives
Value added
Application alternative
State-of-the-art
equipment and
application
Concept
Drawing development
Technical consultant
Implementation
Implementers
Client/owner
Contractor
Align goals with
physical
requirements
Program potential
Vendor
Financial
Visionary
Facilitator
Align technical with
physical settings
Framework plan for
future applications
Architect
User
Finance
Strategic forecast
Market anticipation
Alliance
Architect
Owner
Vendor
Financial
User
The New Economy Relationship Matrix
Finance
Realization
Designer
Visualize
Technical
Problem solve
Establish goals
Technical
Consultants
Technology forecast
Program/Application
development
Client
Sponsor
Compose team
Establish goals
Facilitate
Image
Function
Budget authority
Strategic vision
Management objectives
Direction
Disbursement of funds
Management
Vision
Technology consultant
Ownership
Implement public
policy
Legislative
influence
Contractor
Manager
“Constructor”
Value engineering
Platform for future
applications
Budget implementation
Time/schedule
Quality of products
Performance
Continuous relationship
with client
Realization
Project
responsibilities
Vendor
Produce
On-going services
Just in time
applications
Quality of products
Budget conformance
Relationship building
with client, user
contractor
User
Value
Receive
Management
Distribution of funds
Establishing goals
Enable
Creative alternatives
Internal information
Tactical applications
of vision
Effectiveness
Conformance
direction, finance
drawing, intent, time
Benchmark
performance/
specifications
Alternative building
strategies
design/build
Support
design/build
Time reduction
State-of-the-art
recommendation/
application
Technical consultant
Review
Control
Monitor investment
Finance
Containment
Identify pay-back
periods
Investment
Support
Knowledge
Contractor
User
Compliant
Leadership
w/client
Client
Definition of needs
Space utilization
Invisible
Monitor
Client
Contractor
Vendor
Table 2.2: The old economy and new economy relationship matrix (Stephenson & Frankel, 2002, p. 132 & 133).
15
While the review to date presents critique on literature recognising the internal and
external issues facing interior design practice, unlike in architecture in relation to the research
of Cuff (1991) and Yaneva (2009), no significant research has been found that contributes to an
understanding of the nature of interior design as practiced. This thesis argues that such
knowledge is crucial for understanding more fully the current situation, and subsequently, future
opportunities of interior design practice. In a recent paper, Coleman (2015, p. x) asks: “If we
educate interior design students to be more globally aware, technologically, and economically
savvy, with leadership skills and new design methodologies, will they be leveraged properly in
practice?” She states that how we respond in part, will depend on “…geographic location, global
need, the business climate of that location, and the ambition, drive, and resiliency of the designer
or design firm” (p. x).
Unlike interior design, the nature of architectural practice has formed the focus of several
seminal studies. Intrigued by the many contradictions of architecture, Dana Cuff undertook an
ethnographic study commencing in 1980 of three architectural practices in the USA, while
Albena Yaneva in 2001 concentrated on one architectural office in Rotterdam. Cuff (1991, p.
4) describes practice as “…an action or performance” in regard to “…a method of action, in the
sense of habitual, customary, or routine”; and professional practice as “…the customary
performance of professional activities”, while Yaneva (2009, p. 12) describes it as a
“…cooperative activity of architects and support personal alike, humans and models, paint and
pixels, material sample and plans, all of which constitute the design world.”
As with this thesis study, Cuff (1991) and Yaneva (2009) adopted a case study approach
with the aim of collecting in-depth, qualitative data. Through its analysis, Cuff (1991, p. 250)
reports how “…design and art have been separated from business and management concerns,
in spite of the fact that the two domains are inextricably bound in everyday practice”. “To
understand the societies produced by architects, we need to look at them from the inside out
[…] begin it in the raw” (Yaneva, 2009, p. 100). As provided in the following section, these
studies invite further exploration of organizational culture and management.
2.2
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT
This section commences with an overview of general theory related to organizational
culture. This helps position the study in terms of its ethnographic orientation as well as
providing a backdrop for a following closer examination of design practice organizational
16
research. The second sub-section then focuses on organizational management followed by
project management.
2.2.1 Organizational Culture
Robbins (1990) defines an organization as a social entity striving to achieve common
goals, while Daft (2010, p. 11) describes organizations as (1) social entities that (2) are goaldirected, (3) designed as deliberately structured and coordinated activity systems, and (4) are
linked to the external environment. The organization is a framework of interconnected parts
with explicit responsibilities, division of labour and authority to perform certain functions
(Weber, 1984). In other words, the ‘organization’ has established boundaries and defined social
structures within which: all the participants undertake roles and coordinate actions; a
communication system exists; there are goals set and outcomes produced; and the whole sits
within a larger universal environment (Coffey, 2010). Thus, people within the organizations
interact among themselves to gain a benefit (Robbins, 1990). Daft (2010, p. 15) identifies two
organizational dimensions as follows:
1. Structural dimensions that provide labels to describe the internal characteristics of an
organization. They create a basis for measuring and comparing organizations.
2. Contextual dimensions that characterize the whole organization, including its size,
technology, environment, and goals.
People’s behaviour in the organization over time establishes common norms, customs,
and cultures. Culture is complicated and challenges definition. Culture is defined in a variety of
social disciplines by focusing on norms, mores, values, beliefs, customs, rituals, ceremonies,
morals, attitudes, practices, and other such concepts (Nicotera, Clinkscales, & Walker, 2003).
Hofstede (2011, p. 3) identifies culture as “the collective programming of the mind that
distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others”. Culture, then, is a
mental program with the concept of culture classified at the different level of depth beginning
with “…symbols, heroes, rituals, and values” (p. 9). As (Geert Hofstede, et al., 2010) elaborates:
1. Symbols as “words, gestures, pictures, or objects carry a particular meaning that is
recognized as such only by those who share the culture” (p. 8).
17
2. “Heroes are persons, alive or dead, real or imaginary, who possess characteristics that
are highly prized in a culture and thus serve as models for behaviour” (p. 8).
3. “Rituals are collective activities that are technically superfluous to reach desired ends
but that, within a culture, are considered socially essential” (p. 9).
4. Values are the core of cultures and “…are broad tendencies to prefer certain states of
affairs over others” (p. 9).
Symbols, heroes, and rituals can be united under the term practices as shown in Figure
2.1. While these are noticeable to an external observer their cultural meaning, however, is
invisible and exists only in the way these practices are interpreted by the insiders. The onion
metaphor as shown in Figure 2.1 by Hofstede, et al. (2010) is a popular conceptualisation,
however, it takes significant research effort to identify the contents of the core and understand
how it relates to the outer layers.
Figure 2.1: Manifestation of culture at different levels of depth (Hofstede, et al., 2010, p. 8).
Table 2.3: Value dimensions of culture (Hofstede, Pedersen, & Hofstede, 2002, p. 4).
18
The culture of people is a complex phenomenon consisting of subcultures that exhibit
some diversity and can be separated along various lines such as regional, social, professional,
ethnic, or other (Geert Hofstede, et al., 2010; Minkov, 2013). Dimensions of culture include:
identity, hierarchy, gender, truth, and virtue (G. J. Hofstede, Pedersen, & Hofstede, 2002)
(Table 2.3). Cultural value can range from high to low on these five dimensions of culture. Later
Hofstede, et al. (2010) revised these dimensions, (Geert Hofstede, 2016) summarized as
follows:
1. Power distance - deals with the disparities of individuals in societies. It manifests the
attitude of the culture towards inequalities among peoples. Power distance is defined as
“…the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations
expect and accept that power is distributed unequally”. (p.61)
2. Individualism and Collectivism - addresses the “…degree of interdependence a society
maintains among its members, whether people´s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or
“We." In Individualist societies people are care about themselves and their direct family
only. In Collectivist societies people belong to ‘in groups’ that take care of themselves
in exchange for loyalty”. (p.91)
3. Masculinity and Femininity - High masculinity “…indicates that the society driven by
competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner or bestin-the-field.” Low masculinity corresponds to femininity which means that the
“…dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life. A feminine
society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd
is not admirable. The fundamental issue is what motivates people, wanting to be the best
(masculine) or liking what you do (feminine)”. (p.139)
4. Uncertainty avoidance - the “…way that a society deals with the fact that the future
can never be known. This ambiguity brings with it anxiety and different cultures have
learnt to deal with this anxiety in different ways. The extent to which the members of a
culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs
and institutions that try to avoid these is regarded as uncertainty avoidance”. (p.190)
19
5. Long term orientation - how society prioritises existential goals differently by
“…maintaining some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the
present and future”. Low “long term orientation” character prefers to maintain timehonoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion while high
“long term orientation” takes a more pragmatic approach by encouraging thrift and
efforts in modern education to prepare for the future. (p.260)
6. Indulgence - defines “the extent to which people try to control their desires and
impulses based on the way they were raised. Relatively weak control is called
indulgence and relatively strong control is called restraint “(p.281)
Therefore, Hofstede, et al. (2010) asserts that people react according to their mental
software, which encompasses people’s ideas of what an organization should be like. A recent
study by Minkov (2013) reports that the relationship existing between national culture, and
organizational culture may be like the relationship between national culture and denominational
culture. He adds, just like organizations, religious denominations could differ drastically in
terms of the practices that they impose on their followers. However, they do not necessarily
differ much in terms of basic values.
Ashby (1999, p. 6) claims that actual culture often stems from the informal organization
- the acts, thoughts, and perceptions of the rank and file workers who have evolved from a
variety of sources. For Nicotera, et al. (2003), any organization with multiple national, ethnic,
racial, or societal cultures influencing its design and operation must be defined as culturally
diverse, even though its human membership may have been relatively high demographically,
or even in cultural terms, homogeneous. Hofstede, et al. (2010) claims an organization is a
social system dissimilar to a nation because the organization’s members usually do not grow up
in it and have to make a decision to join it.
Ashby (1999, p. 1) highlights the reason companies fail to meet current challenges is
complacency with the long-established systems and procedures in which they have always
worked. Hofstede, et al. (2010, p. 302) outlines how “organizing always requires the answering
of two questions: (1) who has the power to decide what?, and (2) what rules or procedures will
be followed to attain the desired ends?” Thus, leadership and appropriate procedures and rules
are important to the organization in striving for a good culture. Schein (2010 ) describes a
leader’s primary concern is creating the group and wanting it to succeed with leadership
20
involving external boundary management, survival, and growth. Successful management is how
leaders are usually assessed, however, not only are organizations culture bound; theories about
organizations are equally culture bound (Geert Hofstede, et al., 2010). For Beckhard (2006, p.
951), a healthy organization should:
1. Define itself as a system with the organization’s work involving the transformation of
needs and raw material into goods and services.
2. Employ team management as the dominant mode with an executive team managing
divisions and projects.
3. Operate in a “form follows function” mode reflecting the view that the “work to be done
determines the structures and mechanisms to do it. As a result, it uses multiple
structures: the formal pyramidal structure, horizontal structures and teams, project
structures, and temporary structures.”
According to Pettinger (2010, p. 311) organizational culture is based on.:
•
“the size, structure, complexity and diversity of the organization”.
•
the work that is carried out.
•
collective and individual perceptions, attitudes, values and beliefs.
•
the sources of power and influence, and how power and influence is [sic] used by
individuals, groups and departments.
•
the nature and strength of the leadership of the organization.
•
proposals and plans for the future, and how these are to be carried out”.
2.2.2 Organizational Management
Management, in the general sense, is the natural outcome of human association, whether
in industry, the household or government (Sheldon, 2003). According to Gray & Hughes (2001,
p. 8), the definition of ‘manage’ is to conduct things and people in order to achieve something.
In the latter sense then, to manage has also come to mean to accomplish something, usually
successfully. Management involves co-ordination, motivation, leadership and many aspects of
getting things done through other people. Drucker & Maciariello (2008, p. 3) emphasises how
the need for management does not arise just because the job has become too big for any person
to do alone. They point to how management has a link with the organization; without the
21
organization, there would be no management and without management, there would be only a
mob rather than an organization.
Fells (2000) refers to Fayol (1949) who identifies five elements or functions of
management: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. He explains
these further as:
•
Planning: choosing objectives and the strategies, policies, and procedures for
achieving them.
•
Organizing: establishing a structure of tasks, which have to be followed to achieve
the organization’s objectives, dividing these tasks up into jobs for individual
employees, delegating authority, coordinating the work of different people, and
setting up information and communication systems.
•
Commanding: giving instructions and leadership to subordinates.
•
Coordinating: harmonizing the work of different groups so that individuals are all
working towards the common goals of the organization.
•
Controlling: measuring, checking and correcting, if necessary, the results achieved,
to ensure that they match the planned results. (p. 346)
Dixon (2003), in support of Quinn (1996), identifies four key areas of competence
required in management system models. These are: rational goals; internal processes; human
relations; and open systems. He also adds eight external general value features as illustrated in
Figure 2.2. He claims this framework can be used as a tool to measure effectiveness, both of
organizations, and managers.
Further, Dixon (2003, p. 2) explains how effective management can transform an
inefficient, underperforming organization into a profitable, sound business, but the reverse is
also true as ineffectual managers can ruin sound businesses by allowing them to stagnate, with
content relying on past achievements rather than looking for new challenges. Therefore,
Drucker & Maciariello (2008) argues management is and should be culture-conditioned; in turn,
management and managers form culture and society. Thus, although management is an
organized body of knowledge and as such, applicable everywhere, it is also culture. It is not
“value-free” science. In other words, management aims to make sure the job gets done right
(Kemp, 2004), demanding more than just a set of tools and techniques (Maylor, 2002).
22
Figure 2.2: Competing values framework (Dixon, 2003, p. 19).
As mentioned previously, management is integrally tied to the structure of the
organization. While such a framework will be helpful in reviewing the practices selected as case
studies in this research, in the design professions it is also relevant to consider how project based
activity influences management. As the following section will reveal, project management has
become a profession in its own right.
2.2.3 Project Management
‘Project’ is defined by the Project Management Institute (2008, p. 5) as:
A temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.
The temporary nature of projects indicates a definite beginning and end. The end
is reached when the project's objectives have been achieved or when the project
is terminated because its objectives will not or cannot be met, or when the need
for the project no longer exists.
While Management Extra (2005, p.1) explains in detail the project characteristics as:
•
It is temporary: it has a clearly defined and agreed start and finish date.
23
•
It involves a connected sequence of activities: however short and localised, or long
and complex, a project will have a specific set of activities that are linked together
and interdependent.
•
It requires a range of resources: all projects will have a quantified and dedicated
resource requirement, such as people, systems, space, time, or specialist or expert
external input.
•
It has a specific and unique outcome, which can be evaluated: each project’s aims
and objectives will be different and unique to that project.
•
It introduces a change: a project, often, is used as an instrument for change. As a
result, differences may be expected in the way people work, communicate or go about
their daily lives.
In mature project management organizations, project management exists in broader
contexts. The project has “…an input and an output, with the process receiving and
subsequently transforming the input into the desired output” to make the project happen
(Cooper, Aouad, Lee, & Wu, 2007, p. 82). The project will take place under a set of controls or
constraints - these being elements generally from outside the project, which either provide the
basis for any assumptions or limit the project (Cicmil, 1997; Maylor, 2002) as illustrated in
Figure 2.3. However, the success of the project can be influenced by broader issues, such as
cash flow, marketing skills, capital investment and so on. There is always a limited amount of
time, money, and human and material resources (project constraints affecting all parties
involved) that can be integrated into the project network at any point of time to deliver the
outcome (the tangible change) with desired quality (Bruce, Cooper, & Vazquez, 1999, p. 297).
Therefore, project management is needed to make a project happen within time a frame and
budget in order to deliver the needed scope and quality (Williams, 2008).
The profession of project management is built around a central concept known as the
project. This concept is the foundation upon which the profession builds its body of knowledge,
conducts research, establishes standards, administers certification, and provides professional
development and academic accreditation (Project Management Institute, 2001, p. 17). Maylor
(2002) describes how project management is now an advanced and specialised branch of
management (not simply an extension of a technical specialism e.g. engineering or marketing),
requiring a full structure to take a project from strategy to action. According to the Project
24
Management Institute (2008, p. 6), “Project management is the application of knowledge, skills,
tools and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements.” Project management
is accomplished through the five processes such as “initiating, planning, executing, monitoring
and controlling, and closing.” Therefore, the role of project management covers the entire
spectrum of management knowledge, making it a broad-based study, not confined to tools and
techniques or technical issues (Maylor, 2002). Project management is about balancing the
necessities of all the players in the project (Fewings, 2005).
Constraints:
▪ Financial
▪ Legal
▪ Ethical
▪ Environmental
▪ Logic
▪ Activation
▪ Time
▪ Quality
▪ Indirect effects
Input
Want/need
Project
Output
Satisfied need
Mechanisms:
▪ People
▪ Knowledge and expertise
▪ Capital
▪ Tools and techniques
▪ technology
Figure 2.3: Nature of the project input and output (Maylor, 2002, p. 26).
Projects may vary in size but have a common idea of a series of activities that are planned
and coordinated in such a way that a client or sponsor can eventually make a judgement of the
value for their investment. (Management Extra, 2005) points to how every project creates a
unique product, service or result causing uncertainties about the products, services, or results.
Project tasks can also be new to a project team that necessitates more dedicated planning than
other routine work. “The more unique the work is the more project management thinking and
tools are useful to help get the job done right” (Kemp, 2004, p. 5). (Figure 2.4). Thus,
“management offers value by ensuring consistent results and increasing efficiency; that is,
getting more work done at lower cost” (Kemp, 2004, p. 5).
25
Uniqueness of the job
Less
More
Production work
Project work
Routine
Operations management
Standard operating procedures
Standardization and efficiency
Varied
Project management
Project planning and tracking
Success and effectiveness
Figure 2.4: The uniqueness of job distinguishes project from production work (Kemp, 2004, p. 5).
Projects do not have the same conditions, meaning that the challenges of managing the
project can also vary. The Project Management Institute (2008, p. 6) states that a project
typically includes:
•
Identifying requirements.
•
Addressing the various needs, concerns, and expectations of the stakeholder as the
project is planned and carried out.
•
Balancing the competing project constraints, including, but not limited to scope,
quality, schedule, budget, resources and budget.
Gray & Hughes (2001) describe the design project as a complex process that continues to
grow in complexity, and with this the level and type of management. Not all tools, techniques
and management ideas are universally applicable. A simple project that takes a week to
complete clearly has very different managerial requirements from the multi-site, high-budget
project (Maylor, 2002). Therefore, “…effective management processes of planning, monitoring
and control are required to translate the idea of change into tangible deliverables that, at the end
of the project output, must match the client’s expectation and lead to project success”. (Cicmil,
1997, p. 392).
For Rogers (2002, p. 673), project management is the act of leading a group of people
through a process to achieve a goal. In addition, successful project management requires that
the design professional employs leadership skills, management skills, professional and industry
knowledge, and practical experience with a special and broad skill set. Therefore, project
management competencies are the capability to manage projects professionally by applying best
practices regarding the design of the project management process, and the application of project
26
management methods, which enables the project to meet its deadlines and objectives (Gareis &
Huemman, 1999)
The Project Management Institute (2008, p. 13) explains how effective project
management requires that the project manager possesses:
•
Knowledge: what the project manager knows about project management.
•
Performance: what the project manager can do or accomplish while applying their
project management knowledge.
•
Personal: how the project manager behaves when performing the project or related
activity.
Rogers (2002) sees the project manager in the same way as a team’s orchestra leader,
using his or her baton to direct and coordinate the different groups of people at the right time,
through many tasks and activities, to achieve the goals of the project. Pursuing this further, the
project manager must understand the relationship of the work of each group to other groups in
the accomplishment of the total project (Rogers, 2002). Therefore, in order to be successful, a
project manager must have good technical knowledge as well as understand people.
Cicmil (1997, p. 391) states, as project management “…repositions itself from a middlemanagement focused discipline into a business philosophy to support organizational strategic
change, it is crucial to communicate and establish an appropriate attitude to reap the benefits of
the new organizational order”. For this reason, many organizations have altered their project
management structure as a critical element in the fulfilment of their long-term strategy to
facilitate more effective cross-functional, project-oriented, approaches to getting business done
(Project Management
Institute, 2001, p. 45). Figure 2.5 shows the relation of project
management in the project and organizational context.
27
Figure 2.5: Project management from multiple perspectives (Cicmil1997, p. 391).
The project passes through some well-defined stages from an initial idea to completion.
This is called the project life cycle. According to the Project Management Institute (2008), the
project life cycle, as illustrated in Figure 2.6, is a collection of generally sequential and
sometimes overlapping project phases, the name and number of which are determined by the
management and control needs of the organizations involved in the project, the nature of the
project itself, and its area of application. Additionally, all projects can be mapped to the
following life cycle structure:
•
Starting the project
•
Organizing and preparation
•
Carrying out the project work
•
Closing the project.
28
Figure 2.6: Project life cycle within cost, staffing and time (Project Management Institute, 2008, p.16).
For Kemp (2004), the project life cycle as shown in Table 2.4 involves a concept stage,
analysis stage, design stage, development stage, transition to production stage, and project
close.
Stage of which the gate is the end
Concept:
define project goals
Analysis:
fully develop the definition of the output
of the project
Design:
defines exactly what to making, that is,
the product or service specification
Development:
prevent problems and keep things on
track
Transition:
Deliver the product or service to the
customer.
Close:
evaluate the project and its results
Deliverable
Brief plan
Initial cost estimate
Initial time estimate
Risk assessment
Project overview
Product or service specification
Context diagram
List of stakeholders and roles
Risk plan
Detailed work plan and schedule
Detail budget
Detailed risk plan
Quality plan
The product or service, tested and ready to use
Technical and user documentation
Delivery or installation plan
A fully operational, documented, supported product or
service
Legal and financial closure
Project lessons learned
Table 2.4: Project life cycle stage gate. Adapted from Kemp (2004, p. 70).
29
Feasibility
Conception
Inception
Strategy
Design and
tendering
Construction
Engineering
commission
Completion and
handover
Client occupation
and commission
Figure 2.7: Life cycle of construction projects (Fewings, 2005, p. 8).
Fewings (2005) asserts that “the life cycle of a project from a client’s point of view really
starts when there is a formal recognition of project objectives, generally termed the inception,
through to the delivery of these objectives,…”(p. 7) generally referred to as “…the completion
or project delivery” (p. 7) stage as illustrated in Figure 2.7. In addition, he argues that, “in
construction projects the inception stage is generally associated with the commissioning of
external consultants in different parts of a life cycle…” (p. 8), which is often managed by
different people. Moreover, not all organizations are involved throughout the entire process
from inception to finalization of a building project. In contrast, The Project Management
Institute (2008, p. 27) explains how “organizational culture, style, and structure influence how
projects are performed…” and the “...integrative nature of project management requires the
monitoring and controlling process group to interact with other process groups” (p. 40) as
illustrated in Figure 2.8. In addition, managing projects is a restricted effort, the initiating
process group begins the project and the closing process group ends it, with the planning,
executing, monitoring and controlling groups responsible for:
•
Scope Management
•
Time Management
•
Cost Management
•
Quality Management
•
Human Resource Management
•
Communication Management
•
Risk Management
•
Procurement Management.
30
Project Time
Management
Project Scope
Management
Collect
Requirements
Define
Activities
Estimate Activity
Resources
Sequence
Activities
Estimate Activity
Durations
Project Cost
Management
Estimate
Costs
Develop
Schedule
Define
Scope
Determine
Budget
Create WBS
Project Procurement
Management
Project Integration
Management
Project Quality
Management
Plan
Procurements
Develop Project
Management Plan
Plan
Quality
Project Human
Resource Management
Project Risk
Management
Plan Risk
Management
Perform Qualitative
Risk Analysis
Identify
Risk
Perform Quantitative
Risk Analysis
Plan Risk
Responses
Develop Human
Resource Plan
Project Communications
Management
Plan
Communications
The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of
the Project Integration Management Knowledge Area. This
Knowledge Area coordinates and unifies the processes from
the other Knowledge Areas
Figure 2.8: Project planning process group (Project Management Institute, 2008, p. 47).
Therefore, companies which most successfully utilize the project management ‘‘way-ofworking’’ have a combined focus on identifying their project life cycle (the most optimum
procedures to take product or services to market), developing their knowledge/competency
(how to best implement these procedures) and have the support of the organization towards a
project management “way-of-working” (Figure 2.9) (Eve, 2007, p. 85).
It is against the backdrop of this broader discussion, and in response to calls such as that
by Knacksted (2013, p. 314) for designers to include project management and supervision for
better management and revenue in their practice, that the following section on design
31
management is presented. As will be evident, the nature of architectural and interior design
practice challenges a broad application of management and project management theory.
Figure 2.9: Three areas of focus for developing successful project management systems (Eve, 2007).
2.3
DESIGN MANAGEMENT
In this section, design management is used as an overarching concept incorporating design
practice management, project management, and design process management. As the following
review will reveal, the interconnection of these concepts has contributed to various
interpretations and inconsistent use of the terms. Despite this, the review will reveal general
agreement in terms of the unique nature of management in design practice and of the need to
understand this further, particularly in the case of a changing world and emerging design
disciplines and professions such as interior design.
2.3.1 Design Practice Management
.....the term “practice” always carries the implication of action; “discipline” refers
to the methods and processes people use to achieve a certain goal, while practice
refers to the application of those methods and processes (Grand, 2008, p. 304).
Before proceeding, it should also be noted here that the type of interior design practice of
interest is that which operates as a ‘profession’ providing a service, not interior design firms or
shops that are predominantly retailers of interior products.
32
Given that interior design practice is commonly intertwined with and within architectural
practice, the following section also considers research to do with architectural practice and how
its management is conceptualized. In this respect, architectural practice as with interior design
and other design practices, can be viewed as:
…the setting where ethos and circumstance lock horns, where individual and
professional goals combine with budgets, deadlines, skills, organization, power, context
and regulations (Cuff, 1991, p. 62).
According to Cuff (1991, p. 45), “every architectural office is a setting where human
resources are organized to obtain commissions and deliver services”. Persuing this further,
Knackstedt (2013, p. 313) highlights the need for the interior designer and architect to work
together and communicate with and as part of numerous systems. In this regard, Staples (2008,
p. 119) uses the term “design management” to describe a range of micros and macro-level
practices for planning and implementing design processes within the context of business
performance. She says;
.....at the micro level, design management encompasses tasks relevant to the completion
of individual projects. Spanning the life cycle of a project, these tasks can include
proposal writing, design briefing, contracting, budgeting, staffing, scheduling,
sketching, prototyping, day-to-day workflow management, production oversight, quality
control, documentation, and archiving. At the macro level, design management
encompasses tasks relevant to the utilization of design for competitive advantage and
the fulfilment of business objectives. These tasks can include strategic planning,
organizational design, branding and identity, marketing communications, standards
and policies, initiatives (sustainability), and various forms of research (customer,
competitor, materials, and technologies). Some tasks pertain to both levels (budgeting,
staffing) but differ in scale and degree of authority.
In summary, design management at the micro level can be described as how design
practice conducts its project management task, while at the macro level it relates to how the
design firm conducts its own design practice management. For Harpum (2007, p. 33), design
management at one end of the spectrum is business oriented while at the other end of the
spectrum it pertains to project management with design managers having only a coordination
33
role. Therefore, design management has two main functions: managing the design practice; and
managing the design project as projected in Figure 2.10.
COMPANY DIRECTOR
DESIGN MANAGEMENT
MANAGING DESIGN PRACTICE
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
MANAGING DESIGN PROJECT
Design Project
Business Objectives
Task
Objectives
Strategic planning
Task
Organizational
• Project life cycle
Sharing Task
design
• Design and Project brief
Budget
Branding and
• Design and Project
Quality
identity
development
Time
Marketing
• Site Operation
Staff
Standards and
• Project Completion.
Scheduling
policies
Initiatives
Research
Concern with question “what” to design
Concern with question “how” to design
Figure 2.10: Design practice and design project in the context of design management. Adapted from Harpum
(2007).
Apart from recognising the project as a central element of design practice, the discussion
to date remains largely generalised. In further appreciating the distinctive nature of design
practice including interior design practice, it is helpful to extend the notion of the design firm
beyond that of just a service organization to that of a knowledge-based organization (KBO).
One of the most distinctive characteristics of KBOs is that they have only the expertise
of their staff as assets with which to trade. It is this which distinguishes them most
clearly from organizations in the production industries which all deploy other assets
such as fixed plant (e.g aeroplanes), property (e.g. hotels and retailing), or liquid
capital (e.g. banks) (Winch & Schneider, 1993, p. 923).
This is noted here to provide further context to the more micro focus on design project
management that follows.
34
2.3.2 Design Project Management
Best (2006, p. 11) describes design management as the management of the design project
including the activity of designing and problem solving. She adds that an important aspect of
managing design is to understand the goals of the organisation and to design by effectively
assimilating ways and means, the tools and method, the team and planning requirements and
the passion and enthusiasm for a successful project outcome. However, as Harpum (2007, p.
58) observes, “the relationship between design and the project, and hence between design
management and project management, varies tremendously. In some sectors, project
management is subservient to design management; in others, project management dominates
design management”.
The design project as a ‘design project’ has its unique characteristics and complexities
that need to be understood carefully (Dorst, 2008; Erlhoff & Marshall, 2008; Blessing &
Chakrabarti, 2009). In general, the project process encompasses the phases of the design effort,
from pre-design services through contract administration (Rogers, 2002). Harpum (2007, p. 37)
explains how a lot of problems “… are usually found early in the life cycle where greater
creativity is needed for developing concept designs than when working on the detailed solutions
to the chosen concept”. Additionally, design projects require team effort aiming to function like
a well-oiled machine with each part working in the right way and at the right time with the other
parts.
According to Fewings (2005, p. 13), “the construction and design sides need to coordinate their operations right through the life cycle and this model of an executive project
manager feeding through to respective design and construction co-ordinators ensures that this
happens”. In addition, he explains “the design manager’s role is to co-ordinate the various
design functions and if necessary specialist design expertise as and when needed” (p. 13) while
“…the construction manager’s role is to tender specialist packages, set up site procedures and
integrate the construction programme and the interfaces between specialist packages” (p.13).
Figure 2.11 illustrates the relations between the project team and construction team, while Table
2.5 highlights “…how different members of the team play leading roles at activities, which are
predominant in each of the life cycle stages assuming a project structure using an executive
project manager” (Fewings, 2005, p. 13). Therefore, the size of the design team is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the overall effort and the time frame in which the work is to
be completed (Rogers, 2002, p. 689). It should be said, however, that for small to medium
35
projects and depending on the size of the design firm, there may be no separation between the
design and construction team.
Figure 2.11: Project structure diagram in an executive project management model (Fewings, 2005, p. 12).
The understanding of project management can vary across the design, construction and
project management professions as conveyed graphically in Table 2.6 where the stages of a
project in construction are compared with the stages in an architectural (and, interior design)
project and both with the phases of project management as expressed by that profession. In
summary, the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) plan of work is what is normally
used in an architectural project for managing design and as is evident in Table 2.6 contains more
detail than the project life cycle and project management approaches. As Lawson (2005) points
out, the RIBA plan of work prepared for the RIBA Architectural Practice and Management
Handbook 1965 is the most popular guide commonly used by architects in the UK as well as
elsewhere including Australia and Malaysia. The map of the design project life cycle according
to the RIBA plan of work consists of a briefing stage, a sketch plan stage, working drawings
stage and the site operation stage as shown in Table 2.6. Stage A to H is a pre-contract phase
chiefly incorporating design process while stage J to M is a post-contract phase involving the
construction phase. The process is a linear and stage-by-stage guideline, although in practice
this tends to be iterative. Traditionally, in architectural practice the architect has led the
management of the project definition stage.
36
Stage
Role
Inception
Client business objectives interpreted to strategic brief
Professional interpretation and development of brief to determine value and
performance
Outline planning
Feasibility
Test for viability and/or option appraisal
Project risks assessed
Outline design and cost plan
Funding and location
Client go ahead on scheme
Client
approvals
CA1
Leader
Client advisor
PM
Architect
PM/ QS
Architect/QS
PM
CA2
Appoint professional design team
PM/Architects
Strategy
Decide on procurement route, RM, cost control and quality management
CA2a
PM/(CM)
Scheme design
A scheme design and planning application
CA3
PM/Design Team
Leader
QS
PM/CM
Planning
Supervisor
Cost plan and cost checks – iterative with client
Build ability testing. Building regulations approval
Health and safety co-ordination
Tender
Prepare detail design and bill of quantities
Tender documents
Pre-tender health and safety plan
Construction
Appoint contractor(s)
Mobilisation of construction process, tender sub-contractors, health and safety
plan
Time, quality and cost control
Commissioning
Test and snag all systems
Ensure equipment compliance and efficiency to meet client objectives
Post-project
review
Feed back into future projects
Lessons for client
Lessons for PM
Occupation
Recheck ‘underuse’ conditions
Manuals and training
Architect/QS
CA4
CA4a
CA5
PS
CM/QS/Architect
CM/
QS
CM/Architect
CA6
Client
PM
Client/User
Abbreviations: PM = project manager, CM = construction manager, QS = quantity surveyor, PS = planning supervisor, CA = client
approval.
Table 2.5: Roles of project team at each stage of implementation (Fewings, 2005, p.14).
As is evident, the design process represented from stage A to F in the RIBA plan of work
is not represented in the project management approach unless it is a design and build project. In
terms of interior design, Duvall (2002) identifies six basic phases of designing, which are
“…programming, schematic design, design development, contract documents, bidding and
negotiation, and contract administration” (p. 367). The Design Institute of Australia (2001b), in
their practice notes, outlines the design stage, contract stage and administration stage of interior
design method for the use of their members as illustrated in Table 2.7. In all, design management
“…attempts to improve the efficiency of the design process and its integration with the
construction process” (Fewings, 2005, p. 225).
37
Post-Contract
Site Operation
K
L
Feed back
Occupation
Handover
Commission
M
Closing
Monitoring &
Controlling
Executing
Planning
Initiating
Construction
Completion
Operation on Site
Project Planning
Tender Action
Bills of Quantity
Production
Information
Detail Design
J
Designing and
Tendering
Scheme Design
Feasibility
Feasibility and Strategy
Pre-Contract
Sketch Plan
Working Drawings
C
D
E
F
G
H
Outline Proposal
Inception
Inception
Briefing
A
B
PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
(Project
Management
Institute, 2008)
PROJECT LIFE
CYCLE IN
CONSTRUCTION
(Fewings, 2005)
RIBA PLAN OF
WORK
(Lawson, 2005)
Phase
Stage
Table 2.6: Comparison of project management plan of work.
Stage
Design Stage
Contract Stage
Administration
Stage
Task
Formulation of brief and site survey
Preliminary sketch drawing
Cost plan
Witten report
Detailed construction drawings and specifications, liaison with
specialist consultants.
Obtain firm prices for works either by calling of tenders or
negotiating contracts.
Submission of tender reports and recommendations.
Application to relevant authorities.
Appointment of successful tenderers, preparation of contracts.
Placing orders for furniture or fitments.
Commencement of work on site.
Periodic quality control inspections.
Attendance at site meetings
Administration of the selected contract.
Certification of invoices for payment.
Project cost reconciliation
Table 2.7: Interior design services guideline. Adapted from The Design Institute of Australia (2001b).
38
What has been alluded to in this section is the need to see the project in terms of the
development of a design idea (design(ing) process) in relationship with but in some ways
separate to its realisation through contract administration and construction. Each has its own
particular demands in terms of management. Overall, project management involves stewarding
creative activities in a business context (Staples, 2008). Harpum (2007, p. 35) describes how in
current practices “…the paradigm of project management has tended not to acknowledge the
creative (hence artistic) aspect of design”. He adds that the project “life cycle only describes the
management of a strictly limited set of ‘‘pure’’ project management tasks: start-up, plan,
implement, close down” (p.43). Similarly, Bonifer (2010, p. 1) reports on how design
management “is currently predominantly characterized by project management and design
managers are often seen as facilitators of the design process in a project management sense”.
Harpum (2007, p. 43) explains the danger “…of the disassociation of design from project
management implied by the product-oriented life cycle leads to insufficient attention being paid
to the management of design”. In all, however, it is vital to appreciate the highly creative nature
of the early stages of the design process. The challenge, then, is how to manage the
unpredictability of this to achieve more efficient management overall.
2.3.3 Design Process Management
For O'Donnell & Duffy, (2005, p. 62) managing a creative process involves striving to
achieve “ an acceptable level of effectiveness against design goals”. For Cross (2000, p. 189),
design process management should provide a methodology or framework of intended processes
within which to operate; and a management control function permitting to adaptation and
studying about the problem and its acknowledgements to the actions. Kroes (2002, p. 290)
describes design methodology as a ‘rational reconstruction’, with “…a schematised description
of real design procedures, consisting of rationally prescribed steps, which should lead to
essentially better results compared with existing design procedures”. Therefore, design
methodology is primarily concerned with the question of “how to design” and good strategies
to generate better models, techniques to aid the finding of solutions rather than with “what to
design” (Shakeri & Brown, 2004, p. 117). An aspect of this might be to provide “…mechanisms
to detect and manage conflicts and coordination to support the refinement of the design process”
(Lu, Cai, Burkett, & Udwadia, 2000, p. 73).
39
Dorst & Royakkers (2006) states that irrespective of the paradigm every methodological
framework aims to produce a better design process in order to produce better design outputs.
Therefore for some theorists, design methodology has to secure a number of principles for
quality, establishing the success and the shortcoming of the design project (Kroes, 2002).
Fewings (2005, p. 227) outlines nine essential steps focusing on design for successful project
management. The steps are:
•
Recognise the inherent complexity of design
•
Carefully manage the designer selection process
•
Recognise the changing design leadership role as the design progresses
•
Integrate information supply with construction need
•
Obtain agreement at key decision points
•
Actively manage the integration of contributions
•
Plans at each stage
•
Manage the interfaces
•
Control design development
Downton (2003) defines method as a way of doing a thing that has been reflected upon,
considered and evaluated, and is thus considered to be repeatable and likely to produce the same
outcome if followed by another user. For Rickenberg (2008, p. 121), design methods “…are the
rules and routines with which practitioners develop common perspectives and build upon
lessons learned by others”. Archer (1984, p. 58) argues that a design method is the “most
fundamental challenge to conventional ideas on design, and represents systematic methods of
problem solving borrowed from computer techniques and management theory for the
assessment of design problems and the development of design solutions”. Maddox (2002)
highlights however how the method of approaching the process of design should vary due to
the project size and type in line with the design firm’s philosophy and their resources.
Lawson (2005) describes the design method as a series of actions or steps towards
achieving a particular end; the process starts with some sort of problem and finishes with some
sort of solution. Thus, design might be perceived as a mainly linear activity, with a start point
and an end point.
40
However, “the reality is that within the process many of the individual tasks are
interrelated and highly dependent upon one another, so changes to one element of a design
solution will often require that earlier parts of the process are revisited and revised as
appropriate” (Dodsworth, 2009, p. 13). Luckman (1984) defines “the process of design as the
translation of information in the form of requirements, constraints, and experience into potential
solutions, which are considered by the designer to meet required performance characteristics”
(p. 84). “In practice-oriented disciplines such as architecture, product design, or engineering,
the design process is generally viewed as the means by which people shape their surroundings.
Designers are expected to define problems that can be solved in a step-wise manner…toward
some pre-defined goal” (Teixeira & Rickenber, 2008, p. 128). However, as Teixeira &
Rickenber (2008) also point out, designing in relation to environments in most cases cannot be
underpinned by assumptions of stability. For Aken (2005, p. 401), formal management of the
design process becomes more necessary as scale and complexity increases “because in such
settings face-to face contacts and informal feedback lose their power to correct possible flaws
in the design process”.
In all, Howard, Culley, & Dekoninck (2008) points out how linkages in the overall process
need to be understood in-order to enhance and fully utilize creativity tools, methods and
techniques. Harpum (2007, p. 51) explains how “planning for the project and planning for the
design stages are inextricably linked” with “many inputs to project planning flowing from the
earlier stages of the design work”. For Cross (2000) improving the design process and its
management relies on the continued development of design methods and associated procedures,
techniques, aids or ‘tools’ for designing. However, design stages often overlap in a confusing
way (Archer, 1984), creating poor understanding of how designers design (Cross, 2000) in order
to develop more appropriate methods. In addition, he adds that although several design process
models have been developed, it remains an important issue of debate. As he describes:
....there is never a guarantee that ‘correct’ solutions can be found for design...in this
context, a solution-focused strategy is clearly preferable to a problem-focused one: it
will always be possible to go on analysing ‘the problem’, but the designer’s task is to
produce ‘the solution’... in order to cope with ill-defined problems, designers have to
learn to have the self-confidence to define, redefine and change the problem-as-given
in the light of the solution that emerges from their minds and hands…(Cross, 2006, p.
7).
41
Many previous researchers have proposed design process models such as Cross (2000),
Fewings (2005) and Harpum (2007). Jones (1984) states that in any design process, it must
permit logical analysis and creative thought to proceed together if any progress is to be made.
Therefore, during the transition process from problem analysis to be solution-seeking, there are
three distinct stages: (1) analysis: to list of all design requirements; (2) synthesis: to find possible
solutions for everyone performance; and (3) evaluation: to evaluate alternative designs before
final design is selected (Luckman, 1984, Jones, 1984) as shown in Figure 2.12. For Akin (1984)
the analysis-synthesis-evaluation cycle lies at the heart of almost all normative design methods.
Additionally, Lawson (2005) regards analysis, synthesis and evaluation starting with identifying
the problems in order to produce a solution as the fundamental activity of designers.
Figure 2.12: Graphical map of design process (Lawson, 2005, p. 40).
O'Donnell & Duffy (2005, p. 62) regards design activity as having “…distinguishing key
phases such as conceptual design and detailed design, with each phase resulting in different
stages of the development of a product” through analysis, synthesis and evaluation. They note
how “…activity modelling has received significant attention in research over the last 30 years
aiming at the development of both descriptive and prescriptive models” (p. 23). Cross (2000)
identifies three models of the design process: descriptive, prescriptive and integrative models.
Figure 2.13 conveys the descriptive model with the basic concept of a linear connection between
the activities.
42
Cross (2000) describes descriptive and prescriptive models as:
Descriptive models of the design process usually identify the significance of generating
a solution concept early in the process, thus reflecting the solution-focused nature of
design thinking. This initial solution conjecture is then subjected to analysis, evaluation,
refinement and development...the process is heuristic: using previous experience,
general guidelines and rules of thumb that lead in what the designer hopes to be the
right direction, but with no absolute guarantee of success...a simple four-stage model of
the design process consisting of: exploration, generation, evaluation and
communication. (p. 29)
...prescriptive models have emphasised the need for more analytical work to proceed
the generation of solution concepts. The intention is to try to ensure that the design
problem is fully understood, that no important elements of it are overlooked, and that
the real problem is identified. (p. 34)
EXPLORATION
GENERATION
EVALUATION
COMMUNICATIONN
Figure 2.13: A simple four-stage descriptive model of the design process (Cross, 2000, p. 30).
According to Fewings (2005), however, it is important to comprehend the iterative aspect
of design as illustrated in Figure 2.14 and allocate time for reflection and development to
manage it because the purpose of management is to optimize creativity and design effect in its
consideration of value and performance. He adds that the management of design is most
applicable in controlling cost at the detail stage.
43
Figure 2.14: Iterative design process (Fewings, 2005).
Cross (2000) identifies seven stages of the design process method with the aim to integrate
the procedural conditions of design with the physical aspects of design problems in engineering
fields as illustrated in Figure 2.15. Referring to Figure 2.15, “…procedural aspects are
represented by the sequence of methods (anti-clockwise, from top left), and the structural
aspects are represented by the arrows showing the commutative relationship between problem
and solution and the hierarchical relationships between problem/sub-problems and between
sub-solutions/ solution” (p. 59). Later, Harpum (2007) maps the design process management
framework to concept design, plan design, carryout design work and design deliverables in
order to meet the design objectives in industrial sectors as illustrated in Figure 2.16. In the
meantime, Harpum (2007) suggests a detail design process stage gate control framework for
industrial design as illustrated in Figure 2.17 to ensure appropriate consideration is given to the
revision work, while not discontinuing the work in the next stage from progressing.
Overall
problem
Overall
solution
Clarifying
objectives
Improving
details
Establishing
functions
Evaluating
alternatives
Setting
requirements
Determining
characteristics
Generating
alternatives
Sub-problems
Sub-solutions
Figure 2.15: Seven stages of the design process method (Cross, 2000, p 58).
44
Feasibility is included in this part of the
process, as it is part of definition of the
agreed final concept design
Define and agree concept
design
Plan design:
• Deliverables to
achieve design
conceived
• Forecast time to carry
out design
• Forecast cost to carry
out design
Scope of design work
Design Schedule
Design Budget
Revise and update plan
Measure performance of design
work
Carry out design work
Monitor work
against plan
Implement control actions
Design deliverables
Figure 2.16: Design process management framework (Harpum, 2007, p 47).
Requirements
Concept design
Decision to sanction project usually
made at this stage
Feasibility studies
Soft gate
Outline design
Hard gate
Detail design
Fuzzy gate
Fuzzy gate
Overlapping these stages can be done
when there are short timescales for
project delivery. Management of the
design and implement interface is
critical if this is not to lead to loss of
control in both stages
Make
Basic stage gate rules
HARD GATE
SOFT GATE
Prior stage
Prior stage
Next stage
Rework within previous stage. All design
moves forward or all design is rejected
FUZZY GATE
Prior stage
Next stage
Rework within next stage, all design moves
forward.
Next stage
Rework within previous stage. Complying
part of design moves forward, non
complying part reworked in previous stage
Figure 2.17: Design process stage gate control framework (Harpum, 2007, p. 47).
45
For Harpum (2007, p. 51), “uncertainty in the design stages of a project should be actively
managed by carrying out risk identification and assessment, and then implementing action plans
or strategy to reduce the risks or minimize the effects of risks if they actually occur”. In addition,
he adds it is becoming increasingly common to manage opportunities as well as risks, and there
are often many opportunities to be found in the design stages. Design strategies are intended to
promote the performance and efficiency of a design practice (Ikeda, 2008). Cross (2000, p. 187)
states that the purpose of “…having a design strategy is to ensure that activities remain realistic
with respect to the constraints of time, resources, etc., within which the design team has to
work” as it aimed to narrow the search for solutions and satisfactory design. For example, The
Design Institute of Australia (2001c) in their practice notes recommends that design companies
set up a quality system or procedure in order to sustain quality of service and product. In
addition, it argues the need for the design company to follow the Quality Assurance System in
accordance with AS/NZS ISO 9001:1994, and conduct an assessment by reviewing their
management and design output as tools to ensure the quality. However, O'Donnell & Duffy
(2005) indicates that the ability “…to identify the relationship between such methods, tools, etc.
and improved design performance when implemented in industry is currently lacking” (p. 18).
Therefore, “there is a need to establish a means to identify this relationship and support
decision-making regarding the best way to improve performance” (p. 18). Further to this
however, they warn of the dangers of trying to faithfully represent actual processes and activities
in abstract ways through models.
In all, Best (2006) suggests that the evolution of design from 'style and aesthetic' to a
means of improving product, services, processes and operations will direct the issues of how
design is managed. Her further argument is that internal and external demands need to be taken
into account in the management of design, and all the aspects need to be managed accordingly.
As Mill & Ion (1994) suggests, “a new design process requires more than just a change in
practices; it calls for a change in attitudes and often organizational changes as well” (p. 9).
Additionally, Ahire & Dreyfus (2000) argues that to attain superior outcomes, there has to be a
concerted effort over the long term to manage design and process and that all aspects be given
equal emphasis.
46
2.4
CONCLUSION
In summary, the chapter examines literature in relation to the profession of interior design
highlighting issues to do with its perception as a legitimate practice and calls for it to more
clearly define its boundaries, particularly in terms of its relationship with architecture. The
chapter also cites literature presenting a contrasting argument for the profession to become
‘undisciplined’ and fluid; to capitalise further on its hybridity in response to emerging global
trends demanding new ways of conceptualising the nature of interior design practice.
Due to interior design’s historical and current relationship with architectural practice, and
that no equivalent culturally oriented research exists to do with interior design practice, the
chapter then reviews seminal research to do with the culture of architectural practice. This, in
turn, reveals the cultural nature of management and the need for studies of practice and its
management to be culturally focused. A subsequent review of organizational culture and
management literature including project management literature reinforced further the need for
discipline-specific studies that acknowledge the creative nature of design service and
knowledge and the inherent tension between this, aesthetic ideals and the need for design
practices to operate as a business. A closer examination of design project and design process
management undertaken in the chapter draws out the nuanced complexity of the design process
and, therein, the limitation of applying general organizational and management theory. It also
suggests caution in considering theory from allied areas such as construction management,
project management, industrial design and engineering.
In all, the chapter highlights a major gap in interior design discipline knowledge regarding
how it is currently practiced in different settings. The thesis argues that addressing this gap is
fundamental to interior design’s evolution in a rapidly changing world.
In addition, the review raises several questions including:
•
How is interior design work implemented/enacted in practice? How do designers
understand design management? Does what they say differ to what they do? Do they
differentiate between different aspects of management? Is there a discrepancy in the
use of terms? Is there a relationship between project type and management approach?
•
What do designer regard as best practice management? How relevant is current
management theory to interior design’s creative process and practice? Can
management theory make a contribution or should it be reconsidered in the light of
47
empirical research? Do the findings suggest a new theory of interior design
management in practice?
•
How aware are designers of the changing social and economic context and of the
need to reconsider their design practice? How prepared are they to change? What do
designers emphasise in their practice? How is the success of a design project
measured?
In conclusion, the approach adopted by this thesis study as outlined in detail in the
following chapter is to explore from a cultural perspective how interior design is managed in
practice and, through its resulting conceptual framework, to provide an empirical basis to
support more informed debate and speculation about its future.
48
Chapter 3: Research Design, Methodology and
Method
This chapter discusses the way in which the study was designed and implemented in
response to its aims and associated questions. Supporting this is discussion of its theoretical and
methodological underpinning.
As outlined previously, the study responds to a gap in theory related to interior design
practice. This is particularly pronounced in terms of how practice is managed. Specifically, the
study seeks to respond to the primary question:
What is the nature of interior design as it is currently practiced in Australia and
Malaysia?
The decision to explore selected practices in Australia and Malaysia reflects an associated
interest in the potential impact of ethnic culture on interior design management. The decision
to focus on interior design practice also suggests that interior design practice differs in relation
to other design disciplines such as architecture and that it would be of value to better understand
this relationship as revealed through the cases selected and responses to the question raised in
the previous chapter. These were:
•
How is interior design work implemented/enacted in practice? How do designers
understand design management? Does what they say differ to what they do? Do
they differentiate between different aspects of management? Is there a discrepancy
in the use of terms? Is there a relationship between project type and management
approach? In this respect, the study asks:
In support of the primary question, the thesis is also informed by two allied questions:
How is interior design practice perceived and positioned in relation to other
disciplines such as architecture?
49
This question recognizes the close relationship interior design has with architecture
inviting exploration of the implications of such a relationship. Relevant questions emerging
from the literature review include:
•
What do designers regard as best practice management? How relevant is current
management theory to interior design’s creative process and practice? Can
management theory make a contribution or should it be reconsidered in the light
of empirical research? Do the findings suggest a new theory of interior design
management in practice?
In addition, the cases selected recognise that interior design practices, like other design
practices, vary by way of scale and the nature of the projects they undertake. Therefore, the
study also asks:
What are the structural implications of practice for interior design identity?
These questions in line with the review of literature presented in the previous chapter also
prompt a number of other questions, for example:
•
How aware are designers of the changing social and economic context and of the
need to reconsider their design practice? How prepared are they to change? What do
designers emphasise in their practice?
As the following sections will highlight, the nature of these questions and the study’s
interest in theory building demand the support of several complementary methodologies as
conveyed in Figure 3.1. Given that interior design is practiced in different settings, case study
methodology was used to help define the cases and understand their meaning as cases of, in this
study, management in practice. Recognizing the inherent cultural nature of practice and of the
desire to understand the relationship of the interior design practice to other design practice, an
ethnographic lens was also applied to the respective cases. With the desire to extend the study
theoretically, grounded theory was selected to underpin the study as whole, enabling further
understanding of the structural implications of practice.
50
Figure 3.1: Alignment of research methodologies with research questions.
3.1
METHODOLOGICAL UNDERPINNING
3.1.1 Qualitative Methodological Approach
As highlighted in the preceding introduction to this chapter, this research focuses on
interior design practice in Australia and Malaysia, and how it is managed particularly at the
practice, project and design process levels. This focus on understanding the nature of the
phenomenon of interior design practice rather than cause and effect is by nature qualitative.
Glaser & Strauss (1967) cited by Ghezeljeh & Emami (2009, p. 15) describes how qualitative
research “…seeks to inductively distil issues of importance to a specific group of people,
creating meaning through analysis and theory” generation. Moreover, qualitative research
attempts to explore the little known issues and to explore a host of aspects that possibly impact
a situation with “…the goal to understand the situation under investigation primarily from the
participants’ and not the researcher’s perspective” (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006, p. 8).
Before further discussion of the selected methodology, an understanding of core
philosophical issues in relation to the nature of knowledge (epistemology) and nature of reality
(ontology) inherent in the research questions is essential. According to Gray (2009), an
understanding of relationships between ontology and epistemology, theoretical perspective, and
methodology needs to be clearly understood and explicitly articulated. The focus of the research
in responding to a gap in knowledge of how interior design is practiced and responds to
51
professional, economic and sociocultural forces within selected organisational settings very
clearly reflects a social constructivist philosophy about the nature of reality and how knowledge
is constructed.
Stake (2010, p. 36) describes qualitative research as interpretive research that involves
the researcher in “defining and redefining of what they see and hear”. Added to this is
recognition that reality for the everyone is socially constructed and as such can only be
understood in context (Willis, 2007, p. 54). With the focus of this study on theory generation
within a social constructivist context, grounded theory was selected as the main overarching
methodology. For Birks & Mills (2011), when little is known about an area of study and its
inherent process, generation of theory with exploratory power is the desired outcome. Grounded
theory allows the researcher to gather several types of data such as field's notes, interviews and
information in records and reports to gain strong and rich data from the field (Charmaz, 2014,
p. 14).
3.1.2 Grounded Theory
Grounded Theory (GT) method originated with Glaser and Strauss to later split into at
least two camps, the “Glaserian” method and the “Strauss and Corbin” version (Goulding,
2002). In general, there are currently three versions of grounded theory commonly used: the
traditional or “Glaserian” method by Glaser; the systematic method by Strauss and Corbin; and
the constructivist method by Charmaz (Mills et al., 2006; Babchuk, 2009; Black, 2009). Given
its social constructivist orientation, this research is informed by Charmaz (2008a, p. 155) who
describes its main procedural attributes as:
•
Minimizing preconceived ideas about the research problem and the data
•
Using simultaneous data collection and analysis to inform each other
•
Remaining open to varied explanations and/or understandings of the data
•
Focusing data analysis to construct middle-range theories.
For Mills et al., (2006, p. 4), grounded theory in general can be differentiated from other
qualitative methodologies through its concern for:
1.
Theoretical sensitivity
52
2.
Treatment of the literature
3.
Coding
4.
Diagramming
5.
Identifying the core categories.
With the process of undertaking grounded theory research informed largely by the data
itself in an open-ended way, Charmaz (2006) explains how the research process is not linear.
Locke (2001) describes how grounded theory encourages researchers to use imagination
intelligently and creatively to create theories. Grounded theory then is a methodology for
constructing theory about issues of importance in people’s lives, action, interaction through a
process often described as inductive in nature (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006; Mills, et al., 2006).
For Charmaz (2008b), grounded theory refers to both the research product and the analytic
method used to produce it. Grounded theory strategies as outlined by Locke (2001, pp. 46-58)
and Charmaz (2008a, pp. 163-167) include:
Stage 1- Comparing incidents applicable to each category through two activities: naming
data incidents and comparing data incidents.
1.
Naming/coding- consists of at least two phases: initial coding and focused coding to
conceptualise and develop abstract meaning.
2.
Comparing- the act of creating conceptual categories with the objective to develop
common categories and to sharpen and clarify data.
3.
Memoing- capturing ideas in the process and in progress. It is an effort to name what
we believe is expressed in the data incidents, helping us to articulate and draft our
conceptual categories.
Stage 2 – integrating categories and their properties to develop and, also, to provide an
organization for conceptual categories being drafting.
Stage 3 – delimiting theory to consolidate the framework’s theoretical components and to
define the story about the phenomenon/social condition that was studied.
Stage 4- writing the theory disseminating the ‘theory’ for testing.
53
The way in which these stages were implemented will be described in detail in the next
major section, however before doing this it is necessary to describe two other methodological
approaches used in this research in conjunction with Grounded Theory. These are Ethnography
and Case Study methodology.
3.1.3 Ethnography
While grounded theory was considered relevant to the research at a meta level, the
concern to understand the nature of interior practice as practiced in particular settings demanded
a finer grain methodology; one that would allow a deep understanding of socio/cultural
phenomena as observed. For this reason, it was decided to apply an ethnographic lens to the
research design.
In ethnography, the pivotal cognitive mode is observation in order to gain deep
understanding of cultural behaviour (Gobo, 2008). It allows researchers to explore and examine
cultural mores, routines and so on that are a fundamental part of the human experience by
collecting data through first hand involvement with research participants (Murchison, 2010).
Accordingly, an ethnographic study acknowledges details about the actions and habits of the
group being studied, through their stories as well as through observation (Creswell, 2007). As
elaborated by Abdelmohsen (2011, p. 46), ethnographic informed research is useful in a range
of contexts including the professional context of architecture:
Cultures of work in a discipline like architecture for example could then be studied
according to anthropological and sociological tools similar to those used to study
cultures and groups of people in traditional anthropological research. These tools,
which include field observation and interviewing, would aid ethnographers in
understanding the properties of members of the culture under study.
3.1.4 The Value of Grounded Theory and Ethnography
Ethnography is a methodology that invites the researcher to be there in the practice setting
to observe the social/cultural dynamics of the practice and provide for a deeper understanding
of the practice organisationally. Complementing data gathered via immersion and observation
is grounded theory and its preference for data collection involving individual interviews.
Grounded theory methodology develops a theory from exploring the processes, actions or
interactions of individuals, however, unlike ethnography, the study participants are unlikely to
54
be located in the same place or interacting so frequently that they develop shared patterns of
behaviour and beliefs (Cresswell, 2007). In this research, each practice is likely to have a
different culture and ways of working and doing. As such, ethnographic studies can deliver the
thick description that is very useful data for grounded theory analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
Pettigrew (2000) claims ethnography provides in-depth understanding, while the grounded
theory method provides the framework for interpreting data and organizing it into a conceptual
theory. Combining these two methods then is likely to produce a level of detail and
interpretation that is unavailable from other single methodologies.
As described, this research is interested in investigating the phenomenon of interior design
practice. Recognising that the boundaries between this phenomenon and the context of practice
are not clearly evident, the research investigates several types of practices in two culturally
different countries. In this respect, several cases of interior design practice with their own
contextual conditions are examined to arrive at a more holistic understanding of the case of
interior design practice. Informing the selection of these cases is a methodology (sometimes
also described as a method) known as case study methodology.
3.1.5 Case Study Methodology
Case study research can involve one case or multiple cases. This research adopts a
multiple case study approach involving cases that have contrasting attributes. This approach
was considered appropriate given the desire to establish theoretically distinctive as well as
common aspects about interior design practice. However, unlike case study research as it is
traditionally undertaken, this research does not start with a theory to be modified as a result of
the case study. Rather it starts with the case data and works with this to allow a theory to emerge.
As with grounded theory and ethnography, case study research can be used in conjunction
with other research approaches as long as the approaches share the same research question,
collect complementary data, and conduct counterpart analyses (Yin, 2014, p. 65). Case study
data collection can be from a variety of sources as with grounded theory and ethnography
including, documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observations, participant
observations, and physical artefacts.
In addition to the number of cases, case study research can also be differentiated according
to whether it is descriptive, exploratory or explanatory (Yin, 2014). In the first instance, the
55
purpose of this research is to describe the phenomenon of interior design practice. Ultimately,
however, it aims to develop a model involving explanation building.
The following section will now provide further detail of how these various
methodological considerations helped to inform the design of the research.
3.2
RESEARCH DESIGN
The previous section identified how this research adopts a qualitative approach positioned
in grounded research methodology incorporating ethnographic informed exploration of case
settings of interior design practice in Australia and Malaysia. As is typical of grounded theory
research reflected in Figure 3.2, the design of the study is not the linear so while it involves five
stages these are not necessarily sequential. These stages include: stage one which is concerned
with the research issue's definition and literature review; stage two is a pilot study; stage three
constitutes the main data collection stage; stage four involves data analysis; and stage five
explores the implications of the findings.
As outlined at the beginning of this chapter, the research aims to develop a theoretical
model of interior design practice through a focus on practice, project and design process. While
grounded theory research varies in its understanding of the role of the literature review, in line
with social constructivist position, a literature review was undertaken initially to identify gaps
in interior design practice theory thereby helping define and establish the significance of the
research, formulate research questions and provide a preliminary context for theoretical
development (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006). The outcome of this stage was presented in Chapter
2.
The next stage was to undertake a pilot case study to assess shared understanding of key
terms and constructs.
56
Figure 3.2: Research plan process.
57
3.2.1 Stage 2: Pilot Study
The following sections describe the pilot study in terms of the case settings, data management
and implications for the major study.
3.2.1.1 Pilot Study Case Setting
Two interior design practices in Brisbane and Kuala Lumpur were selected with data
collected through focus group and individual interviews. The interviews were conducted from
October to November 2010 in the designers’ workplaces and were audio-taped and transcribed.
Brisbane
Kuala Lumpur
Firms
B1
(Focus
Group
Interview)
B2
(Focus
Group
Interview)
KL1
(Focus
Group
Interview)
KL2
(Single
interview)
B1 A
Participants
Interior Design Director
B1 B
Interior Designer
B1 C
Senior Designer
B1 D
Interior Designer
B2 A
Head of Interior Department
B2 B
Interior Designer
KL1 A
Director
KL1 B
Design Coordinator
KL2 A
Director
Table 3.1: Pilot study case setting.
As conveyed in Table 3.1, participants from two interior design firms from each city were
interviewed. In Brisbane, four participants were involved in the focus group interview in firm
B1 and two participants in B2. Comparatively, in Kuala Lumpur, two participants were involved
in the focus group interview in KL2 while an interview was conducted with the company
director of KL1. The combination of focus group and interview was used in response to time
constraints by the participants. The questions were structured and directed in relation to key
term of design management (conceptualized at this stage as essentially project management)
and design process management. Table 3.2 presents samples of questions and responses from
participants in each conceptual category. The interviews were recorded using Livescribe Smart
Pen and notetaking.
58
Categories
Key definitions
Questions
Briefly, from your experience how
would you define design
management?
Design
management
What, specifically, can you in your
current position do, to help lead
and support the design
management process?
Design process What particular skills and
management
knowledge are needed to design
well and to manage design well?
Answer
Design management is actually the
procedure how we want to manage the
design process...start from the project brief
until the completion you need to follow all
the
process
and
procedure…by
right...because design management is about
control, manage and supervise the whole
design project.
I think...it is satisfaction. When I do a
design, I will make sure 3 things,
ermm…firstly I will make sure my client is
satisfied. Second designer...no matter who
is the designer either my staff or me and
lastly is the end user.
Design
skill
that
supposes
you
had…creativity, ermm…creativity that
means
knows
how
to
design…communication skill, and know
how to use the tools, knowledge…you must
know everything...general knowledge.
Table 3.2: Conceptual questions categories.
3.2.1.2 Pilot study Data Management
The case practices in Brisbane were coded as B1 and B2 and KL1 and KL 2 for Kuala
Lumpur. Respondents in B1 and B2 were coded as B1 A to D and B2 A to B. KL1 and KL2
were code as per KL1 A and B and KL2 A. Given the focus of this pilot study on terminology
and shared understanding, the analysis of data involved a basic thematic analysis approach as
highlighted in Table 3.3.
Phase 1
Transcribe
Typed up transcripts of
digital recording from nine
respondents into word
document.
Phase 2
Phase 3
Initial Coding
Categories
Line by line, segment by The same meaning units were
segment analysis
grouped together in order to
identification of main categories.
Table 3.3: Data analysis process
59
3.2.1.3 The Outcomes of Pilot study
Several issues arose from the pilot study findings as outlined below:
•
Terms like design process, design management and project management were
understood differently by the interviewer and the respondents and amongst
respondents as well. Considerable time was spent to achieve clarification and a
shared understanding by the interviewer and respondents. This indicated the
need in the major study to provide additional time in order to develop a
common understanding of terms.
•
Analysis of data also revealed that interior design practices were starting to
transform themselves in response to emerging economic demands by shifting their
goals and competencies. This is illustrated in Table 3.4 and was the impetus
for further investigation during the major study.
•
While there was commonality there were also differences in the way design
process appeared to be managed from project to project, with common tools and
methods used in Brisbane but not in Kuala Lumpur. Figure 3.3 illustrates the
comparison of the process among the four practices. A question here though was
how much could this difference be attributed to terminology and the difficulty of
explaining what in many cases is ritualised and intuitive. Therefore, for the
major study, it was considered imperative to explore this further through an
additional data gathering method of behavioural observation.
•
The study also identified several barriers to implementing design process
management. Time constraints and collaboration with the client or architects in
order to get relevant information on the design and project brief were significant
as well as budget, project workforce and the technology. Sometimes they also
reported having to skip the process due to design and project deadlines. This
reinforced the assumption that there are many factors, internal as well as
external, that impact design process and management.
60
Competencies
B1
KL1
KL2
Visualize
Concept design and
design development
Sketch of design and
design development
Design development
and technical
preparation
Technical
Design development,
contract
documentation and
contract admin
Brief, concept design
and design
development
Design development,
contract documentation
and contract
administration
Brief, define scope,
sketch design, design
development
Technical preparation
and implementation
Brief and concept
design
To deliver design
Brief, define scope,
sketch design
To deliver design
Brief and design
development
To deliver design
Develop design image
during the design
process
Design development
and contract
documentation
Follows the corporate
rules
Develop design image
during the design
process
Design development
and contract
documentation
Develop a roles of
design leader and
project leader
Implementing Q&A,
and review process
Develop design image
during the design
process
Design development
and technical
preparation
Established company
policies and objective
Problem solve
Establish goals
Function
Image
Budget
development
Goals
B2
Interpretation
of strategic goals
Translation of
management
objectives
Value added
Implementing Q&A,
and review process
More responsible,
proactive,
collaborative and less
reactive
Brief and design
development,
technical preparation
Separation of design
and management
departments.
-
Follow the good
process in the correct
order
Design development,
presentation and
feedback, and drawings
and documents
Drawings and
documents, tender and
tender award and
construction.
Brief, define scope and
design development,
presentation and
feedback, and drawings
and documents
Brief, define scope and
design development
To deliver design
Develop design image
during the design
process
Drawing and document
for tendering.
Design objectives and
philosophy is clear.
-
Expanded to interior
design and built
Table 3.4: Design practice competencies and goals towards new economy paradigm.
B1
Brief
Concept
Design
Design
Development
Contract
Documentation
B2
Brief
Define Scope
Sketch of
Design
Design
Development
KL1
Brief
Design Development
(Case study & proposal)
Brief
KL2
Define
Scope
Design
Development
(Concept,
Image, Site
analysis)
Contract
Documentation
Technical Preparation
(Drawings & documents)
Presentation
& feedback
from other
parties
Drawings
&
Documents
for
tendering
Defects
Contract Admin
(site phase)
Contract
Administration
Implementation
(Construction)
Tender
&
tender
award
Finish
Construction
Hand over
Hand over
& defects
Figure 3.3: Comparison of process.
In all, the pilot study pointed to the need for major development in data collection tools
and techniques, with additional sources of data being considered such as project and practice
documentation. In some situations, the questions that were asked during the interview session
61
were not clear to the participants. Therefore, for the major case study the questions needed to
be more structured and have more clarity. There also needed to be a way of identifying cultural
influences within each case practice. Therefore, instead of relying exclusively on grounded
theory, ethnographic approaches involving deeper observation were implemented. As Charmaz
(2006) explains, grounded theory ethnography gives priority to the studied phenomenon or
process rather than to a description of a setting, providing the opportunity for a more
comprehensive theoretical picture of the phenomenon.
3.2.2 Stage 3: Major Study
In this stage of the study, ethnographic methods were employed in the data collection
phase in the form of interviews and, observations including participant observation.
Observation relies on the ability to systematically record, report, organize, analyse and explain
the data. The goal in this study was to examine the practices, processes and mechanisms in the
Brisbane and Kuala Lumpur case settings. The data obtained were then analysed according to
the principles of the grounded theory method. Through the focus on practice management, a
theoretical account of interior design practice was generated in the form of categories and their
defining properties.
3.2.2.1 Case setting
As outlined previously, the advantage of adopting a case study approach is that events can
be grounded in deep and varied sources of information. It employs among other things quotes
of participants to capture the complex reality of the phenomenon being studied (Hancock &
Algozzine, 2006, p. 16)
While case studies can be explanatory as well as descriptive, the focus in this research
from an ethnographic perspective is descriptive. The analysis of data using grounded theory
techniques moves it from a descriptive position to a level of explanation necessary for theory
building. For Dulock (1993), the descriptive study is most useful for describing phenomena or
events about which little is known or for identifying new or emerging phenomena. Grimes &
Schulz (2002, p. 145) proposes that “good descriptive research is like good newspaper
reporting, it should answer five basic “W" questions—who, what, why, when, and where—and
an implicit sixth question, so what?” Therefore, descriptive studies are often the first, tentative
approach to gaining relevant information about an existing situation by identifying and
62
clarifying in more detail the factors of the situation or phenomenon (Blessing & Chakrabarti,
2009; Verhonick, 1971).
Table 3.5: Case study design.
The selection of case settings was informed initially by the typologies conveyed by Keane
and Keane (2002), including: the sole interior-design practice; a combination of an interiordesign practice and another design discipline; or a multi disciplinary practice.Three types of
projects were identified and chosen from each practice as vehicles for understanding the nature
of the practice and its management processes and practices (Table 3.5). For this study, a project
can be retail or residential or specialised, for example, a hospital. For this research study, the
final selection of project was dictated by confidentiality requirements and the types of projects
being undertaken at the time of the study. All interviews and observations were conducted on a
voluntary basis in the participant’s office work environment. Participants were selected
according to their role within the company. They included:
a.
Director – to gain information regarding strategy, policy and mission
b.
Associate director – to gain information regarding strategy, policy and mission
c.
Office manager – to gain information about the operation of the firm
d.
Project/design manager – to gain information about management of projects
e.
Senior designer.- to gain information about a detail aspects of process management
63
For this study, the initial approach involved behaviour observation followed by openended interviews. In terms of behaviour, the researcher was interested in observing the activities
undertaken by the participants as well as who and with what they interacted. Further
clarification and detail in relations to these aspects were obtained through semi-structured
interviews with some questions being open-ended. Yin (2003) comments that open-ended
interviews allow questions to respondents about the facts of a matter as well as their opinion
about events.
3.2.2.2 Brisbane’s setting
Profile of BNE 1
BNE 1 is an interior design practice operating in a small warehouse in an inner city suburb
accommodating various offices, workshops and showrooms. It was founded in 2002 by the
female director. During the study, the practice was staffed by three full time designers and onepart time administrative person. The practice had won numerous design awards locally and
internationally for residential and commercial projects valued below five million dollars. Three
projects were selected for examination including a boutique hotel, a chinese restaurant, and a
medical clinic.
BNE 1 has an open-plan layout with a public ground floor and a more private office
mezzanine floor. Figure 3.4 shows the ground floor area incorporating a reception with
discussion table, library and director’s area at the back. This area was also a storage area for
items such as furniture before being deployed to site. Figure 3.5 shows the main working area
for design activities undertaken mostly by computer software. The drafting table appearing in
the lower corner of the image was no longer used.
64
Figure 3.4: Reception and discussion area at ground floor of BNE 1.
Figure 3.5: Working area/studio at mezzanine floor of BNE 1.
Profile of BNE 2.
BNE 2 is a relatively large architectural firm with branches locally and internationally.
The Brisbane branch operates from a floor in a multi storey building in the CBD. The
headquarters of the firm is located in Sydney. BNE 2 has a hierarchical management structure
accommodating several disciplines. All branches share the same design ideology but are
operated individually as a separate entity. The board directors of BNE 2 has the authority to
establish their own direction. The practice offers the services of architecture, urban design, town
planning and interior design (referred to as interior architecture). In terms of the latter, there is
no formal department. Interior projects are considered part of the architectural service.
65
Although BNE 2 consists of forty-eight staff, there is only one interior designer assisted
by one architect. Projects completed by the practice are well known; some are regarded as
Brisbane icons. Three projects were selected for examination: a jury room for a Brisbane Court,
and two associated with an emergency operation centre.
BNE 2 has an open symmetrical plan layout. While the practice is hierarchical in terms
of organisational structure, this is not reflected in its workstation facilities. The colour palette
is generally neutral with grey carpet, white walls, ceiling and furniture. Columns and selected
furniture elements provide visual relief through the use of colour as shown in Figure 3.6 and
Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.6: Reception and key personal area of BNE 2.
Figure 3.7: Working/studio area of BNE 2.
66
Profile of BNE 3
BNE 3 is also the Brisbane branch of a firm with its headquarters in Sydney. The Brisbane
branch is small with two staff compared to 100 staff in the Sydney office. BNE 3 is located in
a small office block in the CBD. The physical office space can accommodate a maximum of 22
people. At the time of the study, the practice had only two staff due to the global economic
recession. The remaining space was rented to four other small practices. The new principal had
only been appointed for six months when this study was undertaken and had the responsibility
of getting the practice back on track. The business and design operations were fully controlled
by directors in the Sydney office. At the time of the study, the work undertaken was 90% interior
work and 10% architecture work. This was projected to change by 2012 to 60% of architecture
and 40% of interior work. Only one project was available for consideration.
The office design is a simple open plan layout with separate office space and reception
and meeting area. Overall, the design scheme is modern contemporary with exposed roof trusses
and air conditioning ducting. The office walls, ceiling and workstations are primarily white.
The floor is grey carpet and seating dark grey or black. While there are four other practices
located in the same space as BNE3, appearance wise they look as they are the one office. Figure
3.8 and Figure 3.9 depict the reception and work area respectively.
Figure 3.8 Reception and meeting area of BNE 3.
67
Figure 3.9: Working/studio area of BNE 3.
3.2.2.3 Kuala Lumpur Setting
Profile of KUL 1
KUL 1 is an interior design consultancy specialising in fast track design and construction.
The practice offers project management services, and differentiates itself through its design and
build approach. It operates in an office building in Damansara with almost twenty staff working
on local and international interior design projects. The practice is sustained through its mix of
private and semi government projects. Three projects were selected for examination: an
education centre; a government office building and a government branch.
This practice is partly hierarchical as shown in its office layout and separate principal,
accounts and creative areas. The office is congested as shown in Figure 3.10 and Figure 3.11.
Dark grey and white is the dominant colour scheme for KUL 1.
68
Figure 3.10 : Reception, meeting area and principal room of KUL 1.
Figure 3.11: Working/studio area of KUL 1.
Profile of KUL 2
KUL2 is a combination interior/graphic design consultancy operating in a commercial
area in Cova Damansara. The practice was established around 2010 as a result of a split of the
founding company in 2001. At the time of the study, the practice had one designer, two site
coordinators and a part time administrative person. The company undertakes small commercial
and institutional projects employing a design and construct approach. Three projects were
selected for examination: are double storey terrace house, a college, and interior graphics for an
investment authority.
Due to KUL 2 rent SOHO (small office/ home office), the layout is restricted to the
existing space arrangement. Most of the spaces are divided by a partition to separate the director,
69
working, meeting and discussion as well as pantry areas. Figure 3.12 shows the separation area
between reception, meeting and working areas. Figure 3.13 shows the main working area
accommodating four people. Design activities were conducted mostly by computer with the
drafting table no longer used.
Figure 3.12: Reception area of KUL 2.
Figure 3.13: Working/studio area of KUL 2.
Profile of KUL 3
KUL 3 is sole interior design practice that previously had several staff. At the time of the
study, it only had the director. As a result, the original office was closed, with the director now
operating from his house where he undertakes small residential and office projects. To present
70
an appropriate business image to clients, all meetings and discussion are conducted at the private
Club (Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15). Most of the KUL 3 projects were either under construction
or just completed. Therefore, designing activities could not be observed with examination
restricted to a project site visit. At the time of the study, a double storey bungalow was under
construction and an office and renovation projects just completed.
Figure 3.14: Private club as a meeting place for KUL3.
Figure 3.15: Restaurant area of private club.
3.2.3 Data Collection Procedure
Data collection began in Brisbane in September 2011 and continued to the middle of
February 2012. The process of gaining access to the selected case practices began in May 2011.
Several practices declined to participate due to confidentiality reasons. The observations and
interviews with BNE 1 were conducted from September 2011 until December 2012. Some
weaknesses during an early observation process in BNE 1 were identified and improved for the
71
remaining observations in BNE 1 and other practices. Observations in BNE 2 were conducted
in mid-November 2011 to mid-February 2012 while BNE 3 was studied from November 2011
to mid-February 2012.
The Kuala Lumpur cases began with negotiation with several firms in late February 2012,
and first access was granted mid-March 2012. The entire data collection process in Kuala
Lumpur took three months from March until June 2012. KUL 1 was studied in the middle of
March 2012 while KUL 2 and KUL 3 in early April 2012.
Observation was conducted regularly over an eight-week period, with one to two times a
week in each setting. The aim was to observe relevant design activities and the way of operating
in a particular project context, as well as examine the culture and management approaches as a
basis for the interviews that followed. Appointments were scheduled with the relevant people
in each setting and interviews conducted within the last four weeks of observation. This process
was applicable to both case settings in Brisbane and Kuala Lumpur.
3.2.4 Data Collection Instruments
All research instruments used in data collection were developed and generated from the
experiences of the pilot study. In the initial observation stage, events were recorded through
notation in a journal, photographs and document examination. The interviews gave respondents
the opportunity to express views more expansively and permitted more explanations of issues
identified during observations. Interviews were recorded through ‘livescribe’ recorder pen
augmented with note taking. Note taking using this tool can be directly transferred to the
computer (Figure 3.16). The recorded interviews were transcribed for the coding process.
Figure 3.16: ‘Livescribe’ recorder pen, dot paper and soft copy note.
72
3.2.5 Stage 4: Data Analysis
Extensive data were collected in three cases in Brisbane and Kuala Lumpur demanding
appropriate management strategies. Data in each case were analysed individually then
comparisons were made between the practices in both cities as shown in Figure 3.17. Data
analysis at this stage was informed substantially by the work of Locke (2001) and Charmaz
(2008a). All data were managed and analysed manually. Observation and interview data were
analysed through a coding process with the document study findings supporting this at the
elements and dimensions stage as shown in Figure 3.17.
Figure 3.17: Analysis stages for case.
3.2.5.1 Method of analysis
Coding Process
The voice-recorded interviews’ data in all cases were transcribed. This process was
undertaken word by word according to the interview audio. As English is not the first language
of the researcher, the initial translations by the researcher of the Brisbane cases were checked
by people proficient in English and amended where necessary. This process also facilitated
interpretation checking by the supervisors. Interviews conducted in the Kuala Lumpur cases
were translated into English as responses were either in the Malay language or ‘Manglish’, a
mixture of Malay and English. This process was undertaken by the researcher who is Malaysian
and understands the Malay language. Interview and observation notes were transcribed and
recorded and subjected to the first level of open coding. Transcript data were divided into four
main groups according to the questionnaires during the interviews. The groups' divisions are:
73
1. Practice Culture covering issues of demography; working environment; staff
activities; and client relationships
2. Management covering the range of issues within practice management and
manuals and procedures
3. Design covering design meaning, design style and ideology design process and
management and design problem definition
4. Project covering design process and project management.
Open coding analysis was informed largely by grounded theory with an ethnographic
orientation. The task was regulated through a key focus on interior design management in each
setting. The transcript was read carefully with keywords highlighted and written in the righthand column of the transcript as code phrases. The same code phrases then were put into one
group and differentiated with colours as shown in Table 3.6. A shorter phrase was later
developed to capture the initial idea of the issues or phenomenon.
Table 3.6: Open coding framework.
The shorter codes from coding were used to label, separate, compile and organise the
data. The codes were grouped into similar connotation groups and labelled accordingly. This
grouping is later described as a mapping process. The mapping process clusters groups together
74
to develop categories and properties. Visual Understanding Environment (VUE) software was
used to during the clustering process due to the richness and complexity of data. VUE was
developed by Tufts University as a flexible tool for managing and integrating digital resources
in support of teaching, learning and research. Essentially, it is a concept and content mapping
application used to organize, contextualize, and access digital information. VUE tools like
nodes and links, enables mapping of relationships between concepts, ideas and digital content
as shown in Figure 3.18, 3.19, 3.20.
Mapping and Clustering Process
There are multiple layering processes during data analysis as shown in Figure 3.18 and
Figure 3.19. The first layer as shown in Figure 3.18 (the entire map is in Appendix B1) is to
map all the shorter coding within their group’s division - practice culture; management; design
and project as explained previously. The detail process of the second layer as shown in Figure
3.19 (entire map in Appendix B2) aims to explore and identify the first concept category, which
is elements. ‘Elements’ in the context of this study is a composition evidence of voice, with
stories mapped and clustered in concept categories.
Once the forming of elements by alignment of voices and stories under respective
categories were completed, then the construction of dimensions began. Dimensions resulted
from the filtering process, forming another layer of new concept categories to narrow down the
first layer of concept properties. As mentioned, elements are a layer of thick description of the
necessary phenomenon. Therefore, diagramming new conceptual categories later called
‘dimension’ is to sharpen and clarify the data and lead to better understanding in theory building
shown in Figure 3.20 (entire map in Appendix B3).
Themes resulted after a further layer of the clustering process of dimension’s refinement.
The integration and delimiting of similar values of voices and stories from the dimensions made
construction of the conceptual theories more refined as per Figure 3.21 (entire process in
Appendix B4). ‘Themes’ is a layer of the new conceptual categories derived in the hierarchical
position towards conceptual theories' development. Figure 3.22 illustrates one of the themes
that arose from the integrating and delaminating process in Figure 3.21 (entire map in Appendix
B4).
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Figure 3.18: First layer of mapping process according to group’s division.
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Figure 3.19: Second layer of mapping and clustering was derived from coding process to build up elements.
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Figure 3.20: Third layer is a clustering of the elements to construct the dimensions.
78
Figure 3.21: Elements and dimensions were merged to identify the themes.
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Figure 3.22: Themes were derived from the earlier process.
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Figure 3.23: The overarching and interconnection with themes, dimensions and elements formed a domain.
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Figure 3.24: Triangulation was used as a comparative process for common identification and differences between
practices and cities.
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The ‘domain’ is a key content aspect of theory, as it entails all the category's components.
Figure 3.23 (entire map Appendix B5) exemplifies the conceptual formation of theory. With
the domains of interior design management in practice established, the conceptual framework
can be formulated by positioning the themes with the category they belong to, as indicated by
the data aligned to them in elements and dimensions.
Triangulation process
The triangulation process is not something mentioned in grounded theory and
ethnography but is highlighted in case study methodology (See to Cox & Hassard, 2010; Stake,
2006; Yin, 2014). Denzin (1989) cited by Bloor & Wood (2006, p. 170) and addressed by Yin
(2014, p. 120) positions four different types of triangulation;
1. Data triangulation using different data sources to study the same phenomenon
2. Investigator triangulation using different investigators in the same study
3. Theoretical triangulation using different theoretical models in the same study
4. Methodological triangulation using different methods to study the same
phenomenon.
For Cox & Hassard (2010, p. 944), triangulation is based on the researcher’s logic to
obtaining a “true” picture by taking multiple measurements, using multiple methods, or
examining a phenomenon at multiple levels of analysis to develop more effective methods of
capturing and fixing phenomenon in order to realize more accurate analysis and explanation.
Stake (2006, p. 36) explains triangulation as an effort to improve research rigour in highly
complex situations.
For this study, triangulation involves analysing multiple sources of evidence and methods
that ultimately contribute to the one set of conclusions. It involves comparing the findings in
each case for similarities and differences as per Figure 3.24 (entire map Appendix B6). The
process supports the development of the theoretical framework.
3.2.6 Stage 5: Exploring the Implication of the Findings
The main idea during this stage is to explore and present the implications of the findings
and to formulate recommendations. The exploration of the findings draws attention to some
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consequences arising from the data analysed in the short and long-term. The implications for
the nature of interior design management in the practice context are subsequently discussed.
The relationship of interior design practice to other disciplines and the factors that impact its
identity are also discussed.
3.3
RESEARCH QUALITY
3.3.1 Commitment to Ethical Research
This research was conducted according to the Federal Australian Government
requirements in terms of human research. Human ethics approval was obtained from the
Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Human Research Ethics Committee (Approval
Number: 1000000964). A copy of the approval certificate is provided in Appendix A1. A copy
of the participant information and consent form is also provided (Appendix A2).
As outlined, potential participants were provided with information about the project and
how it would be conducted in order for them to make informed consent. They were advised that
they could withdraw from the project at any time without penalty. They were also advised that
all data collected would be kept in a secure place and would remain confidential and to help
maintain anonymity no real names would be used in the reporting of the study. In addition, an
undertaking was made that the original audiotapes would be destroyed on completion of the
project. While the images used in this report had the permission of participants, images with
sufficient clarity to reveal identity have been obscured. Given the ethnographic orientation of
the study and the physical involvement of the researcher in the case offices, particular care was
taken not to cause inconvenience or disrupt the day-to-day operation of the office. As the study
had the approval of the office directors and all staff were aware of the study, participant staff
chose to be interviewed in the office. A location was decided that provided maximum auditory
privacy.
3.3.2 Research Rigor
The determinants of quality in research differ depending on the nature of the research,
with quantitative research having different criteria to that of qualitative research. There are also
differences between specific qualitative methodologies (Oktay, 2012). Further to this, Oktay
(2012) believes that a single set of quality standards may not exist even for methods
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underpinned by the same epistemological assumptions. Therefore, quality has different aspects,
and which aspects are emphasized in the different standards is not always clear. However,
Glaser & Strauss (2006) and Tharenou, Donohue, & Cooper (2007) suggest criteria should be
established on the detailed elements of the genuine strategies used for collecting, coding,
analysing, and presenting data when generating theory.
Tharenou, et al., (2007) suggests before initiating a research project, researchers need to
establish appropriate measures. As outlined by Glaser & Strauss (2006), to enhance the research
credibility, researchers should: (1) be immersed in the field, (2) generate and test hypotheses
in the field (not before the data gathering begins), (3) use memos to trace the development of
ideas, (4) produce detailed and vivid description to support conclusions, and (5) pursue
alternative explanations and negative cases. In contrast, Charmaz (2006, pp. 182-183) identifies
four criteria of research quality:
1. Credibility – being familiar with the setting or topics; having sufficient data;
undertaking systematic comparisons between data; and providing enough data for
logical links between argument and analysis.
2. Originality – findings that offer new insights and provide a new conceptual
rendering of data for social and theoretical significance.
3. Resonance – outcomes that reflect the fullness of the studied experience; revealing
taken-for-granted meanings; and providing deep insights about the participants’
lives.
4. Usefulness – authentic interpretation of participants’ every-days world; analytic
categories that can spark further research and contribute to knowledge.
Recently, Birks & Mills (2011), on reviewing the work of Glaser & Strauss and Charmaz,
similarly identifies the factors influencing the quality of grounded theory research as: (1)
researcher expertise, (2) methodological congruence, and (3) procedural precision (Figure
3.25).
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Figure 3.25: Factors influencing quality of grounded theory research (Birks & Mills, 2011, p. 34).
To elaborate:
1. Researcher expertise: As recognised by Birks & Mills, the complexities of
grounded theory terminology and original works on the topic leave a novice
researcher a little overwhelmed. In response, the researcher sought to develop a
good understanding of the various methodologies through review of relevant
literature as well as developing familiarisation with relevant data gathering and
analysis methods through the pilot study. The researcher has also sought to
provide detailed descriptions of the process. Limitations of the study are presented
in the concluding chapter. Together these provide context for evaluating the value
of the study.
2. Methodological congruence: An extensive effort has been made to align the
researcher’s philosophical position, and the aims and objectives with an
overarching methodology (grounded theory) supported by ethnography to develop
deep understanding of the socio/cultural nature of the phenomenon. Combining
these two methods then is likely to produce a level of detail and interpretation that
is unavailable from other single methodologies (Cresswell, 2007; Glaser &
Strauss, 2006; Pettigrew, 2000). The inclusion of a case study approach is also
supported when used in conjunction with other research approaches as long as the
approaches share the same research question, collect complementary data, and
conduct counterpart analyses (Yin, 2014).
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3. Procedural precision: The research procedures adopted including observation
and memoing, management of data, data gathering and analysis have been
described in detail both verbally and graphically throughout this chapter.
3.4
CONCLUSION
As illustrated at the beginning of the chapter in Figures 3.1 and 3.2, the research adopted
a systematic methodical and highly analytical approach to respond to the major research
question and sub questions. In this respect, the research employed a triangulated methodological
approach involving a grounded theory ethnographic informed case study to reveal the nature of
interior design management as it is currently practiced in Australia and Malaysia. Three
different types of interior design practices in each city (Brisbane and Kuala Lumpur) were
chosen in recognition of the global significance of the research problem. The combination of
the research methodologies was focused on the actions, interactions and processes of the
participant in interior design practice. The incorporation of natural practice case settings
allowed behaviours to be studied from the perspective of the participating practices.
The ethnographic lens gave emphasis to the cultural nature (social and ethnic) of practice
and recognition of its potential to be influenced by other disciplines such as architecture as
reflected in the second question: How is interior design practice perceived and positioned in
relation to other disciplines such as architecture? To extend the research theoretically in
response to the question: What are the structural implications of practice for interior design
identity (and its future evolution), the study was primarily underpinned by grounded theory
methodology through the major role it played in the overall structure of the research, its analysis
and reporting, as well as understanding of the quality of the findings which are presented now
in the following chapter through the participants’ voices and stories.
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Chapter 4: Voices and Stories
During analysis of the data involving interviews, conversations, artefacts and
observations of the selected practice cases, various outcomes emerged that reflected the phases
of grounded theory analysis. Through a process of categorisation, the final outcome is presented
in the form of domains, which are then described according to constituent themes, dimensions
and elements. The findings identify six domains as illustrated in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: The six domains identified in the study.
Domains are theoretically rich entities that contribute to an overarching, interconnected
framework that encompasses designers’, managers’, administrative staff, and directors’
experience of interior design practice and its management at process, project and organisational
levels. Domains result from intensive analysis across all cases, both in Brisbane and Kuala
Lumpur. Six domains emerged through this study labelled as: expression of existence;
workplace milieu; competency; variable factors; output and quality concern; and polemics.
These labels are used as subheadings for this chapter. Within the domains are themes that
represent the nucleus of the concepts constituting the domain. Themes refer to the subject matter
fundamental to the cases' data event. Themes are further differentiated by dimensions.
Dimensions refer to the magnitude of something or determination in a particular direction or
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event from the data. Informing dimensions are elements. Elements are fine grain unifying
concepts or attributes of the dimensions, and present themselves through the voice of the
participants and associated stories. These components of the domains are now presented in the
following sections commencing with the domain: expression of existence. In this initial stage
of reporting, each case is reported separately.
4.1
EXPRESSION OF EXISTENCE
In terms of the selected cases, the domain ‘expression of existence’ is qualified at an
overarching level though a focus on the way in which the practices present and represent
themselves publicly as well as in terms of their market relevancy. These constitute the themes
of the domain. The next section focuses on the public representation theme.
4.1.1 Public representation
As highlighted in Table 4.1, the public representation theme has two dimensions:
professional existence, which relates to the elemental values that are professed to underpin the
practice professionally; and core business services such as whether this is interior design as part
of architecture as in a multidisciplinary firm, or whether it is exclusively interior design or
interior design led. A comparison with Table 4.2, which focuses on the Kuala Lumpur cases,
reveals differences as well as commonalities in relation to these elements. These will now be
discussed in detail.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Professional
Existence
Expression of
Existence
Public
Representation
Core Business
Services
Elements
Integrity and persuasion
Case
BNE 1
Recognition
Design identity and style
Recognition
Design identity and style
BNE 2
Compromise and building
confidence
Self and practice
BNE 3
Architecture practice
BNE 2
Interior Design practice
BNE 3
Table 4.1: The influential factors of public representation in the Brisbane cases.
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Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Professional
Existence
Expression of
Existence
Public
Representation
Core Business
Services
Elements
Integrity and persuasion
Case
Reliability
KUL1
Integrity and persuasion
KUL2
Reliability
Establishment of reputation
KUL3
Design and build Interior Design
practice
Multidisciplinary
Sole interior design practice
KUL1
KUL2
KUL3
Table 4.2: The influential factors of public representation in the Kuala Lumpur cases.
This theme reflects the concern of each practice with their image and how they wish to
be seen by the public and the profession. For this study, this was reflected directly and indirectly
in the values as espoused as well as conveyed implicitly in how participants described the
practice, in their marketing material, the nature of the projects undertaken as well as their
organisational structure and what they articulate as their core business. Understanding how
design process and projects are managed in accordance with industry practice standards and
professional ethical expectations was central in this theme. However as will be illustrated the
elements contributing to this understanding did differ for some cases. In all, the theme points to
the significance of public representation as an expression of and case for the existence of the
practice.
4.1.1.1 Professional existence
As indicated previously the perceived status of the practice is understood to have a direct
connection to how they present themselves particularly to prospective clients as well as to how
they conduct themselves in accordance with the respective professional and practice codes of
conduct and practice.
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BRISBANE
In Brisbane, the dimension of professional existence is characterised by the elements of:
integrity and persuasion; recognition; design identity and style; fabrication of trust; and self and
practice fulfilment although not all were evident across all three cases.
Integrity and persuasion: In the case of BNE1 there was considerable emphasis on being
honest, transparent and consultative; values that are recognised by clients and persuasive as
evidenced in their recommendations to other potential clients. The excerpts below give
examples of their transparent approach and ability to persuade to get the optimum outcome.
Excerpt 1:
… at the end of the day, when a client becomes a member of XXXX, it's a transparent
service. They can ring anybody, they can query anybody, think about their invoicing,
like they make changes to the documents if they want. Transparency is a fun thing so
the designers and other people working in the practice understand what the business is
doing as far as how to manage it with my devotion to always doing good design.
(BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: They usually come to us for the design or the decoration. The ones that come to us for
the design, we then do the decoration on top of that. We take them through the process.
Some clients that we go to for decoration, we go, 'You need to do this,' and we turn it
into a design job. So, it's all about managing the two. It's very rare for us not to do a
job that doesn't involve a little bit of both. (BNE1D)
Recognition: Being recognised is important for BNE1 and BNE2. In this respect, there
is a priority placed on work quality as recognised externally through competitions and articles
published about the practice. Formal and informal acknowledgement by the public including
clients and the profession as articulated in the following interview extracts is understood to
enhance the reputation and correspondingly the competitiveness of the practice.
Excerpt 1: I think this practice relies a lot on the word of mouth, and we’re very lucky because we
get a fabulous referral of course, but we need to do more work regarding the referrals
or getting people know about us, you know…that actually can come to us because they
have seen the beautiful design in the magazines, or they know us because of the awards
that we won…. (BNE1E)
Excerpt 2:
I think if your client recommends you...they recommend their friends to you, to come
in, and they are obviously happy...I think it is client satisfaction...you know the client
is happy or not, and I guess if you go back to that space in six to twelve months’ time,
and they're using it the way you intended, then it’s been successful. (BNE1D)
For BNE2, designing and producing high quality, high profile buildings are significant in
establishing their identity and presence. Comments reflected an emphasis on a consistent
national message and high quality product through national conformance with explicit
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documentation and management standards and processes. It is interesting to note however how
the preoccupation was with the building rather than the interior reflecting the multidisciplinary
nature of the practice where interior design was regarded as a subsidiary service to that of
architecture.
Excerpt 1…so, we’re in a good position now because the XXXX building will be finished soon, and
that will be a major advertisement of XXXX’s skills and values. The XXXX has been
delivered, you know…you need lots of buildings out there that need to be published and
people need to understand what the firm is about. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 2: Yes, so, um…we communicate this to clients…which is with the idea of simplicity and
clarity and economy and clients find this an attractive idea. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 3: …It includes the role of national coordinator responsible for the development and
implementation of standard drawing practices, standard specification clauses, document
production procedures, quality management systems and information technology practices
within national multidiscipline practices. (BNE2C)
Design identity and style: This element was most visible through observation. During
interview sessions, participants often denied that the practice had a specific design style.
Observations as presented in the examples below in addition to the images of completed projects
(Figure 4.2) suggested that this was not the case.
Excerpt 1: Urm, no, I don’t think so. No, we…do not want a particular style, it’s really, urm…we
really adapt to the brief of the client. (BNE1C)
This point is also revealed in additional observations, as illustrated below:
Note 1:
I took a photo of the space with the furniture. There is one question lingering in my head;
is it XXXX typical design style as it’s similar with XXXX? (Observation Notes 4/10/2011)
Note 2:
Practice’s design and physical appearance by itself is reflected in their design project, and
this can be identified through their completed job. There is design similarity between XXXX
office with their project. (Observation Notes 23/11/2011)
BNE2 also discloses their existence through their design identity and style. Observations
of the office interior as well as completed projects display a very distinctive aesthetic. In this
respect, there is reinforcement of a philosophy and identity. This is evident in the following
observation notes and images (Figure 4.3) of the practice office and completed projects.
Note 3:
There is something that I noticed after looking at XXXX, XXXX, and other projects like XXXX
are the similarity in design style. XXXX design style is simple, open, highlighting the
horizontal elements of the combination of timber and other material as can be seen in their
office. Office design and physical appearance is by itself reflected in their design project.
There is design similarity between XXXX office aligning with their project. (Observation
Notes, BNE2, 23/11/2011)
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XXXX project
BNE1 office
XXXX project
XXXX project
Figure 4.2: Similarity of BNE1 office with their project.
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BNE2 office
XXXX project
XXXX project
Figure 4.3: Similarity of BNE2 office with their projects.
Compromise and building confidence: Sometimes sustaining one’s existence requires
a compromise between the full expression of design potential and the realities of a highly
competitive market and budget-constrained clients. For some clients, an initial simple design
approach that works for the client establishes confidence in the practice leading to the likelihood
of further work and a more adventurous approach.
Excerpt 1: In the beginning…this practice must focus on giving a client what they want...and not
just giving wild or fantastic design…just to win a job. I have designed buildings that were
very average and not to trying to achieve lavish things that can cost a lot of money. So,
you make a decision to almost downplay your design in order to gain confidence with
people. If you do one project for a client, and they are really happy at the end, they will
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give you another project. Then you will be able to say, “Look, shall we try something a
little different?” (BNE3A)
Affirming the client/designer relationship with a gift was also observed.
Note 1:
At the end of meeting, XXXX handed a Christmas gift to the client as a symbol of
appreciation for the only business deal at the moment. (Observation Notes, BNE3,
20/12/2011)
Interestingly this element also reveals underlying motivations. In some cases, the focus is
on winning a job, in others it is on producing good quality design or just giving the client what
they want.
Self and practice: Depending on specific needs of the practice, there can be instances
where employees are required to multi-skill or to take on a role other than design such as
management. Survival for both the practice and the employee then depends on flexibility and
often renegotiation of roles.
Excerpt 1: I also like to know how to make profit when I do a job. Erm, I work for my money. That's
why we work. The fact we get to design is a part for my job, it’s just a pleasure…yeah.
(BNE3B)
KUALA LUMPUR
While there are similarities with the Brisbane cases in terms of the element of integrity
and persuasion, there is also the emergence of two new elements: reliability and establishment
of reputation.
Integrity and persuasion: KUL1 relies on demonstrating good attitude through
creditable conduct to maintain their integrity and professionalism. This practice focuses on
debunking the myth that design with a lot of elements is good design. Rather there is value for
the client’s money in simple design. Their approach is to provide excellent functionality through
simple design to fulfil the client needs. The excerpts below exemplify this approach. On the
other hand, KUL2 prefers to design for what the client can afford and attempt to persuade
through ‘education’ if the budget needs to be increased to achieve what is considered by the
practice to be the most appropriate scheme.
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Excerpt 1: I think I must show a good attitude and learn from our mistakes. We cannot just defend
our style and ideology. (KUL1E)
Excerpt 2: XXXX of course is a company but...err…the history is…I meant a word that I provide is
reflectively to my services that whereby I’m giving the client simple design and
yet…err...why simple? It is because simple design is not something easy to do. For me,
design that is easy to do is a complicated design… Client normally says ermm...I want a
nice design but cheaper. That is the needs. Ermm, for me even though my clients say
that, but it is the need…needs in terms of budget, and cost conscious. Ermm, meaning
that what you provide is actually functionality, and yet we are not going to leave the
aesthetic value. Simple, straight-forward design and functional and acceptable for
everybody and that’s what XXXX does…. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 3: The challenge for the designer is to get as much or as close as possible the design scheme
as per required as highlighted by a client within the given budget. That is the challenge
for a designer actually…number one challenge not the first one that I say…the first one
that I said before is actually an option. When you have the client that actually can be
open for suggestion …actually can put a little bit more on their budget, and then it’s
ok. The main challenge is for you to accommodate everything within the budget. That
is the most challenging. (KUL2A)
Reliability: This element refers to the practices’ ability to perform the required functions
and conditions as promised. Reliability in the case of KUL1 means delivering on their promise
that simple design is good design and that this is possible within the client’s budget. KUL2
claims of reliability lie with the argument that they are a relatively small practice undertaking
small projects, which they suggest are more manageable. In this respect, they argue that they
are more able to deliver on what is expected. These sentiments are expressed in the following
excerpts:
Excerpt 1: err…in Malaysia; they always talk about money and budget. What I mean by those
words is, we, the company which can do complete space design, meaning that we can
give a very simple design, very nice design and just enough, not too much with very
simple and straight forward. That is what I mean by that. It is nice in theory, and I hope
it reflects in this practice as well. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: The most exciting thing is when you witness the materialization of your ideas and when
you see the things constructed exactly what you design, the satisfaction is speechless.
(KUL1B)
Excerpt 3: Not all the small practices get a big project and that’s including us. The good point is,
the small project is easy to manage…it is manageable, so we have enough people to
run everything but when it comes to a large firm…err...you have to set up two
departments by itself because nobody can do the whole task, need to divide it.
Errr…basically our practice right now is okay for us because we are small, and we are
doing the small project. It is easy to manage. (KUL2A)
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Establishment of reputation: According to KUL3 a good reputation based on simple
service is what sustains a firm. Having a client come to you again provides the confidence that
you are providing a reasonable service. The challenge, however, is that you have to build
reputation to be competitive.
Excerpt 1: In terms of the economy cake, you must work hard. You must build up your name, and
then you will get the job. If you prove you’re good, then the business is with you. During
that time, I will guarantee the bank will be looking at you and give you a lot of facilities
because they know you are okay. (KUL3A)
Excerpt 2: Make it simple. I think if I managed to get another job from the same client, I believe
that I delivered the reasonable and satisfactory service. That is why I get the second
job appointment. (KUL3A)
4.1.1.2 Core business services
This dimension relates to the nature of the services offered by the case practices. It
provides insight into how interior design is defined and practiced.
In terms of the Kuala Lumpur cases, these range from a design and build interior design
practice (KUL1), a multidisciplinary design practice (KUL2), and a sole operated interior
design practice (KUL3).
BRISBANE
In the Brisbane cases, for example, BNE1 markets itself as a boutique interior design firm
that incorporates architectural and decorative responses into their mainstream interior design
services. Their projects range from the residential to small scale commercial and specialist.
BNE2 is a multidisciplinary practice that is primarily architectural and planning as reflected in
the display of models in their Brisbane office (Figure 4.5). In this case, interior design is not
regarded as a stand-alone service but rather is subsidiary to architectural services (See
observation notes below). They undertake larger scale public building projects. Figure 4.4
shows a screen shot of their website and promotional literature.
Note 1:
Even though this practice offers architecture, urban design, town planning and interior
architecture, there are no formal departments. This practice is more on full architectural
service. XXXX doesn’t have a standalone interior design project as they only have one
interior designer and one architect cum interior designer as well. All interior projects are
part of architecture and more complemented to architecture. (Observation Notes, BNE2,
21/10/2011)
Note 2:
Brisbane office does not carry out any independent interior design works. The BNE2D’s
existence is to support architectural works related to the interior. In other aspects, perhaps
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it carries the setting of XXXX public appearance as other branches. From todays’
observations, I would say this practice is a dominantly architectural practice based on their
jobs, and appearance of a lot of architecture models and none of their directors and
associates are from the interior background. (Observation Notes, BNE2, 28/11/2011)
Figure 4.4: Promoted services offered on website and in brochures.
Figure 4.5: Architectural models in BNE2 office.
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BNE3 is also a multidisciplinary practice with the Brisbane office currently undertaking
commercial interior design projects while looking for larger architectural projects. A short
history of its service provision is outlined in the example that follows. The emphasis on
architectural services is in line with the services and image promoted by the head office in
Sydney (Figure 4.6).
Current practice in this branch is 90% interior work while another 10% is architecture work. The
first two years of establishment which is from 2006 to 2008, this practice carried 100% interior
design jobs then adjusted to 60% of interior and 40% of architecture. Leading to 2012 the
projection was set up for 60% of architecture and 40% of interior jobs due to trend of current
market and staff availability. However, it doesn't meet the forecast due to its inability to gain the
project and staff availability issues. (Conversation with BNE3B, observation note, 28/11/2011)
Figure 4.6: Promoted services as on the website.
KUALA LUMPUR
KUL1 offers a traditional interior design service with a design and build option. Their
aim is to fulfil client needs by combining and rationalising certain services. Emphasis is placed
on the fast tracking jobs.
Excerpt 1: I combined some aspect of business. Err…actually, this is not the way of practice
normally conducted in Malaysia and that’s what I believe. What I’m doing in this
practice is to fulfil the needs of client. We have 5 phases of the process until delivered.
Phase one prelim, phase two…and so on until project implementation but depends on
the client. Sometimes I skip some process. I do really follow the actual process but then,
if the client requests it…I will follow. (KUL1A)
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Excerpt 2: XXXX normally does the fast track job by providing services based on the fast track
project. I think the principal is expert on that, and amazingly she can manage the fast
track project very well. (KUL1B)
KUL2 undertakes interior design as well as graphic and furniture design. It also
implements a fast track design process.
Excerpt 1: As for us, we do the interior work, and we also provide the graphics work for the client
so that client won’t have trouble or get another consultant or another supplier in order
to get things properly arranged and done. In reality, most of the commercial interior
works will involve signage, errr...sometimes involve a corporate logo. Propose and
design the new corporate logo, you know...those entire things. That is actually within
the scope of the interior-design project…but nature of interior practice in Malaysia,
err…when comes to be interior they just have furniture and fitting works, and graphic
works will be done by other people, and also the furniture will be provided or designed
by other people. We believe, if we get one solid firm, or design company that actually
covered everything, meaning furniture, graphics, and interior design, the scope of work
and project duration can actually shorten down, and you will get a kind of very nice
scheme, to be synchronized with the concept and such. (KUL2A)
KUL3 is a sole or freelance interior design practice with services customised to suit
specific client needs as outlined in the following example:
Excerpt 1: Errr…when you do a freelance or as a sole practitioner, you can package the works
from…errm…if your client wants a turnkey, you can squeeze your design fee a bit here
and there. (KUL3A)
4.1.2
Market relevancy
For one case practice in Brisbane (BNE2), remaining market relevant was a point of
discussion in relation to risk management and ongoing sustainment with social relations,
procedures, systems and infrastructure noted as playing significant role for current and future
existence. Of these considerable emphasis was given to social relations and engaging in way
where the practice attaches itself to social agendas including sustainability.
4.1.2.1 Establishment of attachment
In the case of BNE2 two elements help explicate the attachment dimension. These are
reputation and bridging the gap, and being sustainable (Table 4.3).
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Domain
Expression of
Existence
Theme
Dimension
Elements
Market
Relevancy
Establishment of
Attachment
Reputation and bridging the gap
Sustainability
Case
BNE 2
Table 4.3: The influential factors of market relevancy in Brisbane cases.
Reputation and bridging the gap: In the following excerpt the design director BNE2A
addresses the importance of outreach and of articulating more explicitly what they are
concerned about and how they go about addressing these concerns through their design.
Excerpt 1: So, I think, that the whole thing about outreach and public explication is very
important...and that’s something that I will be working on and XXXX and I, particularly
are very interested in...and I spoke to XXXX and XXXX, neither of them, particularly
likes getting on the podium...whereas I think that’s very important for any firm...to be
very much involved in public discourse and I’m always interested in that. So, part of
my agenda and it really reinforces this...that is really to articulate what XXXX is about.
So, we all know that internally, but also then to go outside and explain it...put those,
you know, put those lectures together, publish the thing, just make sure that people
outside know what it is we are concerned about and what we’re doing... (BNE2A)
Sustainability: This element picks up the point of the need to have a sustainable outcome
for both the practice as well as the client in terms of their budget but also in terms of the building
and its performance.
Excerpt 1: The management of the design company which I am involved in... the holistic and
ultimately umbrella thing is to produce great design...It’s not to produce the most, you
know...the most enormous profits. It’s to make sure that the business is sustainable
and people are able to pay. (BNE2A)
4.1.2.2 Practice development
For the Kuala Lumpur cases another dimension for market relevancy was identified; that
is, the practice development dimension. This dimension describes the need as expressed in
KUL1 and KUL2 to be overly concerned with business improvement and growth.
Domain
Theme
Expression of
Existence
Market
Relevancy
Dimension
Elements
Case
KUL1
Practice Development
Establishment
Marketability
Marketability
KUL2
Table 4.4: The influential factors of market relevancy in the Kuala Lumpur cases.
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Establishment: KUL1 focuses on consolidation of its services that allows it to control
through management all aspects of the design, documentation and procurement process if
required. It has very clear aspirations for the future and the time frame for their achievement.
Excerpt 1: I think XXXX are fully ID consultant. The project management section is related to
interior design work so beside the designing work XXXX also manages the project from
A to Z. We call it project management but within the ID scope of work, sort of project
report, meetings, site supervision. We do interior design and project management and
cover all aspects of interior project scope, not only designing. XXXX will do the design,
be a client representative, site supervision and monitoring. Ermmm…project
management more to manage the project within the XXXX scope and relatively on
100% of interior design works. We do not manage for others, like for engineer or sort
of its…we just lead our project by meeting with client, contractor, site supervision, and
cost monitoring sort of that. We just supervise and monitor others. (KUL1D)
Marketability: This element identifies approaches by the case practices to expand and
sustain their market relevance. It highlights how various practices position themselves in
relation to specific areas of the market. For example, KUL1 focuses on government-related and
private sector projects to sustain their business. In line with this they have expanded their
business by also providing design and build services. On the other hand, KUL2 has diversified
their business by offering graphic design as well as interior design services.
Excerpt 1: My clients are normally GLC (government-related company). I don’t do a direct
government job because government always talk about their personal budget. They had
their own scale fees, their scale of budget. For example, partition less than 340 Ringgit;
chair is not more than 200 Ringgit, so I can’t give a good design with this sort of
requirement. Suppose they go direct to the contractor. With that sort of requirement, I
only can give that something that they need, very basic things. So, that’s why I don’t go
into a government project. I go for GLC and bank. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: From my view, it’s purely interior-design consultant and currently looking forward to
or move further to diversify their business activities. Not only conduct ID but do joint
venture to participate with construction as a contractor by providing design and build
services. All this is interrelated so she can make use of the existing resources. That is
what I see. So this is also like the future planning of XXXX, to move further and diversify
their business activities by using the same resources. (KUL1F)
Excerpt 3: So, we are not just going to concentrate on interior design. Personally, I think the design
industry needs to be quite open and wise so…you know….it is good for a company,
especially company like us to venture out into those things. Later most probably will
experts and can cater for everything you know…basically on graphics and furniture but
also maybe later we can actually be one of the experts...errr…may be in one of the
lines…meaning that either furniture or graphics or interior design, so it to be going
like that. (KUL2A)
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Figure 4.7: Implication of ‘expression of existence’ to interior design management in practice.
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4.1.3
The relationship between expression of interest and the nature of interior
design practice and management
As shown in Figure 4.7 exploring how a practice positions and portrays itself reflects
specific kinds of relationships between organisational structure and services, promotional intent
and market positioning. It also reveals how interior design is conceptualised and the value
attributed to it as it is constituted in practice. The following sections describe the emerging
theoretical structure developed by integrating the analytical outcome of each case study across
Brisbane and Kuala Lumpur as presented previously.
4.1.3.1 Core business services and market positioning
The case practices in the study were acutely aware of the significance of their public and
professional image and identity in contributing to a sustainable practice. In terms of the role of
interior design, this varied depending on the nature of the practice and its market positioning
strategy to gain competitive advantage through its core business services, which directly related
to or were allied to interior design. In this study, three types of practice were represented where
interior design was a core service. These included the sole practice, the multidisciplinary
practice, and the networked multidisciplinary practice. In some multidisciplinary practices
interior design was regarded as a subsidiary service supporting architecture as the core business
or as in one networked multidisciplinary practice as the core business until larger architectural
projects could be won. In summary the practices are described as:
a) Sole practices
The sole interior design practices in the study promoted themselves as offering a
boutique highly personal service in one case embracing both the architectural as
well as interior decoration attributes of interior design as a single service. In all
cases they tended to manage all aspects of design, contract documentation and
contract administration arguing the need for greater control to deliver higher
quality. These practices were small ranging from only a few staff to a single
operator. They tended to undertake small-scale residential/commercial/specialised
projects.
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b) Multi-disciplinary practices
These practices offered other complementary design or design related services as
well as interior design to expand their market opportunities and ability to respond
to market demands. In this study these services were graphic design, decoration
and project management as part of the design/build service. These practices
generally operated at the local level.
c) Network multi-disciplinary practices
This model is similar to the above except that it is a branch of a network that in
some instances is international as well as national. These practices generally
undertake medium to large commercial projects.
d) Architectural multi practice
In this practice there is a dominant service supported where it is considered
relevant by interior design. In this study the dominant service was architecture
with all projects considered as architecture, a situation reinforced by its focus on
the urban context and the design and construction of buildings.
4.1.3.2 Professional values vs market positioning
Being seen as a professional practice was held to be significant by all practice cases. For
some this meant being honest, transparent and consultative in their relationship with their
clients. It was also about the quality of the design outcome and whether it represents value for
money and meets or exceeds the expectation of the client. A consistent design identity and style
were important for some practices as a material representation of their values, to differentiate
them from other design practices, and to instil confidence and predictability in potential clients.
Some practices described the significance of outcomes that were sustainable and how it was
important to make this apparent through involvement in social discourse and active engagement
with the public. Some discussed the danger of compromise when attempting to secure a job in
very competitive times or bring it in within budget. Practices realised the value of their
behaviour and the quality of the design product in positioning themselves in the current and
speculative market.
In addition, the study suggests a relationship between professional identity and the
demographics of the practice. The smaller interior design specific practices tended to focus
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more on their relationship with the client; working closely with them in an explorative and open
way. This was facilitated through smaller scale projects. Larger scale projects were associated
with the multidisciplinary practices and how they made a contribution to society and the
profession, in this case architecture as interior design was generally not regarded in its own
right.
4.1.3.3 Core business services, practice characteristics and market positioning.
As just mentioned, the study revealed a relationship involving the scale of the practice,
the nature of the projects undertaken and the market or markets for the services.
Multidisciplinary practices provided the opportunity to enter several markets. The juxtaposition
of allied or complementary services provided an efficient use of resources and an ability to
respond to a dynamic and uncertain market. It also enabled them to take on larger projects and
to provide to the client a mix of services by the one provider. Specialised interior design firms
on the other hand were usually smaller delimiting their capacity to take on large-scale projects.
On the other hand, they were able to accept projects with greater diversity and to spend more
time developing a relationship with the client. Across the cases, interior design revealed the
ability to be extended or supplemented in various ways, for example, a traditional interior
consultancy that could be extended to include a design/build service, or an interior design
decoration service, or a graphic design service. Interior design can also play a supportive role
to architecture.
Two practice cases revealed what can happen when there is misalignment of practice
scale, structure and services. These are: BNE3 which was established as a multidisciplinary
network practice but forced to reduce its staffing and focus on interior design consultancy until
there was an upturn in the market and they could compete successfully for larger scale
architectural projects as its other network practices were set up to do; and KUL3 which was
also forced to reduce its staffing to the sole director operating from their house and forced to
meet clients in a local club to maintain an appropriate professional image.
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4.2
WORKPLACE MILIEU
This domain refers to the practice context and what shapes it as a work environment
physically, socially and psychologically. As described in this section, there are two themes that
characterise this domain: connections and relations; and facilities.
4.2.1 Connections and relations
This theme refers to the way in which ideas, things and events interact to achieve a smooth
working environment and quality output. Through observation and interviews three dimensions
were found in relation to the theme in the Brisbane cases: working alliance; mutual activities;
and discipline interrelations, and one new dimension in the Kuala Lumpur cases: career
development. Table 4.5 and 4.6 identify the associated elements.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Elements
Friendliness and transparency
Case
BNE1
Collaboration
Hierarchical structure
Working
Alliance
Workplace Milieu
Connections
and Relations
Team collaboration
BNE2
Hierarchical structure
BNE3
Individual specialization
Kinship approach
BNE1
Mutual
Activities
Appreciation
Extensive collaboration
BNE2
Discipline
Interrelations
Work delegation
Responsibility and work connection
Task boundaries and scope
Systems
BNE3
BNE2
Table 4.5: The influential factors of connection and relations in Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Workplace Milieu
Connections
and Relations
Dimensions
Working
Alliances
Elements
Hierarchical position
Case
KUL1
Pleasant conditions
KUL2
Career
Development
Developing experiences
KUL1
Medium to practice
Developing experiences
Developing experiences
KUL2
KUL3
Table 4.6: The influential factors of connection and relations in Kuala Lumpur cases.
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4.2.1.1 Working alliance
Working alliance relates to the nature of the relationships between people and between
people and their environment. As highlighted in Table 4.5 and Table 4.6 and as conveyed in the
following discussion, there were relational differences across the Brisbane and Kuala Lumpur
cases.
BRISBANE
The atmosphere in BNE 1 was very friendly, with staff collaborating in a flat structure
with transparent processes. This was contrasted in BNE2, which had a hierarchical structure
and collaboration of teams rather than of individuals. BNE3 replicated the network’s
hierarchical structure albeit with a staff of two each having specific skills and knowledge.
Friendliness and transparency: As indicated, BNE1 was not felt to have a hierarchical
structure contributing to a friendly, open and harmonious environment.
Excerpt 1: Compared to my previous…ermm, it is very much like hierarchical. So it was very
hierarchical but it is not the case in here and it is very open about the practice and the
finance managing… it’s actually a very friendly place. (BNE1E)
Excerpt 2:
Well, I don’t think there is a kind of structure. The creative is a creative approach
like...urm, As a designer we do, we have a kind of control of the design approach but
in terms of a gap between...there’s not so much of a hierarchy...I think the gap is not
obvious. (BNE1C)
Collaboration: Of the Brisbane cases, observations and discussions revealed BNE1 to be
the most collaborative. As explained below, in this practice there is minimal differentiation of
roles with the main distinction between design and finance. In this practice, the director plays a
key role managing as well as designing. A cooperative environment is encouraged for the
benefit of the client. All staff members across design and management meet regularly to discuss
all projects and so be in a position to support each other when and if necessary.
Excerpt 1: There is only a few of us, and we all...we manage our own projects, so we do everything
involved with those projects. We have to communicate with each other to get things
done, especially, you know, with xxxx doing the invoicing and ordering and things like
that. It is very transparent. She's working more on the management side, and trying to
get some definition between the two areas, like sort of function a little better maybe.
Yeah, it's not...we don't have a barrier. Its where...have separation comes in; it's more
going into the paperwork in the financial side. (BNE1D)
Excerpt 2: We have to work together with other parties. I think the key focus here is a client.
However, we can work whatever in the management or design conditions. It’s going to
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be work together for the benefit for the client… I mean, my roles are providing support
to…to provide enough services to the designers, so I have to make sure that I know
that...they are actually able to do their work better because that kind of thing I can’t
do…but ultimately, I think we can still focus on a client with…we have the regular
meetings so that everybody knows where we are working at…. (BNE1E)
Hierarchical structure: In contrast to BNE1, BNE2 which is a larger networked practice
operates using a hierarchical systems-facilitated structure with work delegated to dedicated
teams managed by a director. The practice carefully selects people who can work in a
systemised team environment and who have specific skills and work ethics that align with the
philosophy and values of the practice.
Excerpt 1
The management of the design company which I am involved in... the holistic and
ultimately umbrella thing is to produce great design...It’s not to produce the most, you
know...the most enormous profits. It’s to make sure that the business is sustainable and
people are able to pay. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 2: Urm...from my perspective...Urm...I’m going...I suppose I’m coming from xxxx
perspective as well. He always talks about urm... design philosophy and that everything
that we do to run the practice should be consistent with that design vision and
philosophy in mind. So, when we recruit people, it should be based on how we get the
best design, and when we’re making decisions about what computers we’re going to
use, it always should be with the end result in mind...So, I think it definitely it’s really
closely related in every decision we always make urm...from management to
business...you know...should be with that in mind of how it would affect the design.
(BNE2F)
BNE3 also is a hierarchical networked practice however in the Brisbane case there is
a principal rather than a director. Directors are financially accountable for the practice operation
and as such have more authority and involvement in decisions than principals. As reported in
the following excerpt and observation note, the activities of the Brisbane based practice are
reported to the directors located in the firm’s headquarters in Sydney.
Excerpt 1: …we have people that have skills in a particular area and that act as a managing director
and that xxxx is a managing director. He started the practice, and he keeps it on
track…so he is above everybody… between these directors, there are four of them. As
directors, these people are financially responsible for the practice and the principal is
heading up the practice, but they just get paid salaries. So, now normally you do a job
as principal, and you become a director and you have to invest money. Ermm…now
below the directors and in between the principals are associate directors. They’re
usually the second level of command for running the practice, the people who normally
demonstrate skills. I’m purely talking about architecture, there are principals in
landscape as well, and then you get the associate director. (BNE3A)
Note 1:
In terms of the XXXX management system, all manuals and procedures are developed
by HQ in Sydney. Other branches, including the Brisbane office will follow the entire
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standard manual and procedures provided. Directors are based in HQ, and all branches
monitored by appointed principals. The principal needs to communicate closely with the
Sydney office. Every activity and decision needs to be discussed and reported to the HQ
for approval or further actions. (Observations Notes, BNE3, 19/1/2011)
Team collaboration: This element refers to the way of working with others in order to
complete tasks and achieve shared goals. As mentioned previously, BNE2 is hierarchically
organised due to its size. Directors set the policies which are then implemented by the
management group and ultimately teams of designers according to designated strategies and
responsibilities. Team collaboration appears to rest on positive team member relationships,
shared understanding of goals and of what everyone needs to do to achieve successful outcomes.
This is facilitated through respectful leadership and regular informal meetings that acknowledge
collaboration and cooperation.
Excerpt 1: Everyone feels respected in their role. Everyone… for me, it’s having an open door
policy and hopefully developing relationships where everyone feels comfortable talking
with me. So, that is my way of creating, hopefully, efficiencies in design, in managing
design because that’s about everyone kind of an understanding of what we’re doing and
working with each other to do that. So, it’s all about the relationships and the
collaboration, and that requires personal respect and personal understanding and just
being very clear about what it is we’re doing, and very clear about what we’re trying to
deliver. You know the expectation is always of concern and of delivering quality design,
you know…that every individual needs to care deeply about the quality of the design
output. (BNE2A)
This point was also revealed in observations as follows and as shown in Figure 4.8 below.
Note 1:
At 9:30am, weekly morning tea meeting for the management highlights certain issues
for the current coming week. Meeting was conducted with relaxed and informal
environment by standing and hanging around the meeting area while having a coffee
and cakes. Meeting always highlights the collaboration and cooperation among and
between the team. (Observations Notes, BNE2, 21/11/2011)
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Figure 4.8: BNE2 morning tea meeting.
Individual specialization: While a team approach to task completion tends to rely on
the bringing together of specialist skills as is evident in BNE2 where interior design is regarded
as a specialisation, in BNE3 this was not possible due to project and staff shortages that
demanded a more multi-skilled approach.
Note 1:
xxxx performs the multitasking work by continuous updates and redevelops the layout
and design of the office in xxxx Street and at the same time makes a projection about a
prospect of a future potential project. (Observations Notes, BNE3, 12/12/2011)
KUALA LUMPUR
The hierarchical organisational structure was very evident in the Malaysian case KUL1.
Hierarchical position: The hierarchical structure of KUL1 was very evident in its office
layout where there were separate areas for the principal, the administrative staff, and the studio
designers as conveyed in Figure 4.9. Job tasks and design ideas were controlled by principal
and design director and delivered by teams according to the job task.
Excerpt 1: I separate them in terms of work. Everybody will handle their own job. One designer if
they start to handle the job, they need to continue until its deliver. Err...don’t get me wrong
by thinking they are not in team work. I’m not saying they’re not teamwork, yes; they team
work. There is a designer handling project management and project designer who is the
one who will monitor the project, and these people are supported by the production team.
Production team will do the 3D, drafting and sort of things and also support by technical
team as well. So, that’s why everybody has their own job. Technical team just concentrates
on the technical things. Production team will concentrate the 3D and drafting. So, in one
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project, there are only one project designer, one production person and one technical
person, not two technical people. Only one person taking care …. (KUL1A)
Note 1:
This practice is a bit hierarchical in its positions and it shown by separation of principal
and account area with creative workstation. The principal and account manager had their
own room, but it’s too crammed due to smaller space. (Observation Notes, KUL1,
26/03/2012)
Figure 4.9: KUL1 physical layout and design.
Pleasant condition: In KUL2 a small practice of five people, the emphasis was on
professionalism and humanity and the provision of a pleasant working environment.
Excerpt 1: When you run design as a business, everything is actually in the book errr…I mean
basically on paper you should do this, you should do that…you should come at 9 o’clock
in the morning, and then you should complete everything by 6pm. That was what normally
happens now. I don’t allow them to work late because I don’t think it is productive enough
for them to come and work for the next morning. Those things on paper because the reality
of design industry they always work until late night. Sometimes you need to allow the
creative movement with them those entire things, brainstorming and everything…so you
have to be human sometimes. Errmm…that is where you have to be really, really sensitive
when it comes to handling the staff. (KUL2A)
4.2.1.2 Mutual activities
Mutual activities refer to processes that aim to produce positive outcomes for individuals
as well as for the practice. It is a part of the connections and relations within the workplace
milieu domain as shown in Table 4.5.
Kinship approach and appreciation are the elements establishing working alliance
dimensions in BNE1. Extensive collaboration and effective, sensitive work delegation
contribute to the working alliance dimension in BNE2, while responsibility and work
connection applies to BNE3.
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Kinship approach: This element describes the family nature of some work
environments such as that in BNE1. In this case, employees tend to share similar interests and
interact after work as well as during work. Such ambience is driven in this sense by the director
who takes personal interest in staff. Staff members work closely with each other in an open and
transparent way. They support and learn from each other.
Excerpt 1: I think...more friendly, more transparent...that sure…really good to explain it more like
a family...family business, business approach... more personal... more personal kind of
service (BNE1C)
This point was also revealed in observations, as illustrated below.
Note 1:
There is no gap between the director and staff and doesn’t have a barrier between them.
Even though, there is hierarchy in the organisation structure but not in everyday
working relationship condition. Weekly meeting conducted in informal form and simple
way. Their style is more to discussion, or I would like to say like friendly family
discussion. (Observation Notes, BNE1, 28/9/2011)
Appreciation: In BNE1 the value of a familial environment is realised through staff
loyalty and devotion over considerable periods of time.
Note 1:
The friendly relationship between staff as well as director without a hierarchical barrier
made this practice unique. Possibly, the close relationship between them as a one family
brings the justification why xxxx and xxxx stay longer with XXXX. There are the value
elements of human touch and feelings despite salaries and other benefits. (Observations
Notes, BNE1, 18/10/2011)
Extensive collaboration: This element relates to the way of working among staff in
BNE2, how they undertake tasks to achieve a goal. Here it is believed that staff members share
the same design philosophies and values as set by management. Work is assigned according to
projects, their scale and nature and what this demands in terms of roles and responsibilities. The
intention here is to create a very organised, well managed, collaborative environment.
Excerpt 1: So, at the start of the project... the urmm, the project architect might be aware of the
fee...and they are asked to do the resource plan...The resource plan is essentially a
spread sheet that sets out hours. We start with studying the project prospect...and how
that calculates to make the profit from the project...and we monitor what we could...to
see what’s going on...if its looking like it could be a problem...if we decide on...if, and
how to rectify that...Sometimes, we accept the loss of the project for certain
reasons...Urm, time...at the start of the project...the project architect actually does a bar
chart program...to manage stages that we need to complete...and they monitor their
progress based on that weekly basis, and if there is a problem, we then assess. We
address it normally by adding more resources... (BNE2B)
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Excerpt 2: In fact, the err ...the people err... that they have a common understanding on what each
does to a large degree...even though they come from different offices their design
philosophies are very much the same, so that’s why I mention we talk about
design...design philosophies urm...and they talk about integrity design...But they’re not
tag lines…it’s just what they talk about. (BNE2C)
Work delegation: This element refers to how tasks are delegated to staff. In the context
of BNE2, job tasks are allocated based on hierarchical differentiation. Directors are responsible
for developing strategies as described in the excerpts and shown in Figure 4.10. After this is
established, tasks are allocated and working relationships formed based on the structure.
Excerpt 1 It’s a sort of two way or two front relationship, on one side it’s about supporting them
urm,...you know, just making sure that they get things that they need, resources mainly,
and then the other side of it is sort of pushing them and driving them and making sure
that they are achieving their buildings...Urm, you know, helping, it’s not one. It’s a sort
of two sided relationship where in some ways, yes, I’m there to support, but I’m also …
they need to report to me... but if we had been questioning in a meeting that, something
has happened, and I will be saying ‘why haven’t you done this’...so it starts to make
them accountable as well...So, that’s similar in a way with the directors. Certainly my
role is just to support them and to provide them with all the information so that they can
make a decision...Urm, you know, but it is also a bit about making them accountable …
like we can say we’re going to set our new strategic plan then, I will be ‘okay, we
haven’t done this’ so, a bit of pushing them as well...Erm....and as far as shareholders
go, urm...the only thing, sort of real thing... is more to organise...shareholder's meetings,
speaking to them to account about...urm, you know...whatever information...I don’t
know, so, that would be more the support role to the shareholders.. (BNE2F)
Excerpt 2: …so it’s reinforcing message all the time through the way design is discussed ...and why
we work together on design...being very, very closely involved in the design decision,
hopefully in most of the projects that is happening so that got through each project and
each design discussion, with the individuals involved in it...that message is being
reinforced the whole time. (BNE2A)
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Figure 4.10: One of BNE2 directors establishes and develops project structure (Observation Notes, BNE2,
7/12/2011).
Responsibility and work connection: Sometimes circumstances demand particular
differentiation of roles and relationships with colleagues as demonstrated in the case of BNE3.
As mentioned in the previous section, the size of BNE3 as shown in Figure 4.11 does not
correspond with the fact that there are only two staff members. These are the principal who is
accountable for business projection and realization, and the designer who is responsible for
design tasks and clerical work.
Note 1:
xxxx is accountable for managing and carrying out the project design and concept, while
xxxx will be responsible as a main contact for XXXX daily functions and all deliverables
over the project duration. (Observations Notes, BNE3, 9/12/2011)
Note 2:
The working relations are between xxxx, xxxx and the trainee. Mostly, xxxx and xxxx will
have a discussion regarding the material and finishes selection. They need to finalise
and complete the schedules before xxxx away and office will be closed from 22nd
December 2011 until 9th January 2012. (Observation Notes, BNE3, 12/12/2011)
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Figure 4.11: The condition of BNE3.
4.2.1.3 Discipline interaction
Discipline interaction in this study refers to the coordination of the project across its
various phases involving a range of disciplines. As the following discussion will show this very
much depends on scope definition, the establishment of task boundaries, and the system of
governance. A major disruptor in this respect is terminology and language.
Task boundaries and scope: The differentiation of design from management revealed
various relationships. In the case of BNE2 one view was that projects should be design led with
management playing a supportive role. In terms of government projects particularly there was
a tendency for design to be standards led. What was also revealed in these discussions was a
sense of vagueness and ambiguity about the nature of different management roles such as
project management. In terms of the latter, this means one thing to a designer and another thing
to a builder.
Excerpt 1: So, I want to see a world where great design is what it’s all about. Urmm, so that in any
government project one of the key performance indicators right up the front should be
great design, good design and getting the best designers involved in it. That’s a really
important thing, that’s something we discuss on the board. It’s really critical and we’re
trying to influence, advise government that way. The key to the success of the project is
really to have the right designers on it. So, any process that supports that is good. So,
that’s what I’m really concerned with at the moment…something that I’m actively
working on through the board…to try to make changes and have government understand
it. (BNE2A)
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Excerpt 2: I’m supposed to think of every single item...and there probably, you know...has been a
misunderstanding in jargon and these roles were probably not created. The breakdown
in the process and you know...if they call design management or project management,
but you know...working towards to the same goals or milestones whatever you want to
call them ermm... it’s probably not going to create so much friction...probably a lot
more...probably the process itself is going to create more turbulence than the situation
and the actual terminology used you know...that physically you should do something,
that I don’t think that I should be doing. It’s not really worth it and this is questioning,
why we should be doing it? (BNE2D)
Systems: In the case of BNE2, there was a very specific governance structure that aimed
to unite in a coordinated and aligned way the various practices dispersed nationally and
internationally. Integral to this, was ensuring an understanding and implementation of the one
philosophy. This practice also relied very substantially on the one manual of practices and
procedures.
Excerpt 1: I’m not sure how it compares to other firms…I'm not sure if other firms have a specific
role of design director...yeah only large ones...because it’s so critical to have, you
know...a general, a design an overview. And the other thing that you probably also
understand is XXXX is part of the network of other companies, and that the design
directors also keep in touch…. keep the conversation going about design across the
whole XXXX Ltd family. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 2: We need to highlight that project management in architecture is like this and project
management in building is like this…. there is cross over but in building, it’s a very
specific thing about delivering the building or the project whereas with architecture
you're managing the project from the inception of it. Even from getting the job...you
know, right from the early germinal journey of it...right to usually to...well beyond
completion of construction. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 3: The tag of philosophies...It’s their strategies...The design integrates all design
philosophies...everything will align with our philosophies...yeah, that’s what they
mean.... Even though these people use those terms, other people might describe them
differently. (BNE2C)
4.2.1.4 Career development
Interestingly, in the Kuala Lumpur cases, there was considerable emphasis on career
development. Here the workplace was seen as a platform for developing experience and
expertise and realising aspirations for other career opportunities many of which involved
various forms of management.
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Developing experience: The following descriptions of career paths show varied
experience including direct involvement in activities not directly associated with interior design
or involved directly with practice such as study at a higher degree level.
Excerpt 1: After graduated with a Bachelor, working with contractor and in 1994, start a career at a
bank. This is the longest service…erm…roughly about 15 years. So during this time, my
scope of work is more on facility management. Ermm...managing the maintenance for
branches; manage the project for major and minor renovations, ermm...tenancy
agreement, and also be involved in the procurement process. The procurement processes
are more related to QS, and I gain knowledge and experience as a QS by preparing the
BQ, calling tender, and those things. (KUL1F)
Excerpt 2: I established XXXX with other partners xxxxx, xxxx and xxxx. Erm…during that time, we
don’t have any large-scale project with just 2 or 3 banking jobs. At the same time, I form
another company, aPrivate Limited company with Chinese partner XXXX and we gain a
lot of office projects and Telekom. Parcel C and D of Putrajaya under XXXX and
completed in 2004, and I quit from XXXX. Back to 2007, I quit from XXXX and back to
free lancing. I have a friend, but he doesn’t have expertise in design and construction, but
he has a capital, and then we decided to form the XXXX. Ermm, I think that one is just
nice because during that time, I don’t have any company. I used this company to do a
design and build job. (KUL3A)
Medium of practice: This element highlights how practice can be a medium for realising
other indirect goals as well as the emergence of other activities that connect with mainstream
interior design practice.
Excerpt 1: Errr…to me XXXX is the vehicle to practice and to provide advice for the design work,
especially in concept development but now days I get less involvde. XXXX staff, especially
the head designer can manage on their own. XXXX principal just uses my name due to me
being a former president of MSID. (KUL1B)
Excerpt 2: Personally, this is the place where I gain the money. Actually, xxxx and I have a classmate
in university, and I request to join her. I don’t want to set up my own firm. I don’t want
the commitment by running a practice, you know…getting headaches to pay staff salaries,
utilities, tax and sort of things, but I have a project and contacts, so I bring projects to
XXXX like XXXX job and take the commission beside my salaries. I’m getting old and
tired of being involved in designing, and I asked xxxx to release me to focus on site
supervision. That’s why my designation here is as a site manager. (KUL1C)
4.2.2 Facilities
This theme refers to the physical attributes of workplace milieu in the form of equipment
and infrastructure needed to support specific services.
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4.2.2.1 Physical establishment
Physical establishment is a dimension of the workplace milieu for the Brisbane and Kuala
Lumpur cases. The physical establishment dimension was observed to have both indirect as
well as directs impact on the workplace milieu domain. Table 4.7 and 4.8 highlight the elements
that constitute the themes and dimensions.
Domain
Workplace Milieu
Themes
Facilities
Dimensions
Physical
Establishment
Elements
Space utilization
Case
BNE1
Acoustics
Layout and space allocation
BNE2
Functionality and aesthetics
BNE3
Table 4.7: The influential factors of facilities for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Elements
Facilities/ space
Case
KUL1
Workplace Milieu
Facilities
Physical
Establishment
Functionality and aesthetics
KUL2
Work at home and club house
KUL3
Table 4.8: The influential factors of facilities for Kuala Lumpur cases.
BRISBANE
In BNE 1, amply sized open plan environment was highlighted as vital in supporting its
familial flat organisational structure although there was a negative consequence acoustically. In
BNE2, the open plan layout has implications in terms of behavioural control and regulation. It
is also misleading as it does not reflect the hierarchical structure of the practice. For BNE3, the
size and layout is conducive for its intended purpose.
Space utilization: This element refers to act of using assets. In the context of BNE1,
respondents rate the practice layout as excellent. They can easily utilise the whole space in a
tolerant and supportive way.
Excerpt 1: We can see that our staff were spread all over the office…erm…and this layout allows
us to interact with each other... and talk easily...We can move and discuss ideas with
each other or be in exclusion but urm...but yeah, I mean we use the whole office…The
layout definitely helps us being able to assist each other with our projects. Having all
this space, as you can see, we'd make a mess and with this layout, a lot of stuff which is
handy...There is always the sample stuck everywhere. Erm...the layout is good but not
the acoustics. (BNE1D)
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Acoustics: While the open plan supports social interaction desired for a collaborative
environment is does as in the case of BNE1 create noise which can be disruptive.
Excerpt 1: Sometimes...we have very bad acoustics in his office, and it can get difficult. Like with
xxxx project, she has a lot of women sitting around talking…looking at computer screen
which makes it very difficult for me to sit down and focus. And also, if you're on the
phone in this office, people are talking, you cannot...cannot hear anything. So, certainly
we don't have the best basic designed acoustic office. (BNE1D)
Layout and space allocation: Figure 4.12 shows the floor plan of BNE2. As observed,
this type of layout suggests a democratic flat structure where people interact on the same level.
In contrast however is the expectation of conformance and an affordance by the layout of
surveillance by those with greater authority.
Note 1:
The office environment is quiet and calm. Staff try to lower their voice as much as
possible so they can avoid distraction. Psychological, open space with low partition
will direct the behaviour controlling as everyone can see what they are doing. Even
though the physical appearance of this practice is open and harmonious, but I think
psychologically it is quite controlling in an indirect manner. (Observations Notes,
BNE2, 17/11/2011)
Note 2:
xxxx mentioned the office layout is obviously an open system and brings a unique result
in terms of working environment where everybody will control and behave accordingly.
Some of the workspace is empty because the particular person is working on site, and
sometimes will return to the office to submit a report or have a meeting with directors,
while some of them work part time. (Observation Notes, BNE2, 21/12/2014)
Figure 4.12: Layout plan of BNE2.
While as shown in Figure 4.13 all staff have comparable spaces and facilities this does
not reflect the hierarchical social nature of the practice
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Note 3:
This practice is hierarchical in terms of positions in the practice structure but not in
workstation facilities. Directors occupied the space and workstation same as other staff
with no special rooms provided. (Observation Notes, BNE2, 17/11/2011)
Figure 4.13: Workstation for directors and associates in BNE2.
Functionality and aesthetics: The BNE3 office has a simple open space layout with
contemporary aesthetics as conveyed in Figure 4.14. However, as explained previously at the
time of the study it accommodated only two staff.
Note 1:
The office design is a simple layout with open space planning with separation of private
(working space) and public (reception and meeting) space. Public area consists of
reception, one meeting room for 12 people and one discussion room for 6 people. Private
area consists of workstation for 22 people; utility room for printing, photocopy and
storage rack; server room; kitchen and dining table for 6 people; and male and female
toilet. Overall design scheme is the simple modern contemporary with exposed roof
trusses and air conditioning ducting. Office ambience is dominantly monopolised by
white colour of the wall, ceiling and workstations are broken by grey carpet and black
chair. Some portion of the wall like the lift and emergency door area are painted in black
to make an emphasis of that area. The main light source is from fluorescent lighting at
ceiling and roof truss level as well as under the wall mounted top hung cabinet.
(Observations notes, BNE3, 9/12/2011)
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Figure 4.14: Office layout and design of BNE3.
KUALA LUMPUR
The Kuala Lumpur cases highlighted additional issues in relation to space and facilities
such as overcrowding (KUL1) and the need for the environment to present an appropriate image
to clients (KUL3).
Facilities/space: While KUL1 had appropriate design studio facilities such as
workstations and computers, a pantry and dining and discussion area, there was too little space
for the number of employees creating a very congested working environment (Figure 4.15).
Note 1:
Creative and project management area separated by five feet height black filing cabinet.
The area is more rectangular in shape. Project management section consists of 5
workstations, while creative design section consists of 10 workstations. Space for creative
design a bit congested, and each workstation divided by 4 feet height partition. Again,
like other spaces, this area is also equipped with loose furniture. The ambience of the
space is a bit dim due to dark grey carpet and walls. Main source of light is from the white
fluorescent lamps. Acoustic level was good but due to staff’s attitude to talk, laugh and
listen to mp3 without using the earphone it ruins the situation. (Observation Notes, KUL1,
26/03/2012).
Figure 4.15: Cramped and congested space of KUL1.
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Functionality and aesthetics: By comparison, the space and facilities of KUL2
are appropriate for the number of staff and their activities (Figure 4.16).
Note 1:
The office design is simple but conducive. Overall design scheme is simple modern
contemporary with loose furniture arrangement. The director’s room is close to the
studio and discussion area making it easier to communicate and monitor. (Observations
Notes, KUL2, 9/4/2012)
Figure 4.16: Workstation and discussion area of KUL2.
Work at home and club house: As BNE3 is a sole practitioner practice conducted from
home, the director feels compelled to use a nearby clubhouse (Figure 4.17) to meet with clients
and other people in order to present a more professional image.
Note 1:
As a freelancer, this practitioner carries out his work at home and uses XXXX club house
as a venue to meet his client, contractor, supplier, etc. He uses club facilities such as
business centre, café, lounge, game's and sports facilities and library to entertain his
client and others. (Observation Notes, KUL3, 31/5/2012)
Figure 4.17: Private club as a business venue of KUL3.
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4.2.3 Implication of workplace milieu domain
As mentioned in the early part of the description of this domain, workplace milieu is
related to internal environment conditions that impact ambience and practice. This section
explains how the workplace milieu is influenced by organizational and management structures
and their implications in the interior design practice context.
4.2.3.1 Totally independent relation with autonomy
In this study, cases exhibited various internal and external types of relationships as
conveyed in Figure 4.18. One type is the practice that is fully independent and as such has full
autonomy in terms of its practice and its management. This practice can be a sole interior design
practice or a multidisciplinary practice. In both cases, these are interior design led, and can have
either a flat/matrix structure or a hierarchical structure which appears to be largely dependent
on the scale of the practice and projects.
The study observed a connection between the flat/matrix structure of a practice and a style
of leadership and management synonymous with emotional intelligence. The personal kinship
approach permitted staff to interact freely and learn from each other. This situation demands
and thrives on a fluid structure, where staff and director roles interact freely in a mutually
trusting relationship. Ongoing issues and updates, either work related or personal, are discussed
in weekly meetings. At other times, discussion will be undertaken in order to address matters
arising at that time. Projects are micro-managed in a transparent way with nonobtrusive and
supportive monitoring by the director. The flat/matrix type of organisation favours interior
design projects as the core business.
While a more feminine style of leadership was associated with a flat/matrix structure,
another case similarly led had a hierarchical structure. In this case there was separation between
management by the female director and design by a design director who were the main decision
makers providing instruction to the other employees, either individually or collectively as a
team. Despite this structure, there was a concerted attempt by management to create a
harmonious working environment where staff members were comfortable and happy. The core
business was interior design with related services
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Figure 4.18: The implication of ‘workplace milieu’ to interior design management in practice.
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4.2.3.2 Centralized relation with some autonomy
Another practice had a centralized form of management being part of a network of
practices led by a practice established as the head office. While this practice had some autonomy
in its day-to-day operation, major decisions were made by the directors and practice manager
stationed in the head office. While this practice also had a hierarchical structure, unlike the
previous case its management style was very systematic and business-oriented. In this practice,
design and administration while separated were driven by a clearly outlined philosophy and
vision. For the Brisbane office this was difficult due to the shortage of architectural work and
the reduction of staff to two, the director and a designer/administrative person. In this respect,
the practice was struggling to sustain a productive milieu.
4.2.3.3 Centralized relation with autonomy
In contrast to the previous case, another practice revealed how a networked practice could
also have autonomy. While this practice shared a common vision and philosophy with other
practices in the national and international network, it had full autonomy operationally and
strategically having its own directors and practice managers. The core business of the practice
was architecture with other services such as interior design in a supportive role to the
architectural project. All approvals had to go through the directors with staff allocated specific
roles dependent on their skills and project type and scale. Management of the project as a
collective practice entity was monitored by the practice manager. While collaboration in a team
context was encouraged this was very organised rather than fluid.
Even though this is centralized hierarchical practice, the autonomous nature of the
practice enabled the practice to focus on developing pleasant and supportive relationships
among staff. It also however created situations where task boundaries particularly involving
design and management were diffused and confused. In such situations, these appeared to be
resolved harmoniously.
4.2.3.4 Office design and facilities influence the workplace milieu
Office design and facilities influence the behaviour and way of working in the workplace.
In the Brisbane cases the design was open plan with low partitioned workstations. In contrast,
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the Kuala Lumpur cases had partitioned space with full height panels to reinforce the
hierarchical organisation as explained in section 4.2.1.1. This difference appears to be power
based in line with cultural mores that sanction inequality and attribute privileges and status to
certain people and roles.
Most practices in Brisbane, and Kuala Lumpur provided appropriate basic facilities.
Offices were adequately equipped with workstations and resources in order to carry out work.
Both regions managed to provide office infrastructure suitable to achieving a conducive milieu
although space shortage and crammed working conditions were evident in one Kuala Lumpur
case as was a deficiency in terms of certain technologies, such as information and computer
technology as explained in Section 4.6.
4.2.3.5 Does size matters?
Figure 4.18 shows a significant role played by project/practice scale and practice services
in relation to organisational and management structure. Practices with a dominant service such
as architecture supported by a range of architectonic services and full autonomy can compete
for large-scale projects providing the client with a complete service under one roof.
Network multi-disciplinary practices with some autonomy also had capability and
capacity due to their networked system. However, if there was a lack of human resources in one
place this tended to confine the practice to one service and smaller projects.
Totally independent local practices, either sole or multi-disciplinary, with full autonomy
did however have advantages. These practices tended to undertake small to medium size interior
design projects with minimal management requirements and quick turnover. The turnover was
fast tracked in some cases through the implementation of a design/build approach.
4.3
COMPETENCY
This domain refers to the values and employee abilities, physical and intellectual to
undertake tasks entrusted to them. It is as declaration and evidence of conduct of how people
perform tasks. In other words, competency relates to the soft skills of human capital comprising
knowledge and expertise.
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4.3.1 Job attachment
This theme refers to the action and connections of peoples in the practice that are required
to get the job done effectively. It is about commitment to the task and the practice. The
dimensions and related elements are presented in Table 4.9 for Brisbane and Table 4.10 for
Kuala Lumpur.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Outgoing
action
Elements
Case
Participation
Task and direction
BNE1
Validation
Participation
Designation and task
BNE2
Resources
Competency
Job attachment
Discipline
comprehension
Operation
BNE3
Collaboration activities
BNE1
Practice size
Collaboration activities
BNE2
Table 4.9: The influential factors of job attachment for the Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Competency
Job attachment
Dimensions
Outgoing
action
Elements
Case
Task and direction
Validation
KUL1
Participation
Task and direction
Validation
KUL2
Table 4.10: The influential factors of job attachment for the Kuala Lumpur cases.
4.3.1.1 Outgoing action
Outgoing action refers to behaviour that occurs at certain points for the project to progress.
Associated elements are explained below.
BRISBANE
Participation, task and direction, and validation are the elements forming the outgoing
action dimension in BNE 1 while BNE2 exhibits elements of participation, designation and
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task, and resources. Operation is the element of outgoing action in BNE3 due to project and
staff availability.
Participation: This element refers to act of involvement and sharing activities to get a
job done. The relationship and involvement with the client is the key to establishing connection
and trust in BNE1. Here, the process of updating and educating is regarded as central in
facilitating smooth project execution. This process also helps to increase designers’ maturity
and professionalism.
Excerpt 1: I think it's important to make them feel included in the design process so you know,
make sure you are in contact with them regularly, just keeping them up to date on what
you're doing and what your reports are. If you need any information from them, let them
know. That way, they will know you're on top of the project and that you value them as
a client. (BNE1B)
Excerpt 2: So feeling kind of comfortable and confident within yourself. Obviously, that comes with
experience. So, that was probably a challenge and has been for a while and is something
that you know comes with experience, overcoming that within yourself to feel
comfortable. With more experience, you feel more confident dealing with all those
different contractors as you build your knowledge, you feel you have something more
kind of to contribute. (BNE1C)
BNE2 also emphasized processes for client involvement and staff participation. This
practice tries to avoid problems through rigorous discussion to ensure client understanding of
the process and outcome. It focuses on effective communication during collaboration and the
development of a good working relationship with client or staff. Project or HR management
support is provided to staff to ensure high quality of service and outcome.
Excerpt 3: Obviously, in a small firm, I was able to be very closely involved in every single project
and every decision that’s made. That's obviously much more challenging in a larger
firm. So, I’m working my way through on how I might do that...So, that’s the challenge
really of how to establish some kind of intense… and collaborative design working
relationship within a larger firm like this…and also get an understanding of what’s
actually happening, what projects are happening, what’s going out the door because
for me, it’s also about quality. It’s always about quality, quality control. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 4: Everyone has to bear responsibilities so, I would say, I have links directly to all to make
sure that all is happening as it should be. So, the really important relationship is, as I
said, with myself and quality management, so I think when the process is being sort of
proposed they come to me, and I look through it so, that’s a pretty important connection
between practice manager and quality management and urm.... probably production
manager as well. (BNE2F)
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Task and direction: This element recognises a relationship between the nature of the
project and associated tasks, time and an organisational approach. An excerpt from interviews
with staff in BNE1 qualifies this.
Excerpt 1: Well, it depends, I guess, because we do so many different things here at XXXX, it
depends on the project, so it depends if it's a decorating project or if it's a designfocused project. Um, it really does depend, but um, I guess organization's probably one
of the biggest things to, kind of, make the process as smooth as possible. I guess at the
beginning of the project and what we're doing more and more is trying to work out how
much time a project will actually take... (BNE1C)
Validation: This element refers to the time and effort made to ensure an efficient process
and effective outcome as clearly articulated in the following excerpts in relation to BNE1.
Excerpt 1: We tell them. We remind them all the time. And the way we do that is by them having
confidence in us. So we approach their project confidentially, solve their problems
confidently. We are very clear in the directions that we take the projects. So we are very
dominant in our relationship with our clients. To me, that's what I think we should be.
We should be offering a professional concise service. And also at the end of the job,
when it's finished, that we have satisfied the clients and product has exceeded their
expectation. (BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: Um, I generally get in somewhere between 7:30 and 8:30, um, often sit down, kind of
check emails and respond to anything that needs to get responding to immediately.
Um...we also kind of keep an eye…keep a weekly to do list with it on the Monday, I'll
just jot down on what I think I need to do and I think I need to call for someone or
something like that, so that's just something that. (BNE1B)
Designation and task: This element identifies how particular appointed or designated
roles have specific expectations and responsibilities that must be brought together and
negotiated in various situations. Such designation and its operationalization are clearly
conveyed evident in BNE2.
Excerpt 1: So, obviously when you run your own practice, you’re responsible for everything, you
know everything from HR to marketing, to financial stuff and all of that. As a single
director, I was responsible for everything and…now all of those tasks are shared. I am
now a company director as well, so I am involved in the design business as well. The
other design director who has been here and he’s still here part time xxxx, he’s not a
company director. So, I am both a design director and company director. Uhurm…So,
that’s a slightly different responsibility. I also have responsibility for the business and
future of the business as well. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 2: Part of the job of coming is just for the two of us to go along in my interior perspective
Erm...what else do I do? Erm, so regularly I go to the site meetings or something like
that with people, and I have a particular interior kind of direction on what particularly
comes out of that day and then spread out the job. Let’s say on colour selection….
(BNE2D)
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Resources: This element identifies the dependency on resources and the need to monitor
the use of resources responsibly. Again BNE2 provides a good example of this.
Excerpt 1: I think, trying to keep everything moving ahead when we talk about strategic planning.
Urm...Making sure we are constantly doing the things that we start. That defines the
challenges by having four directors as well. Sort of getting together about things and I
think you know...urm...also in this climate, we’re in, the finance climate, you know, that
the finance side has been difficult. You’ve just got to be on to it. Urm, we’re sort of
going into almost reporting weekly to directors about the finance situation, the cash
flow sort of thing. (BNE2F)
Excerpt 2: The practice manager manages the resources, and if we need extra resources for the
project then, I come to see xxxx or just start to work on a project. She is also who
reviews the financial side. (BNE2E)
Operation: This element recognises the need for formal and dedicated application of
organisational processes to affect smooth operation of projects and tasks.
Note 1:
xxxx carried out the remaining work of XXXX project which is needed to organize and
complete detail drawing for kitchen area, finalising the material schedule and to solve
some toilet issues on a ground floor. Weekly meeting schedule at 9:45 am as this is xxxx
last meeting for this year as she will on leave until New Year. Meeting is most likely to
monitor, organize and update XXXX project (Observation Notes, BNE3, 12/12/2011)
Note 2:
xxxx writes down and organizes all the issues that had been discussed during the
meeting to bring to xxxx attention after the Christmas and New Year break.
(Observation Notes, BNE3, 20/12/2011)
KUALA LUMPUR
Task and direction; and validation are the elements forming the dimension of outgoing
action in KUL1 and KUL2 while, participation only exists in KUL1.
Task and direction: As indicated previously, this element recognises a relationship
between the nature of the project and associated tasks, time and an organisational approach. As
revealed in the excerpts following, in the case of KUL1 design and management are
differentiated with specific tasks and responsibilities attached to each and delegated to the
relevant staff.
Excerpt 1: I guess more on design development related work. I’m not going to be involved in
management, and that’s why I mentioned before that XXXX just used my name. (KUL1B)
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Excerpt 2:
Since this is my project, so I’m the one who is responsible to attend meetings, delegates
all the works…I mean, design works in order to meet the entire dateline for each process.
XXXX still in planning and concept stage…so I will make sure all the works will be
completed one day earlier than the dateline…so that I have time to review it before
submitted to XXXX. (KUL1C)
Excerpt 3: In here, I mean Malaysia, design thinking is not well understood by the client, so they
will think that our service is just to make it happen only. They don’t see it as a process
the dos and don’ts. So that actually needs skills...(KUL2A)
Validation: The examples here relate to activities of managing through monitoring. In
the case of KUL1 the complexity of the project demands delegation of specific aspects of the
design process. Monitoring of the process overall is undertaken by the head designer. The
design process is distinguished from contract administration also involving a variety of tasks.
These excerpts identify separate yet connected management roles and processes namely design
management and project management.
Excerpt 1: To be as a head designer is something complex because there are too many things that I
have to monitor…erm…from an early stage, briefing from client, some info from the user
and so on. So from that I already know which part that I need to pass on to my designer.
I need to delegate all the works wisely like who will be responsible to do conceptual,
space planning, documentation, technical specification, and sample board sort of things.
Those tasks are a bit complicated…to delegate and also carry out the design task. So the
head designer acts as design manager as well. (KUL1E)
Excerpt 2: I will be doing the creative side…meaning the design part and site management. Most
probably when you get involved in the project, you’re actually managing the project…in
terms of the scheme, the signature of the company, the construction, detailing and such
thing is actually under me. I’m practically more on design and its management. (KUL2A)
Participation: This element refers to the type of engagement that is considered necessary
to get the job done. In the case of KUL1 this involves discussions with the client to explain and
justify design decisions, and in association justify the amount of work put into the design
process. It is also considered significant as it helps develop trust.
Excerpt 1: By showing a bit of the process, for example, if you come out with the design statement,
you don’t just show the statement, but you need to provide some rational explanation and
justification, whether diagrammatic or [verbal] explanation. So, you try to show the
justification of your ideas, if not they think, the thing is easy to do. (KUL1B)
Excerpt 2: We must listen to our client too. Show to them that we care about them, their vision, need,
and budget. If we manage gain trust from them, every single process will be going
smoothly. (KUL1E)
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4.3.1.2 Discipline comprehension
This dimension recognises the involvement of specific forms of knowledge in the project.
Depending on the scope of the project this may involve several people including the client.
Collaboration activities: While participation relates to ways of and reasons for engaging
with others particularly the client, collaboration suggests the notion of working together and
having to rely on certain people with specific knowledge to finalise the job. Collaboration built
on respect is at the heart of working as a team. In progressing the design, the team in BNE1 self
manages. Working with others as a team or consultants demands a professional attitude as
highlighted in the case of BNE2. Sometimes tension arises when there are conflicting opinions.
Resolving these and developing effective working relationships takes time.
Excerpt 1: Well, I guess all of our jobs here, we kind of classify as a design project. I guess, you
could probably go into a design project as something that is bigger, collaborative
project that has input from a lot of people. I guess these kinds of terminologies are just
not what we use every day, but every project has a want and a need. And we are going
to satisfy the need. There are definitely financial, legal, ethical constraints. Timeline
constraints. And the people involved are affected. You have the tools and technologies
and things required to come to a specific design idea that is affected. So, every project
touches on most of these things a little. But I think what is a bigger thing that is a part
of this is relationship…building the relationship with the client. I think is the bigger
part of the project. (BNE1D)
Excerpt 2: Um, well I guess there's so many components to what we do as designers. There's the
kind of practical side of design and there's also the creative part of design so it kind of
is about the two working together and both are kind of equally important as each other.
(BNE1C)
Excerpt 3: We always coordinate with a consultant to make our design work… so some of the
structural elements, we can, mostly … we get a good engineer, mostly they understand
the work…what we want to achieve with the design and accordingly, the structure,
…but still we have to do coordination and negotiation with them to maintain our design.
(BNE2E)
Excerpt 4: I don’t know if I want to class it as a design problem ...but I’m always running out of
time and.... creeping out to escape. I don’t care...you know... but I guess the other design
problem is they actually ... where the professional prevails is that they speak as an
expert...and we will come and tell them what they need to do... and they tell us what
they are doing...and it comes out what they want to do...so we have a dialog with them
and work out what is the best...and we don’t offer any particular planning on that one
because you know...they know what they are doing and just tell us to appoint...but
sometimes people are complaining and saying, ‘I do everything, you’re just asking
questions about stuff and I don’t need to answer your questions...and they do
occasionally,...but...yeah...can be a big deal. (BNE2D)
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Practice size: As inferred in the previous examples the size of the practice and associated
size of projects influences the number of people involved with specific roles. In the examples
presented here, there is comment regarding the decision not to include another discipline in the
form of an external project manager due to the size of the project and practice.
Excerpt 1: In general, urm...I guess the project manager kind of really controls this kind of the
construction phase... It’s different here because working as a small firm it's a little
different...urm...but, my kind of basic understanding of how a larger firm would work
was that there would be a team leader kind of driving that... (BNE1C)
Excerpt 2: I mean we don’t do a lot with an actual project manager. We tend to be involved because
of that being small project...we are direct; I guess directly deals with the builder’s
project manager rather than having an external project manager. (BNE1D)
4.3.2
Knowledge base expertise
This theme relates to the skill, knowledge and attitudinal base needed in order to perform
specific tasks. It also incorporates an appreciation of degree in keeping with the domain of
competency. As this section will highlight, some variation was noted across the Brisbane and
Kuala Lumpur cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Skills
Competency
Knowledge
Base Expertise
Professionalism
Elements
Experience
Case
BNE1
Ability and capability
Experience
Ability and capability
BNE2
Experiences
BNE3
Persuasion
BNE1
Task responsibilities
Persuasion
Multi-tasking
BNE2
BNE3
Table 4.11: The influential factors of knowledge base expertise for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Competency
Themes
Knowledge
base expertise
Dimensions
Skills
Elements
Ability and capability
Ability and capability
Case
KUL1
KUL2
Table 4.12: The influential factors of knowledge base expertise for Kuala Lumpur cases.
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4.3.2.1 Skills
In the context of this study, skill refers to the ability to produce solutions for particular
problems. Such skills can be developed informally through experience and formally through
education.
BRISBANE
Experience is highlighted in all Brisbane cases with further differentiation according to
ability and capability elements forming the skills dimension in BNE1 and BNE2.
Experience: This element refers to knowledge and skill resulting from direct participation
in events or activities over the time and normally refers to the concept of know-how. In BNE1,
experience informs several aspects of project activity. Experience also relates to intuition as
explained in next section in this competency domain.
Excerpt 1: Urm...at the moment it’s really hard to kind of look at how many hours you spend on a
project, urm...I guess by experience get used of it. (BNE1B)
Excerpt 2: Just experience from the past project...I guess. This initially when we go and see
someone’s house or something. We know roughly what that is going to cost from our
past experience, from other projects. (BNE1D)
Respondents in BNE2 also indicate that experience helps them to execute the task better.
They gain knowledge or skill from direct participation in events or activities over the time either
in the current or previous firms where they work. In contrast, the principal of BNE3 had
extensive experience as an academic as well as a practitioner. Her staff members have a business
degree and experience in steel construction manufacturing as well as in architecture and other
design area.
Excerpt 3: I have extensive expertise in architectural practices within both public and private
sector practices covering a diverse range of architectural projects. As a team member,
I am responsible for document production, contract administration and as a project
team leader responsible for project delivery. (BNE2C)
Excerpt 4: I actually didn’t go to university. Yeah, this is a bit unusual for someone in this role. I
certainly wouldn’t have come through a business degree, or you know...or the architect
that...moves crosses into managing practice. Urmm...some of my experiences really
comes through more just on the job training urmmm... as well as work. I’m sitting in
the board room, at a big firm ... much as far as I can go. I learn by just listening, and
you know, asking questions as it’s more like an apprenticeship business than rather
than a formal business degree. (BNE2F)
Excerpt 5: I have a Business degree as well and that’s where I originate from. When I left high
school, I did a business degree in XXXX and remained there up to 5 years, and I ran a
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manufacturing business within a year which is why I do the onsite work…because I
have a manufacturing background in steel construction. My design degree is my second
degree so; it’s my career change decision. (BNE3B)
Ability and capability: These concepts draw out the notion of quality in relation to
competency skills. The extent and relationship of using skills is highlighted in the case of BNE1.
Excerpt 1: I think design management is about engaging all your skills: you graphic skills; your
analytical and planning skills; your creative skills; your verbal, written, oral skills.
Using all of the skills in combination to arrive at a design solution. For me, I see a
design solution as something that's built. It's not just an idea. It's a big difference with
me. I shall see we can have a lot of design ideas, but it's not a real design unless it's
built. Unless you've tested it. You find someone who will pay for you to test it to build
it. So the manager of the design is using all of those skills to arrive at an outcome.
(BNE1A)
Excerpt 2…if you're taking too long on something, umm…an allocated task or something…I think
as far as time it is something that can be easily managed and that is brought up at
weekly meetings and then it's been reflected in what we have to do. So it can be a little
touchy. That's just something you do quite consciously and you know if you're working
towards something that if you don't have that much money, kind of just pay attention to
material selections and construction methods and things like that. It's a conscious
decision that you make…. (BNE1B)
In design, certain abilities are given greater capability through computer technology. In
the example that follows, the need for hand sketching for a certain aspect of design is
emphasised as providing a better outcome for one of the designers. This is in contrast to the
firm developing greater computer capability through lunch time workshops (Figure 4.19).
Note 1:
Some architects still use a drawing board to do hand sketches or detailing before
converted into a computer. This traditional way of processing is still relevant to them
in terms of idea and design development. Working conditions in here are a bit formal
compared with XXXX. Perhaps practice size and hierarchy are the factors contributing
to the situation. (Observation Notes, BNE2, 21/11/2011)
Note 2:
There is a lunch time workshop conducted by xxxx this afternoon. He is responsible for
Revitt Architecture or any design and drafting programme in the office. He explains
and puts in a demo of new features and tips for the Revitt. The lunch time meeting or
workshop is a part of staff development training provided. I end up my observation at
2:00pm. (Observation Notes, BNE2, 7/12/2011)
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Figure 4.19: Design development process and lunch time workshop in BNE2.
KUALA LUMPUR
Ability and capability are emphasised in the Kuala Lumpur cases except KUL3.
Ability and capability: The ability to monitor the whole project process with a certain
level of skill and knowledge is crucial in KUL1 and KUL2 for completing the job in a shorter
timeframe. The competency to work at a particular level of quality to affect a satisfying outcome
in design and project management is a main goal.
Excerpt 1: Normally, for other practices, 5-million-ringgit project will take one month for design,
but we can complete it within 2 weeks as our practice is fast track where by the task,
time, budget and aims are very important. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: Okay…as for us, we are quite small with 5 people in this company. So what we have at
the moment, we are the ones who actually do the design management and also do the
project management in our practice. We do from A to Z, meaning that from the design
process by itself…errr...get the ideas, do research and then come up with the preliminary
ideas and such until the final idea and manage, coordinate and errr…make it happen on
site and get it completed. Everything is everybody's job. We don’t have any dedicated
design management department or project management department. (KUL2A)
Note 1:
The way this practice operates and conducts their work process is by assigning to
particular people according to their designation post. The designation post reflects their
capability as the main ideas and conception come from the principal and design
directors. (Observation Notes, KUL1, 7/5/2012)
4.3.2.2 Professionalism
Professionalism refers to the standard of education, expert characteristics, ethical and
moral obligations of individuals in the respective firm.
Persuasion: Persuasion is the process of influencing actions, values, methods, or
principles as ways of doing. In this situation, interior designers accept the need to educate people
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in terms of a more accurate understanding of interior design and its potential to offer something
different to the client than the other spatial disciplines. Because the staff members in BNE1 all
see themselves as interior designers they are able to convey a consistent message.
Excerpt 1: We have quite a strong presence in the industry and a reputation for the work that we
do…People think they need to go straight to an architect, but they don't realize that
interior design can help them in the same way. I guess because we try to educate them
that we try to get the most out of the existing space. So, I think there is a preference
because we all are interior designers. We're a little bit different, but we're not
competing against the other architects in the office. (BNE1D)
Excerpt 2: Now a lot of people could argue that's an architectural project. For me I don't see any
difference because it's the building is all about the internal experience and I suppose
for us here at XXXX, that's where I define where we want to be identified as people who
do more architectural…That's how I define our scope. I'm only interested in working
on buildings that give us an interesting interior. I don't want to just work on external
buildings. (BNE1A)
In BNE2 the vehicle for persuasion is the vision and philosophy of the practice. It is the
vision that elevates staff beyond the concerns of their disciplines to their integrative power and
the greater quality of the project.
Excerpt 3: The smooth..the way in terms of kind of err, process and production...that for me it’s
about, it’s about the idea, and discussion.... and the relationship between architecture
and this place... this particular place... So, I’m not obsessed with process.... I am
obsessed with the conversation and the quality of it.... and it’s the process that
facilitates that... But, you know... I’m interested in but... it’s all for me about how you
actually develop and have a very... very cogent and productive design... That’s what
I’m interested in. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 4: That actually depends on the level of competency of the person to draw,…this company
and probably students and inexperienced people …really being with a new CAD
package,…probably not many experienced people…the drafts people can use Revit, that
provides another reason but this company doesn’t use the experienced person to use
Revit to draw the details,…so whether I like it or not,… some other more experienced..
like me or some other people get to draw the detail drawing, sketch drawing and this
joint,…and then transfer it to Revit…… at other companies it’s more likely
inexperienced people who attend drafting classes for detailing,… not the experienced
people…they have everything about detailing, some people are good, some people are
really good at it… (BNE2E)
Task responsibility: In BNE 1 individual staff are singularly responsible for a project
and undertake the tasks associated with it as it moves from conception to completion (Figure
4.20). This is possible in this practice due to the small size of the project and the ability or
predisposition of staff to multi-skill
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Note 1:
Each designer is responsible for their project and project file to comply with QA
requirements. By referring to current XXXX weekly meeting notes/minutes, each
designer will be responsible for up to 6 projects. (Observation Notes, BNE1, 13/9/2011)
Figure 4.20: Working conditions in BNE1.
Note 2:
xxxx works on a XXXX project. Based on current meeting notes xxxx handles 5 design
and 5 deco projects; xxxx 7 design and 2 deco projects while xxxx 5 design and 4 deco
projects. Each of the designers in this practice will handle the assigned project alone.
(Observation Notes, BNE1, 4/10/2011)
Multi-tasking: While in the previous example the purpose of undertaking various tasks
(multitasking) was to provide consistency throughout the project and facilitate the development
of a variety of skills and knowledge, in the case of BNE3 multi-tasking was required due to
staff shortages and the need to manage with minimum cost.
Excerpt 1: I work for a bigger office so...I also feel the pressure. I think here they give me a lot of
scope…. (BNE3A)
Excerpt 2: I have done multiple tasks in my job…so for me, it’s not an issue to multitask, and
change disciplines based on what is needed to do. It just has been efficient… making a
lot of mostly ticking the box through the day because my aspiration probably starts with
my background. (BNE3B)
4.3.3 Cognitive process
Cognitive process relates to the ability to analyse and synthesis situations or problems
from different perspectives within different contexts. Cognitive processing involves decisions
that lead to outcomes. The cognitive process also refers to people’s behaviour of how to manage
and control the flow information or function of related problems.
Intuition and integrity are the two key dimensions of the cognitive process theme for
Brisbane’s cases, while it is intuition for the Kuala Lumpur cases Table 4.13 for Brisbane and
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Table 4.14 for Kuala Lumpur show that the elements that constitute the dimensions are varied
in each case. Each of the elements within this dimension will now be explored and illustrated.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Elements
Determination
Representation
Intuition
Competency
Cognitive
Process
Integrity
Case
BNE1
Determination
Representation
BNE2
Representation
BNE3
Values
BNE2
Relevancy
Table 4.13: The influential factors of cognitive process in Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Competency
Cognitive
Process
Intuition
Elements
Determination
Representation
Case
KUL1
Determination
Representation
KUL2
Representation
KUL3
Table 4.14: The influential factors of cognitive process in Kuala Lumpur cases.
4.3.3.1 Intuition
Intuition is a process that bypasses ordinary justification. In this context, it is closely
related to experience and competency as previously highlighted.
BRISBANE
Determination: Determination drives intuition. It refers to the level of investment given
to achieving some outcome. In the case of BNE1, the designers are determined to adopt a
holistic process which is interior design led across a spectrum that integrates what are
sometimes seen as the polar opposites: interior decoration and architecture connected through
the construct of interior design.
Excerpt 1: We're one of the few firms that don't tout themselves as an interior design form, now
I'm not sure about this, you can correct me if I'm wrong, that is we’re able to do
architecture, interior and decorating. So we start the project in the role of an architect,
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then we put on the interior designer hat through the process of the job, then we put on
a decorator hat and we finish the space. (BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: Well, I don’t really have a problem as much. Maybe like more challenges...Urm..so,
what do I understand as the design problem? Erm...Yeah, I guess, working with the
budget it’s not...urm..you know in line with client expectation. They are expecting to see
something with a certain result but don’t have the budget for that. Then obviously the
relationship with client...urm..then understanding what we do and how we do it
sometimes can be a challenge. (BNE1C)
BNE2 typifies a practice driven to produce sustainable and culturally appropriate design
outcomes; what they consider to be quality design.
Excerpt 3: XXXX is built around sustainable and culturally appropriate design and to provide very
high design quality outcomes.... So... And the basis, the way to achieve it is through
strong and respectful collaboration between.... the architects and project team.
(BNE2B)
Excerpt 4: Its more architecture…. We are doing the proper process from inception to
completion…. to the town planning… the architecture is part of town planning, town
landscape…. and some people are strong on the town planning side and…. some others
more on building but …they offer, we’re all concerned about the landscape…
environmentally and futuristic thinking (BNE2E)
Representation: This element refers to the way particular competencies such as interior
design are represented. For instance, in the example that follows, the practice is likened to
practices in the European context that specialise in what they call interior architecture. For this
practice, it represents itself as a “firm that approaches space architecturally”. Associated with
this is a style that represents a way of representing the values of the practice.
Excerpt 1: I tend to use the words here at XXXX that we approach interiors architecturally, so in a
way I identify this practice more perhaps like an architectural firm working in London,
because of cities that have a lot of existing buildings they are working with external and
internal spaces all the time. So a lot of architectural firms in Europe do what we do and
they call themselves architects. So for me, I think there is a difference between straight
interior design and interior architecture but in Australia I can't call myself an interior
architect. So that's why I tend to say we're an interior firm that approaches spaces
architecturally. (BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: No, I don't think so. No, there's not one particular style, it's really, we really adapt to
the brief, the client, the conditions of the project, its really quite general. We have a
style maybe in the way we approach our project, but not in terms of the outcome and
that's quite intentional, it's kind of our philosophy. No, that things aren't the same, that
it's not about trends, it's about fulfilling the brief. (BNE1C)
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For BNE2, it represents itself as an ecofriendly-based practice with architecture as the
holistic overarching discipline. Its decision to represent itself this way also recognises its
interest in the broader urban context.
Excerpt 3: XXXX represents urm…very much as….urm...I don’t know what to say...urm...I try to
think of something the opposite of ego based... we provide high quality design … how I
call it design service...urm focus on the...focus on the need of sort of all the
stakeholders... Urm...so, we take into account the client’s needs, but also the needs of
the community and future generations. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 4: I think XXXX, even the name…implies a holistic and inter-relational understanding of
architecture and design…. Which is what I’m interested in. I’m very urm…. interested
in urban design issues…. I’m very interested…. as I say here in the relationship between
architecture and culture… urm…. and the landscape and the urban realm…. So, I see
all these things as a continuum. I don’t see the design of buildings as separate from the
world, all those other issues and that’s why the ethos of XXXX is so attractive to me.
(BNE2A)
In the case of BNE3, it values the relationship with the client and providing a quality
service by being able to draw on the required expertise when necessary.
Excerpt 5: Ermmm…a place of friendly and talented people. Ermm…a lot of practices will be
arrogant with a client, but here they are not. They are very humble. The way they relate
to the client.. (BNE3A)
Excerpt 6: Arrr…It’s meant a large base of a highly experienced people that you can use their
resources during design to gain experience on the project. I don’t have much
experience...which helps me in the future to gain experience to progress towards my
skills. (BNE3B)
KUALA LUMPUR
Determination: KUL1 claims money is the main driver of practice in Malaysia and
according to KUL3 of quality design as well. Producing quality design within budget on time
makes the client happy and helps to establish a competitive edge. In this context, design is
regarded as a product or commodity. This does not deny that there is also the motivation to
produce spiritually meaningful environments.
Excerpt 1: In Malaysia, design is about money. Design is not really being appreciated here, it is
about need only. Let’s say office renovation is 20 Ringgit, 30 Ringgit ...it’s about money,
and it’s not about design. There is no client today that says, “ xxxx, I want a grand and
pretty design” …no, don’t have…”xxxx, I want interesting design”…no, really no. Since
this company has been open in 2003…err…since then until today, I only twice have been
able to get to participate in the design tender. That is the justification over here, I mean
the situation in Malaysia, people are not talking about design, but money. (KUL1A)
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Excerpt 2: Design is providing solutions. Solution for product-related problems…so, product is any
product or space, for example…product can be a product per se, or it can be architectural,
or it can be spaces…right…errm…there are many problems...problem solving that means
everything…you can solve the practicality, budget, services, so on so far. (KUL1B)
Excerpt 3: The reality, design is money. If you have money, everything you can do….Without money,
not to say you can’t, but it is difficult to produce a good design. It will be stuck
somewhere. (KUL3A)
The desire to operate efficiently and also produce a synthesised outcome is the motivation
of KUL2 for providing multiple design services under one roof.
Excerpt 4: We believe, if we get one solid firm, or design company, that actually covered everything,
meaning furniture, graphics, and interior design, the scope of work and project duration
can actually shorten, and you will get a kind of very nice scheme, to be synchronized
with the concept and such. (KUL2A)
Representation: In the case of KUL1 it positions and presents itself as providing an
efficient service by being able to fast track its jobs whereas KUL2 relies on the provision of
multiple allied services such as graphics and furniture.
Excerpt 1: Ohh…we can be working 24 hours. We can deliver the project within the time line given
that nobody else can do, even ermmm…that’s where actually in here we practice a fast
track job. When it comes to a slow track job, or slower work than normal, we feel bored,
everybody in the office feels bored to do it but when comes to fast track job, my staff are
really interested to do it. Ermmm…that is the difference whereby we provide all the
services that normally ID firms in Malaysia don’t have. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: For an interior firm, it will make a lot of difference because for a typical interior firm,
they will just concentrate on interior designing works, meaning that, scheme design,
management design and such…which is catered for only the interior work, meaning that
fitting out works. As for us, we do the interior work, and we also provide the graphics
work, for the client so that client won’t get into trouble or get another consultant or
another supplier in order to get things properly arranged and done. In reality, most of
the commercial interior works will involve signage, errr...sometimes involve a corporate
logo. Propose and design the new corporate logo, you know...those entire things. That’s
actually within the scope of the interior-design project…but the nature of interior
practice in Malaysia, err…when it comes to be the interior they just have furniture and
fitting works, and graphic works done by other people, and also the furniture will be
provided or designed by other people. (KUL2A)
4.3.3.2 Integrity
Integrity relates to the moral/ethical underpinning to practice behaviour with values being
an integral element.
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Values: This element refers to the quality that renders something desirable. For
instance, BNE2 values good ideas as the pillar of a successful project with positive
feedback an acknowledgement of this.
Excerpt 1: It’s very satisfying getting the project successfully completed and very satisfying to
receive positive feedback from clients about the building. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 2: The only reason that I’m very satisfied is much more than my job, and it’s constant all
the time... I chair the management meetings...so I pretty much make it whatever I want
to talk about, you know...sort of...I’m willing to talk about this thing, otherwise...it
would have been skipped over very quickly. In fact, I know whenever I’m not here
management meetings do not get monitored...Urm, they still have them...but much
briefer.(BNE2F)
Excerpt 3: I need to convince people constantly of the value of good ideas like...hmmm...and it is
worse, if it is clearly a good idea about these people...some individuals just...they don’t
want to see the value in things. (BNE2D)
Relevancy: In the case of BNE 2, remaining relevant was about the ability to
reinvent itself, provide value for money and being able to assure respective clients of
this. Central to this is finding and retaining appropriate staff
Excerpt 1: So the challenges here as I sort of said before are around the financial issue of
maintaining fee levels...that allows us to do a good job. Urm, it’s around continual
improvement...of our design work, our procedures...urm it’s around finding and
keeping appropriate staff...and really its urm…to do with continually reinventing the
business...so that it stays attractive to the market. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 2: These days now there is regulatory requirements around quality assurance. You know
the whole QA thing. Absolutely critical you have that, that you have the prequalification
registration if you want to have government jobs. You actually have to prove that you
have got all the systems in place, and that you’re actually doing that. So it’s absolutely
critical, and I think XXXX is very organised across that. (BNE2A)
4.3.4 Implication of the competency domain
As mentioned earlier in this section competency entails values and employee abilities,
physically and intellectually to undertake tasks entrusted to them. Competency is integral in
effectively managing and sustaining a practice. Figure 4.21 highlights the connection and
relation of business model to the competency domain. Competency derives from goals and
motivation as well as process activities.
144
Figure 4.21: The implication of ‘competency’ to interior design management in practice.
145
Goals and motivation focus employees’ competency and knowledgeable employees help
focus goals. A high level of proficiency is associated with better solutions and high
professionalism. Contributing to this is both tertiary education as well as experience developed
from involvement in projects over time.
Cognitive process and competency are integrally entwined. Motivation and directed goals
engage the appropriate cognitive process in conjunction with intuition and integrity. The desire
and determination to do a good job has to be supported with a competent level of appropriate
skills and ethical behaviour.
Identification of tasks with associated competencies and responsibilities connects people
in practice. Task attachment is embodied through the action of people in the practice through
the activities of participation, organizing, directing and validating activities and resources. The
scope and nature of the project determines the tasks and discipline involvement.
The study shows direct relationships involving the size and structure of the practice, the
services provided and the nature and size of the projects undertaken. Associated with this are
particular levels and types of competency.
4.4
VARIABLES FACTOR
This domain refers to the logical set of attributes to generate added values in an activity.
It is focused on indication factors that can influence processes or ways of thinking or doing
something.
4.4.1 Progression and method
This theme refers to the continuous ways of doing in a logical manner directed at specific
outcomes. Progression and method are one of the themes forming the variable factors domain.
Reflexive and responsive, and processes are the dimensions of the progression and
method for both Brisbane’s and Kuala Lumpur cases as shown in Table 4.15 and 4.16. Each
element within this dimension will be explored and illustrated as follows.
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Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Reflexivity and
responsiveness
Variables Factor
Elements
Manipulation
Case
BNE1
Manoeuvres
Connection
Manipulation
BNE2
Manoeuvres
Connection
Manipulation
Manoeuvres
Execution
Direction
Action
Designing method
Progression and
Method
Process
BNE3
BNE1
BNE2
BNE3
Table 4.15: The influential factors of progression and method for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Reflexivity and
responsiveness
Variables Factor
Progression and
Method
Process
Elements
Manipulation
Case
KUL1
Manoeuvres
Connection
Manipulation
KUL2
Manoeuvres
Connection
Manipulation
Manoeuvres
Execution
Strategic Planning
Execution
Strategic Planning
Strategic Planning
KUL3
KUL1
KUL2
KUL3
Table 4.16: The influential factors of progression and method for Kuala Lumpur cases.
4.4.1.1 Reflexivity and responsiveness
Reflexivity and responsiveness are two of the ways of describing activities performed by
designers.
BRISBANE
Manipulation,
manoeuvre
and
connections
are
the
elements
forming
the
reflexive/responsive dimension in Brisbane cases except BNE3, which involves the elements
of manipulation and manoeuvre.
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Manipulation: This refers to the action of exerting influence in varying degrees for
benefit or advantage in the designing process or undertaking work. Cost, time, quality and needs
are the aspects in need of manipulation aimed at aligning practice and client expectations as
described for BNE1:
Excerpt 1: So if you want something that looks like that and you've come to us because of our
reputation with our experience that is what that's going to cost and sometimes we're
not able to bridge that gap early with a client but it doesn't happen very often though,
because I'm very upfront with them on what it costs. Because in design talking about
money. Is not really part of design because design is all beautiful, isn't it? But in design
it really is about money. A design practice is about having enough money to build what
you desire to design and the only way you can get that is to get the client to give you
the money. We've done a lot of processing jobs, jiggling and juggling, that sort of thing.
(BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: It's what we all do and what we're all passionate about. I think we create beautiful
spaces for people to live in and that is our main focus, help people interact with the
space that we design…and how they feel when they're in those spaces is the key of what
we design. (BNE1D)
Scope of services, design style, process, organisation and skill are the factors involved in
the manipulation of these aspects. The manipulation associated with design practice is conveyed
in the following excerpts in relation to case BNE2.
Excerpt 3: As we talk about the design itself, many elements from the design …for example disturb
other elements…like more materials can cost up the building and… then when I talk
about elements, not constrained to…. time planning requirements and building code
requirements,… when I talk about the design,… it is the end product… nearly to the
actual design and it would be there,… in 50 years, 100 years, on the street, become part
of the street scape, ..and that design actually is…. the combination of so many elements,
…so it is some of the process …and the design is going to be there in years. (BNE2E)
Excerpt 3: I always can’t guarantee that problems that come up at the beginning, won’t come out
at a subsequent stage. It seems like it’s not the way… if you solve the problems in the
early stage, it is done...but in fact it doesn’t feel like that. It feels like you solve the
problem and get it off to the next stage and then you come back and solve the problem
again.... mmm....I would normally say......but... the plan is sort of coming up to err.....let
say 80% of client satisfaction...mmm….. it feels to me they almost started talking …that
they are happy...so, you know, they might be happy with 60% of that plan you know. A
couple of meetings with the client...they’re not just getting more while you’re working
with last few bits...but it keeps going so... when we get to that point, but still you get a
few things that you need turn back to work out ... but you know... in my opinion, because
we are saying and talking to find out the issues, we can’t really say that the sketch
design stage anymore...you know...that tends to...it may be deeper... to push that last
20% and it’s not actually schematic problems there is development problems...and
emmm....on the whole that’s in my opinion. (BNE2D)
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For BNE3 skills, implementation process and business management are manipulated as
part of their practice.
Excerpt 5: Ermm…good design we can totally manage, and some projects can be over managed
and then lose the design. When you talk about management, it’s not just projected on
the outside. It’s a talent you have inside and how to be getting the best out of people.
So it’s about managing the talent that you have to get best results to the client and to
manage outside the office, to ensure everybody in the team understands what you’re
trying to achieve. When you manage things on site, you get to engage with the person
that builds your vision, and you will find then ... that they will come into your vision
and do a good job. (BNE3A)
Excerpt 6: Well, I think it goes hand in hand. Ermm… …this is how we do a qualitative analysis like
a QA...so for me you can’t just do design without overseeing the management part of it.
It is the control focus of the company. Ermm the design at the end of the day the individual
will do the design but the company itself has been seen as a whole…and then as for the
management side it’s to see how the design at the end is the shape of the design focus,
which is obviously, you know, modern contemporary design. (BNE3B)
Manoeuvres: This refers to processes that are tactical and strategic. In BNE1 these are
associated with complementing and coordinating the process; and maintaining the design
direction. The elements highlighted below are understood to influence the designing process
and outcomes.
Excerpt 1: So in a design practice problems are trying to get people to pay their bills. But even in
ours they still pay their bills and I don't really identify anything we deal with as major
problems in hindering us to be designers, it’s just part of what we have to manage.
Some people have problems like that. I think because we're very good communicators,
we're very good at communicating with our clients, checking with them, we have very
thorough meeting with our clients and I think we eliminate a lot of problems because
of the attention we give our clients. We nurse them and babysit them all the time and
the document as well. (BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: We have some clients in commercial who come to us without a clear identity. So we help
build that identity and their brand. So, we are sort of establishing the timeframe, the
design, the direction, and working with them, and often pushing the scope beyond what
they first thought they needed, and also with that, like establishing goals, with
residential clients as well, we kind of almost pushed the scope a little bit further as well.
I guess it's a way of generating business for us as well. We make the clients think about
the bigger picture and other things they could do. So I think establishing the goals for
ourselves and the clients is a way of keeping the business running, getting more work.
(BNE1D)
Identifying exemplars to identify relevant principles is a strategy adopted by BNE2 as is
the use 3D modelling to help visualise the whole.
Excerpt 3: So, the design process, what that’s about is...Step one, is when we’re awarded a
project...we have that what we call inception meeting...so we have the architects or
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architectural project team meet to discuss what are the important issues in this
project...and what needs to be provided as the guiding design principles.... Step two is
to research exemplar projects...that we can learn from…including previous XXXX
projects.... Step three is to follow... the design principles that we have identified in the
inception review all the way through the project ... and the other principle is continued
discussions ...between project team and our design director. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 4: I use the computer to see 3D views and to see whether I’m doing the right thing… to
see some fine details, I always look at the computer…. I use ‘sketch up’ to do the master
plan and… just put the building on the site and… for example, there is a highway there,
the back is a shopping centre, and so on…. I cover the town view…, just to get the site
plan and we work out the size of the building… and come back around or something
like that …and just build the 3D model and see the views from the main street or
highway, how the building looks, …it’s easy to do it in CAD or any of 3D packages, so
there is benefit to using CAD, …but the thing that suffers I guess… the fine detail is a
totally different story to me. Maybe younger people are a little bit different. (BNE2E)
Involving the client in the design process; to observe and better understand the design
process is another strategy has highlighted by BNE3.
Excerpt 5: It is important to invite them to the sessions where you are designing. Where they watch
you choosing the materials or finishes with them for example, and they see what you
do. You do this with the client, and you engage with them, and they look at what you do
and you are able to advise them on the right thing to do on tiles, and all sorts of things
and you make it happen. (BNE3A)
Excerpt 6: Design management is a process the same as we do in briefing, making sure the client is
happy with the result of design through the brief relationship. So design management we
would class as a skill. (BNE3B)
Connection: This refers to the process of bringing ideas or events together in an engaged
way using differential elements. Good communication and relationships are central to
establishing good connection during the designing process and subsequent positive outcomes
in BNE1 as shown in the excerpt below.
Excerpt 1: A lot of people don't understand what value a good design can add to their business.
So, it is all about us educating them. Our return clients understand that and that's why
they come back to us. Our new clients…especially the commercial clients also, most of
them…because they have quite tight budgets and time constraints don't really
understand a lot of the value we can add to their business…which all goes back to the
interpretation of our goals and the client's goals of what they want to achieve and sort
of trying to expand that into a bigger picture to get an outcome that is going to be good
for them and that's going to be good for us as well. (BNE1D)
Excerpt 2: OK. I guess the important thing is to have clear communication with the consultants.
That's really all…um, I guess, you know, understanding when they need to be engaged
and understanding what they do in order to brief them, to give a proper briefing to the
consultants. (BNE1C)
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Collaborative teamwork is highlighted in BNE2 as shown in the excerpt below.
Excerpt 3: ...on the whole in my opinion ...why do you have design development if you don’t have
anything to fix in the design development stage ... that’s...when some stuff starts to get
way ahead and a few things slide behind, that’s what I call it. I need help... and I think
we moving on now...and I guess interestingly, I often to say to people that I think it’s
time to call it and....I found that helps if they understand what we’re doing and….
ermmm.... acceptance as well ... you know... to get as much done...and of course it’s not
going to finish until it’s finished. (BNE2D)
Excerpt 4: I would think it does… and a lot of things that we are continuously trying to improve
...the processes so, urmm.... You know... how much it influences; I suppose every day
you get involved... in the outcome of the process ... you know...you look at how the
project would be running through this step and kind and you know sometimes I might
look at ways to improve things urmm...yeah… it effects my role in the way I do finance
and planning you know, because we would have the project architect to plan out, how
actually the project is going and how we plan managing the business. We are then
managing the business based on that information, so, when things are changing, yes,
that will impact on, you know, on my role and things that we don’t have to do. (BNE2F)
KUALA LUMPUR
Manipulation, manoeuvre and connections are elements forming the reflexive and
responsive dimension in Kuala Lumpur cases except for KUL3, where the emphasis is on
manipulation and manoeuvre.
Manipulation: Managing the cost of the project within budget is a major concern for
KUL1 as illustrated below.
Excerpt 1: I mean the situation in Malaysia, people are not talking about design, but money. So,
design is about the money that you can spend, that’s all. Design is not the first priority.
Budget is the first priority. That is my perspective. If the client requests the design,
ermm…let say,”xxxx, I want you design my office nicely, I want it to look like this and
that”…unfortunately, towards to the end, when you come out with the budget they start
saying, “oh no…this is too much." Towards to the end it is how much you can spend. So
it’s about budget, money. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: The way we calculate the budget is based on floor area. Normally, the common rate is
120 to 200 MYR per sq.ft., so based on this rate we will calculate how far we go in terms
of design. So we can adjust our design according to the client budget. There are some
clients who can go to more than 200 MYR per square foot. So, rate per square foot will
determine the material, furniture and finishes selection. Our standard rate is between
120 to 200 MYR, and we try our best not to fully utilize the client budget. (KUL1E)
For KUL2 it’s a juggle involving time with the budget and tasks associated with the
project.
151
Excerpt 3: Ermmm…that will be based on…as like us for a small project normally we are not going
to spend more than two months because the more you spent on one project the less profit
you will get in. So we actually try not to spend too much time on a small project, but it’s
depending on task and budget also. That is actually the main factor managing the
allocation of the time and budgets. (KUL2A)
In the situation of KUL3 a prime concern is developing a brand design style and getting
the most out of it until the market is saturated.
Excerpt 4: For design style...it has a design standard. I will do the same concept and repeat it until
it floods the market, and then I will stop and start a new idea again. (KUL3A)
Manoeuvred: A strategy used by KUL1 to be competitive and financially viable is to
employ fast track techniques to deliver a project very quickly. This is facilitated through simple
yet functional designs with a focus on client satisfaction. A contributing tactic is to complete
the job well before the expected date. This, as stated, depends on effective management.
Excerpt 1: When I manage the project, cost is very important, time is very important because I do the
fast track job. If the client requests one month to do the project or any design works,
sometimes we counter by delivering within two weeks’ time. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: Normally, the success of a design is through proper and effective management because
sometimes we have poor and bad management, so effective management is the answer. I
believe without effective management you won’t be able to achieve the design goal.
(KUL1B)
In the case of KUL2 a strategy for achieving efficiencies is to separate design and project
management; and for KUL3 to document as little as possible enabling faster completion.
Excerpt 3: …but generally in common practice; I mean in Malaysia, they separate it because to them,
design management is only about ideas and all of those things and project management
will be the paper work, the meeting, the coordination, on-site and everything...(KUL2A)
Excerpt 4: …but a turnkey project now days is too limited. I would say near to zero. A lot of it is a
fast project. Just do sketch drawings and then leave it to the carpenter to construct…but
the sketches must be sharp and detailed. (KUL3A)
Connection: As previously stated, this refers to the process of bringing ideas or events
together, using differential elements and being properly engaged. For KUL1 staff resources and
the nature of their relationships are largely based on the scale of the project from a design input
perspective. For KUL2 a more inclusive and collective approach where roles and
responsibilities are shared is adopted regarding staff involvement in projects.
152
Excerpt 1: I would say it depends on the situation because everybody can do a design and also can
manage the project. Small-scale project is below $500 k, normally one person can
handle. The range between 500k up to 5 or 6 million needs about 2-3 people, but it’s
depending on the situation. Sometimes those projects are big but not too many need
design input. When it comes to 10 million and above, normally it takes 4 or 5 people to
handle. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: Everybody was contributed not just me to control everything along the way. Everybody
will be involved with discussion, come out ideas, go to the site, help everybody, so
everybody will get to be involved during the process, and they will get the excitement
and share the responsibility with me. (KUL2A)
4.4.1.2 Process
Participant responses reveal various factors associated with the procedural nature of tasks.
BRISBANE
Execution: For BNE1 the execution of the design process involves various stages and
various people and is distinguished from the construction phase, which is regarded as project
management.
Excerpt 1: Well, a design project, I assume it's got various stages to do it, so it's all the components
of a design project is…more often than not the client is involved. So, we're developing
a brief into, executing it into a project and designing it and then you've got, it kind of
goes back to those practical things that we've talked about earlier, designing within
kind of restraints, um, all those elements. Um, meetings with clients, and I guess it's the
process of how we execute our projects too. (BNE1C)
Excerpt 2: I tend to identify project management as post-contract because it's no longer in our
control. So all of this, although it's project management, it's really design management.
It's management of the design. Project management is the managing of the project to
allow it be finished. That's probably how I would see it. (BNE1A)
Direction: For BNE2 the execution of the project is directed throughout by a design
philosophy.
Excerpt 1: Well, first we are able to understand where design comes from… the best way to …
involve the design process and we must understand that some design philosophy and
strategy can be a part … the margin period or decision period…. So without
understanding design strategy it’s hard to follow… to keep in mind, because they will
be involved in the project from inception to the end.(BNE2E)
153
Action: For BNE 2 the act of designing is regarded as a sensitive and intelligent response
to needs and place. Process in this case is about how this can occur to arrive at an outcome.
Excerpt 1: Design for me is a response... It is a sensitive and intelligent response to needs...to real
needs ...Yeah, yeah. That’s what it is for me .... So, it’s never something that comes out
of you know, just sort of intellectual obsession that one might have an, you know use
project to exercise that. For me, it’s very much related to obviously the needs,
humans.... you know, the place and the environmental and cultural.... you know, urm,
context of that.... So, it comes out of...an intelligent understanding of all those things
and a response to these things. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 2: It’s hard, but the meaning of design for me is really about the process of getting the
outcome urmmm...because I don’t see that my involvement is in directly designing
things. (BNE2F)
Designing method: This element refers to a particular way of doing something associated
with design. It involves following a standard sequence of actions as outlined in excerpt 1 using
specific techniques as illustrated in note 1 and Figure 4.22.
Excerpt 1: We do all the processes such as briefing, client liaison you know…this is the typical
process that we run through. So, brief your client, you do the design development up to
the schematic design sign off, ermm...then leading to costing and schedules. We have a
process, and we follow it…it’s a typical interior-design practice. There is no difference
to other practices. (BNE3A)
Note 1:
Common designing practice conducted by XXXX is divided into 4 phases. pre-design
stage consists of briefing and schematic design; design development stage consists of
detailed design and technical issues; documentation stage; tendering stage; design
review and construction stage. XXXX combines the manual and computer methods for
designing process. Mostly manual sketches will be used to gain ideas during initial
conceptual and design development stages. Once the idea is agreed by the client, all
the drawing and sketches will be transferred to computer to detail up and for other
further processes. (Observations Notes, BNE3, 28/11/2011)
Figure 4.22: Design process in BNE3.
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KUALA LUMPUR
Execution and strategic planning are the elements establishing the process dimension in
KUL1 and KUL2, while strategic planning is emphasised in KUL3.
Execution: This element appears in KUL1 and KUL2 and involves the actions required
to perform and accomplish design tasks. In the case of KUL 1 a focus is on implementing
appropriate management systems to accomplish various design and project goals. For KUL1
having an internal quantity surveyor service saves time and money and contributes to a more
effective outcome.
Excerpt 1: Management actually is a system…systems to make sure that design goals are achieved.
Without management, it is probably difficult to guarantee that you can achieve the goal,
and goal can be so many things either services, budget constraints or business-related
goals to enhance business, so it is various goals. (KUL1B)
Excerpt 2: Design changes are also very important…How we want to manage the site issues when
there are design changes? Who will go propose the design? Who will be responsible for
the design input? Who will monitor and approve the design changes and everything?
Design changes will involve a cost impact and time, and that is the design management
scope. (KUL1A)
KUL2 on the other hand regards the management of the human resources particularly
from an ethical perspective as fundamental to the execution of the design project as well as
having appropriate tools and systems.
Excerpt 3: Managing staff is all about managing human beings, and it is different from managing the
facilities in the company because it’s going to take a lot of experience, a lot of
observations, a lot of sensitivity, and you know…errr…supported by a good system
whereby the system is office ethics and systems as well as tools to assist you to do good
management. (KUL2A)
Strategic planning: The Malaysian cases adopted various strategies to help position
themselves in the market and sustain a viable practice and service. In this cultural context there
was significant emphasis on minimising costs and delivering in line with client expectations.
Strategies used included fast tracking through design/build approaches (KUL1 and 2). For
KUL3 survival depended on diversification of services.
Excerpt 1: We do the fast track jobs so we need to manage effectively. As long as it answers the client
expectation, I think should be okay. Actually, in practice design is normally just 15% to
20% and the rest is management. (KUL1B)
Excerpt 2: Client just talks about budget. If I can do a nice design and within their budget, my client
will be satisfied, even though it looks like ridiculous. Ridiculous because of budget too
low but I manage to do it in fast track job. (KUL1A)
155
Excerpt 3: Design and build is basically a trend now. One of the reasons is because the client
doesn’t want to…ermmm…waste their time dealing with two parties. Meaning having to
deal with the contractor and designer, and then you know…it’s going to take a lot of
people work...you know…meetings and such. (KUL2A)
Excerpt 4: Possibly, I need to divert my business. I think in the current situation you’re safe if you
have a trading house…trading company sort of thing. Perhaps supply computers…all of
those things have quality control…and sometimes deliver but not necessary to have
stock. You just get your money and profit. There are some ID firms diverting their
business, like XXXX diverting to fine dining and thematic restaurants but still maintain
the ID business...and then XXXX. Now days he is not really dependent on architectural
work. He diverts toward many ways of business. You need to have second or third
business so if one of your companies suffers you still have other businesses that can
support you…but as usual, before you can divert, you must have a lot of capital. (KUL3A)
4.4.2 Requirements and expression
This theme refers to establishing the context for design, identifying the main
requirements, conditions, constraints and how these can be prioritised and addressed.
Rationalization and governance enhancement are the dimensions of the requirements and
expression for Brisbane’s cases while rationalization dominates for Kuala Lumpur. Table 4.17
and 4.18 shows the elements that influence the dimensions and how they differ in each case.
Each of the elements within this dimension will be explored and illustrated here.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Elements
Perimeters
Components
Rationalization
Variable’s Factors
Requirements
and Expression
Governance
enhancement
Case
BNE1
Emotions and needs
Perimeters
Components
Emotions and needs
Action and process
BNE2
BNE2
Personal ability
Table 4.17: The influential factors of requirements and expression for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Variable’s Factors
Requirements
and Expression
Rationalization
Elements
Components
Components
Components
Case
KUL1
KUL2
KUL3
Table 4.18: The influential factors of requirements and expression for Kuala Lumpur cases.
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4.4.2.1 Rationalization
Rationalization is the process of envisioning a situation in way that it can be managed and
justified. It is central to the transformation of ideas into an outcome.
BRISBANE
Perimeters, components, and emotions and needs are the elements forming the
rationalization dimension in Brisbane cases.
Perimeter: This element refers to the boundaries that need to be established to help
manage the complexity and uncertainty of the design process. A focus on types of service, needs
and requirements help establish a design context in BNE1. A significant boundary is that created
by the client’s budget. In BNE1 we see how this is regarded as a temporary boundary until they
can establish how to negotiate with to spend more money for a better design outcome. In this
sense, the goal of achieving a particular level of quality is a more definite boundary or
constraint.
Excerpt 1: I make a commitment to the client, not a verbal commitment but in my mind that we will
firstly get the client to understand how much this job is going to cost, quite early on,
and the meeting that you went to the other day is a very good example of a job that
came into this office and I accepted but I knew that there wasn't going to be enough
money to do what they wanted to do. But I accepted the job because I relied on my skills
to eventually and had some blind faith that maybe we would be able to talk them up into
the job. Because of I didn't accept the job they would've gone to someone else and I
wanted the job. So we do a lot of talking to the client about what is if you want that if
you've come to us and you like the way it looks it costs you this much money at XXXX.
(BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: Sometimes, we have a project and we may want to look at it in particular way
and....urm...but the engineer will never quiet allow it. Bringing, for an example, an
additional post in the position where we...urm…maybe didn’t want to…so sometimes
we have to work around that and design accordingly. (BNE1C)
The context for BNE2 is defined by various factors, which are environmental in both the
physical as well as social sense. A concern for sustainability represents a focus for goals and
setting priorities.
Excerpt 3: It’s actually .... assembly of built environment as response to client’s functional needs
and... social and environmental needs...and which is a delight...to people that use the
building. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 4: XXXX is one of the practices that is very much concerned with the relationship between
architecture and urban design...and the urban realm.... Possibly, more than others,
because there is a director here...who is an architect but is very much focused on, who
157
is...an urban designer. So, I think that is quite strong signal of XXXX being very
concerned about these issues and that’s, that’s attractive to me. And I think that’s
probably quite different to most other practices. I think you would find the directorship
were mainly architects. So, I’ve never been interested in architecture as an object ...
I’m interested in it as a part of a much bigger system.... urmmm...rather than separate
idea.... It’s the whole thing.... again, other than being not very compartmentalised with
different disciplines... part of being holistic....an integrated kind of idea about what
design and what good place is... what place making is. (BNE2A)
Components: The element recognises how specific aspects during the design process
attract attention. This can be the formal or qualities of the intended space, its composition and
how spaces are related, or it’s something that surfaces unexpectedly.
Excerpt 1: …so we approach interior style from an architectural mind approach, so we consider
form, scale, proportion, foreground, background, light and shade, passive solar design,
so a lot of the elements, a lot of the typology, a lot of the words that architects use, we
tend to use in this practice, in relation to interior design. (BNE1A)
Excerpt 3: … when...urm...you’re on site and in the construction there maybe sometime in the wall
you didn’t plan to be there. That it’s not until they start tearing apart the site and you
find some structural element, so...urm…plumbing or something on wall…not sure
but...urm...so...it’s really project specific I guess. It can be at any stage. (BNE1C)
For BNE2 its approach is to minimise elements, partly in response to the need for the
building to appear timeless.
Excerpt 3: Yes, urm we don’t really like the word style...It is built around simplicity, legibility,
clarity and economy.... So, what that means... if you go to Art Gallery... there’s no
decoration, no complicated shape, no expensive materials, so, that’s sort of the skill of
controlling entire spaces...to make buildings without any complexity...Urm, so,
underlying all that is…a regional architecture for Queensland. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 4: I don’t know whether you could say there was a kind of style ... and I’ve been thinking
about that a lot myself too... You know, looking at it from the outside, and making a
decision about coming here...there a few kinds of major identifiable buildings that
they’ve done.... that people associate with XXXX kind of style…obviously, XXXX and
that sort of thing.... which is the very kind of paired back simple kind of architecture.
So, that maybe that’s how people associate ...when I’m in here... I think there are
possibilities for changing that, you know, to develop very much kind of responsive and
exhaustive...and maybe slightly more personal...and humane kind of architecture... and
that’s what I’m interested in…ermm…. It’s certainly not about great decoration...or
gratuitous shape making or making things sort of spectacular.... It’s much more kind of
recessive and responsive and it gives the impression of kind of a degree of
simplicity...And to degree a sort of modesty. (BNE2A)
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Emotions and needs: This element draws attention to design’s concern for addressing
human needs, desires and values and how these can be rationalised when they vary and possibly
conflict.
Excerpt 1: We have an understanding of our clients and it is a big part of the way we work. We work
very closely with them. We get them involved. We make them a part of those decisions
and make them responsible for those decisions because when you're in somebody's home,
you find out a lot about them. I mean, you're designing the personal parts of people's
homes, so you have to be very delicate and understanding because everybody has
different needs. Sometimes, they are a little bit strange and you don't agree with them,
but you have to work with them. So, it's all about managing the people. Some people like
to be told, some people like to think that they've made the decision. (BNE1D)
Excerpt 2: A doctor’s surgery, a new home, a new bathroom, that’s what the project is. The process
is the execution of the design ideas … the steps that we take to arrive at a design response
to the brief for the project ... you don't have a design business without a project. And so,
the project is …a dental surgery and restaurant. I try to make it simple for everyone, and
then the process is the steps we take to arrive at a design solution for the project.
(BNE1A)
The examples below convey an appreciation of the need to consider values and needs in
relation to the broader social and environmental context and for the future as well as the present.
Excerpt 3: What I think is useful to develop….is a real sense of humanity...and urm.... humanity
and openness, yeah and....powerful relationship to landscape is very important to me.
I think that’s a strong thing to develop in the future. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 4: To be responsible to the environment and the community. (BNE2E)
Excerpt 5: It’s actually .... assembly of built environment as a response to client’s functional needs
and social and environmental needs...and which is a delight...to people that use the
building. (BNE2B)
KUALA LUMPUR
Components: In terms of context components, KUL1 identifies a specific design style,
spatial arrangement and green building standards depending on the nature of the project and
client. KUL2 focuses on what is necessary to arrive at a solution; and KUL3 imagines
movement through and the experience of the proposed site.
Excerpt 1: In terms of design style, we have a concept and this particular concept we have carried
since long time ago but rarely used recently. We call it as a ripple which is I think a good
concept [...] Ripple actually starts from one point…sort of a wave due to water drops
with certain diameter or radius. Based on that we try to elaborate and use it as a design
concept. (KUL1E)
Excerpt 2: XXXX is more on institution and XXXX more on office. So, in terms of design process I
think XXXX is more complicated. XXXX has too many end users in 3 different buildings,
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and each building has 3 types of different end user, and most of them sit in the higher
position of designation. Too many people in higher posts with their hierarchy cause some
conflict in providing appropriate space for them. XXXX project is more on organization
or department and space arrangement, and design is not as complicated as XXXX.
Moreover, XXXX has set certain standards and requirements for all XXXX projects like
the green building index or GBI. All proposed design must be GBI friendly. (KUL1D)
Excerpt 3: Design is something that you create or innovate, or you come out…ermm in order to
become or provide a solution to others…you know…meaning that may be the problems
by itself or systems or people. Basically, design is about…errr...you know, coming up
with a solution for a problem (KUL2A)
Excerpt 4: The way I worked...err, I will start with the layout.…errr…when I take measurements of
the site; I always imagine from the start entering the front door or gate until exiting at
the back door...that’s why I can finish one BQ for 5 story shop office in one
night…because I can imagine from entry to exit. I can capture everything. I can do 5
stories in one night. (KUL3A)
4.4.2.2 Governance enhancement
Governance enhancement refers to structures or systems that minimise risk and enhance
the potential for positive outcomes. The implementation of such an approach was very evident
in the case of BNE2 through its various systems but also through a focus on human ability and
performance.
Action and process: The examples that follow identify systems for financial and design
administration, HR, marketing, IT. While these systems are utilised in the present they also have
a predictive role in relation to ‘future proofing’.
Excerpt 1: Establish an effective business system. Errr…mostly setting out the objectives for a
sustainable design practice and developing systems to achieve the objectives of
administration and financial procedures, marketing protocols, HR and IT systems,
project procedures and resources, corporate and team structures. (BNE2C)
Excerpt 2: A few most valued things like the project timeline, is a good example. It becomes very
hard because you need to record things, but it certainly ends up that, you are not
expecting like…to be able to predict, planning in the future. (BNE2D)
Excerpt 3: …for the practice to be overawed by wanting to achieve, wanting to continue to refine
the design, continue with the production process, but it’s...but it just needs what we
need and what we have is to make sure that this balance is maintained. So, that sort of
relates to continually trying to achieve to improve our effectiveness of our processes.
(BNE2C)
Personal ability: Developing capability and expertise through professional development
are also regarded as a form of governance. This element also recognises that systems on their
own are very limited and that in the end it comes down to the ability of those using the systems.
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Excerpt 1: It’s very satisfying to see staff learn and grow professionally. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 2: In terms of the design system, it’s really part of the urm...just our total processes, be it
design or be it documentation, contract administration, they’re urm...they are
dependent on upon the actual skills of the people that we have. (BNE2C)
Excerpt 3: Well, the traditional understanding of management, I don’t think I’m very good at it.
I’m not very good. I don’t think that’s my skills set. I’ve never been interested in it and
therefore, I love being here because there are people who really good at it...and they
are doing it in service to design. So, I find a way, I hate rigid process because I don’t
think that it really exists, but I do understand the importance of the process in
organisations of this size but that is not something that I enjoy. Anyway, I really enjoy
in this role, whereas in my previous firm, I had to do all of that, and I’m the first to say,
I was not very good at it or interested in it. (BNE2A)
4.4.3 Project and task conditions
This theme acknowledges a direct relationship between the project and the nature of
associated tasks and the conditions under which the tasks are undertaken. Table 4.19 and 4.20
show the elements contributing to this theme and its related dimension.
Domain
Themes
Variables Factor
Project and
Task
Conditions
Dimensions
Task and
project
identification
Elements
Type of services
Procedures and enhancement
Case
BNE1
Design and project value
Action and process enhancement
Project uniqueness
BNE2
Table 4.19: Task and project identification influential factors for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Variables Factor
Project and task
conditions
Task and
project
identification
Elements
Action and process enhancement
Case
KUL1
Action and process enhancement
KUL2
Action and process enhancement
KUL3
Table 4.20: Task and project identification influential factors for Kuala Lumpur cases.
4.4.3.1 Task and project identification
Designing in the case practices involves specific tasks for specific projects.
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BRISBANE
Type of services: In the case of BNE1, clients approach them with different types of
projects such as a hotel, restaurants, clinic, residential, etc. These projects will then demand
specific services which for this practice can range from the architectural to interior decoration.
Tasks also vary depending on whether the project is new or refurbishing an existing space.
Excerpt 1: Design projects are identified as a job that is given to us with a brief and I think that the
design project I think of the client has come to us and wants us to design a doctor’s
surgery. That's what the design project is. Because we're a design firm a client has
come to us, but that's the project. (BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: High-end residential is our consistent ones that we do, then we do small commercial,
we don't do big offices…and then the other one we're breaking into is what we call
lifestyle. Like we do the small hotel, the small medical complex, restaurants... more
lifestyle spaces. Small project size is determined by small meter size, the smaller the
meters the smaller the project. I think also, in feel, because all our commercial spaces
have an intimate feel about them. They have a more residential feel. That's why there's
a crossover between our residential and commercial. (BNE1D)
This point was also revealed in observations, as illustrated below.
Note 1:
xxxx gives some brief to xxxx on some events happening for last 2 weeks especially
regarding the retirement home project. Tomorrow they will have a meeting with the
client and will discuss the upgrading work for public spaces. The aims of the project
are to create a better environment and avoid the clinic or healthcare images.
(Observations Notes, BNE1, 1/11/2011)
Procedures and enhancement: The nature of the project with its specific client also
influences processes and who is responsible. The scale of the practice is also considered.
Excerpt 1: I guess a project manager, kind of, really, controls this, kind of, in the construction
phase, um, so, you know, I notice the designers working together, and it's a little bit
different here, because working in a small firm is little different, um, but my, kind of
basic understanding of how a larger firm would work was that there would be a team
leader kind of driving that and then there would be another gentlemen who would be
executing that and then it goes into the hands of a project manager, to actually to
execute that on the site, yeah, and sign the contractors…. (BNE1C)
On the other hand, design and project value; action and process enhancement; and project
uniqueness are the elements forming the task and project identification dimension in BNE2.
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Design and project value: Delivering the project on time, within budget and fulfilling
the client’s needs are essential to BNE2. However, quality is more important than cost and time
as a significant value in delivering physical design. Good design is also meaningful for the
community.
Excerpt 1: Management is in service to everything. Everything is in service to you know, good
design. Good design for our place you know...not just good design so that we want to
be seen...it’s not just about us. It’s about producing something of meaning and use for
the whole community. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 2: The project director has the responsibility for delivering the project on time, on budget,
to meet the client’s needs and everything. So, we identify urm...that person urmm...for
those to ensure that happens urm...and err, the project director, our project
directors…(BNE2C)
Excerpt 3: When it comes to priorities, we don’t always compromise, do we? ... but we take on both
sides of the compromise, and…we just provide the best quality and negotiation…
However, time and cost are more important elements to be compromised.... The quality
should...the quality is really the most important part, and…we try to fit the cost and
time within the allowance…sometimes it’s hard to convince the client… (BNE2E)
Action and process enhancement: BNE2 discusses and reviews design projects every
fortnight with other branch's networks. They conduct frequent meetings and reviews to ensure
philosophical alignment and internally to manage the scope and quality of work.
Excerpt 1: ...so, that’s the network of design directors who keep discussing design ...and they’re
obviously formal kind of...of mechanisms for that...and that is fortnightly design review
that we do. We have...We have a…have you seen...did you know that we have a kind of
video conference linkup every fortnight? ...and the design directors discuss the projects
that are going on in their firms and have a discussion, a bit like sitting around the table
together. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 2: Each project architect has a weekly team meeting...and consultation with the
director...and design director ...in between those three people, the design director and
project director...and project architect is continually monitoring how the project is
proceeding in line with design guidelines and with the project brief...urm, so, that’s an
important distinction... I think these sorts of thing are the same actually...probably job
scope...job scope is essentially to saving time...there is brief compliance...so project
architect is responsible for components in the brief around project scope and
quality...continual review and monitoring process conducted by the project director,
design director and practice’s quality manager as well. (BNE2B)
Project uniqueness: For BNE2, every project is considered unique with contracts
tailored appropriately. Quality, however, is nonnegotiable and is always the primary concern.
Excerpt 1: I think the quality really is the most important element, then cost…then again, project
tender cost is preferred low…so cost becomes our second element…and again it
depends on the situation. If the tender cost is almost right on the budget, then the cost
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becomes very important element in that process. I don’t know, either they’re flexible or
not, sometimes it depends on the project. Projects are very different. (BNE2D)
KUALA LUMPUR
Action and process enhancement: This element refers to how people in the particular
firm react to determine the opportunities of improvement through planning and implementation
of the plan. For KUL1 good communication and understanding the scope of roles and
responsibilities are powerful ways to link management and process and resolve issues.
Excerpt 1: Management…for me it is a broad scope. It can be management of my whole company
operation or management of my project or management of my department…it depends
on which context. The relationship between management and design actually is about
communication. Management for me is more on communication. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: We have our own project manager, and I think there are no conflicts, because everybody
has their own scope. If they are any involved with site issues or project issues such as
delivery, responsibility, different needs and ideas, we can sit down and discuss. We can
solve it accordingly. (KUL1D)
The relationship of design and its management need to be closely monitored in order to
produce good outcomes. Therefore, KUL2 encourages their people to get involved and be
accountable for the project’s design and delivery. Good skills must also be promoted and
marketed as explained in KUL3.
Excerpt 3: errr, basically are not much different, but anyway, you need to manage something in order
to come out with a good design…so...just after that you need to manage the design.
Meaning that design is something that you errmmm…as a guide or as a tool, and then you
need to manage…in order to get it done and implemented…errr…or installed, something
like that. So the relationship between design and management are both related, and both
are actually needed in order to get things done. (KUL2A)
Excerpt 4: I describe it as song and music because if you are…err…If you can draw nicely that is
something like you can cook very nice food.…so meaning that you must be good in design,
must be good in doing presentation, and also you must know how to market the thing. If
that food is very delicious but you can’t sell it, it is useless…or you sell it in the place that
nobody will buy. I always admire xxxx works. In the early 80s when he came out with the
ideas of bio-climatic design with his early work like IBM and Mesin Niaga building people
saw it as a weird building. Nobody designs like him, but you see today he became a famous
architect, not only here but worldwide. (KUL3A)
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4.4.4 Tools
This theme refers to the particular instruments, gadgets or devices used to perform and
achieved the intended goal or work. In both the Brisbane’s and Kuala Lumpur cases there is a
heavy reliance on computers and IT as conveyed in Table 4.21 and 4.22.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Variables Factor
Tools
Computer
benefits
Elements
Facilitation
Case
BNE1
Facilitation
Facilitation
BNE2
BNE3
Table 4.21: Computer benefits influential factors for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Variables Factor
Tools
Computer
benefits
Elements
Facilitation
Case
KUL1
Facilitation
Facilitation
KUL2
KUL3
Table 4.22: Computer benefits influential factors for Kuala Lumpur cases.
4.4.4.1 Computer benefits.
The use of computerised systems is common in every organization and is considered
essential to aiding design and associated processes. It is however heavily dependent on
competence.
BRISBANE
Facilitation: BNE1 is fully equipped with computers and related technologies as shown
in Figure 4.23. They take advantage of computer software and hardware and information
technology for communication, filing, research, documentation, and so on as exemplified
below. Computerisation is understood to support a more efficient and effective process.
Note 1:
Sketches now days are conducted by CAD and Revit for layout and diagramming
supported with Sketch-UP for 3D images. This explains why only one drafting board is
present in this office. (Observations Notes, BNE1, 13/9/2011)
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Figure 4.23: Computer facilities and server in BNE1.
Note 2:
Drive are linked to the home user network. The central hard drive was partitioned into
several partitions and accessible by all staff. All the updated drawings and documents
are stored on the server, and I have no access to the data as hard copies are not updated
(Observations Notes, BNE1, 25/10/2011)
Note 3:
Due to current technology, communication and interaction are much easier and
designers, client and contractors make use of it. The smart devices like iPhone, iPad or
android phone make information and emails able to be accessed anywhere.
(Observations Notes, BNE1, 1/11/2011)
Similarly, BNE2 and BNE3 also take advantage of computers and various types of
software as central to their work
Note 4:
NewForma is used purposely for the data base management system to organise the
project files and data. Revitt is used for design process, detailing, specification and
information that can be integrated and links with other consultants or parties. Revitt
has been used in XXXX since 6 years ago, while NewForma was introduced 5 years
ago. Since Revitt, AutoCAD and 3D Max slowly became less functional. In addition,
xxxx has mentioned previously they outsourced the 3D modelling for presentation
purposes and since Revitt, it is easier to link all the info with the out sourced 3D
modelling. Revitt typically is produced as DWG and PDF format files, and gets to sent
to the consultants and builder through NewForma. (Observations Notes, BNE2,
22/12/2011)
Note 5:
XXXX implements online filing systems with all their documents stored either in Brisbane
or Sydney's server. The entire completed project is stored in the central server in Sydney’s
office. However, a common problem occurring in the Brisbane office are difficulties
getting through to the server. Current or ongoing project will remain on Brisbane’s
server. Newforma, Bentley Architecture, AutoCAD and Sketch Up are the common
software that been used here. (Observations Notes, BNE3, 9/12/2011)
KUALA LUMPUR
Facilitation: The Kuala Lumpur cases also make used of computer technology to
facilitate their work. However, unlike the Brisbane cases, the use of technology is limited to
basic drawings and word processing.
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Note 1:
Computer technology is not widely used for all Kuala Lumpur cases. The firms commonly used
the software for drawing and documents. They will store the entire document/project document
or data in the individual hard disk drive which isn’t linked to the network or server. Therefore,
there have been some difficulties in terms of accessing and synchronizing the data.
(Observations Notes, 10/6/2012)
4.4.5 Implication of variables factor domain
Variables in the context of this study refer to the internal or external features that can
influence processes or ways of thinking and doing. Section 4.3 explains how competency
influences the interior design management in practice. Variable factors relate closely to
competency playing a major role in all practices. Each practice, either architect or interior
designer lead; sole, multi-disciplinary or multiple practices, is affected by this factor as shown
in Figure 4.24. Therefore, the variable factor similarly determines practice existence.
Progression and method are systematic ways of operating to achieve the intended
outcomes. Practice, project and design management are all exposed and impacted by variable
factors demanding reflexive and responsive action by those involved. Design projects involve
a complex array of elements that need to be considered in relation to each other and particular
goals. Practices employ various strategies and tactics to address this complexity. Invariably this
involves creating various connections with people playing a major role.
Dealing with the complexity also demands establishing boundaries and identifying
constraints, which can be prioritised according to specific goals. The constraints can take many
forms including personal, social and environmental considerations. In many of the case
practices there is reliance on off the shelf or in house designed systems to help govern and
respect the priorities established. These are procedurally based and in some case philosophically
driven. Some practices value human relationships and personal ability and ethics over digital
systems while also respecting how these can support people in undertaking their tasks and
responsibilities. This section has also highlighted as in other sections a close relationship
between the project and task conditions and the outcome. As described, relevant actions and
processes including services are to varying degrees influenced by the nature of the project and
the relevant tasks, which are in turn related to the nature of the practice.
167
Figure 4.24: Implication of variables factor in interior design management in practice.
168
4.5
OUTPUT AND QUALITY CONCERN
This domain refers to the factors that concern the quality of the services, process or
production to reach the acceptable standard outlined. The evidence shows each of the practices
applied certain methodologies and practices to ensure conformance with specific standards and
expectations of performance and quality.
4.5.1 Directing
This theme refers to the ways of directing action towards required levels of achievement.
Commanding and quality emphasizing are the dimensions for Brisbane’s cases. Table 4.23 and
4.24 shows the elements that influence the dimensions in each case. Each element within this
dimension is explored and illustrated here.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Commanding
Output and Quality
Concern
Directing
Quality
emphasizing
Elements
Organizing and solving
Business controlling
Organizing and solving
Case
BNE1
Manual and regulation
Organizing and solving
Manual and regulation
Job determination
BNE2
Job determination
Monitoring
Job determination
BNE2
BNE3
BNE1
BNE3
Table 4.23: Directing influential factors for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Commanding
Output and Quality
Concern
Directing
Quality
emphasizing
Elements
Organizing and solving
Manual and regulation
Organizing and solving
Case
KUL1
Manual and regulation
Organizing and solving
Manual and regulation
Job determination
KUL2
Job determination
KUL2
KUL3
KUL1
Table 4.24: Directing influential factors for Kuala Lumpur cases.
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4.5.1.1 Commanding
Commanding refers to the right to order and control. It is an authoritative direction or
instruction to do or make something to achieve certain goals. Imposing commands dominantly
relate to monitoring, controlling and organizing the tasks and people to achieve agreeable
quality and output.
BRISBANE
Organizing and solving: This element refers to systematic planning, arrangement and
efforts in finding valuable solutions or outcomes. BNE1 believes that with effective and
efficient organizing problems can be solved.
Excerpt 1: We do sometimes have to be prepared to let go of some ideas to let some ideas in. So I
try to influence the studio, what's important about the design because invariably things
may sometimes need to change in the design because of the cost. But it's important that
we understand what we're prepared to change and what we're not prepared to change
without it affecting the design. And we've always kept the ability to make a change to
the design without it affecting the design. So we're quite lucky in managing expectations
about cost, we're very upfront with what things are going to cost with people and
because of our experience we understand how to manage those costs... (BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: Ermm…I making sure that projects and processes are organized…there are many
efficient and effective ways for people to do a work. (BNE1E)
Coordinating, monitoring, controlling, supervising and updating are the main activities of
organizing and problem solving undertaken in BNE2. As illustrated in the excerpts, note and
Figure 4.25, the practice manager highlights the important issues during weekly meetings.
Excerpt 3: I would think it does… and a lot of things that we are continuously trying to improve
...the processes so, urmm.... You know... how much it influences; I suppose every day
you get involved... in the outcome of the process .... you know...you look at how the
project would be running through this step and kind and you know sometimes I might
look at ways to improve things urmm..yeah… it effects my role in the way I do finance
and planning you know, because we would have the project architect to plan out how
actually the project is going and how we plan managing the business. We are then
managing the business based on that information, so when things are changing, yes,
that will impact on, you know, on my role and things. (BNE2F)
Note 1:
The practice manager chairs the meeting and gives some info about practice activities
and reminders such as the Board of director meeting schedule, cleaning the office,
project submission and date timeline, which project team needs to stay for overtime,
lunch time workshops, etc. Only two of the directors are present and they highlight
certain issues especially regarding the design project. Input on weekly progress is also
highlighted during this session. During this session, I introduce myself to all the staff
and explain about my research observation, how it will be conducted and affect them.
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Light refreshment like fruits and cakes as well as coffee and tea were provided during
the meeting. (Observation Notes, BNE2, 21/11/2014)
Figure 4.25: Weekly meeting chaired by the practice manager highlights important issues.
BNE3 also conducts weekly meetings to discuss and update their progress and
finance status.
Excerpt 4: Ermmm…we have a meeting every Monday, and we will discuss the process. We discuss
the program and look at where we are at on finances and decisions are made as to
allocation of time for next fortnight period. So, it is a very simple way to deal with it. It
is easy when you do it every Monday because you can keep track of things. (BNE3B)
Manual and regulations: Some practices have manuals of operations and procedures,
which provide information and instruction to control or direct behaviour according to certain
principles. Manuals and company philosophies, policies and code of conduct are
comprehensively created and distributed in BNE2 for use of their staff.
Excerpt 1: We get checklists on the program. I find it’s very a useful tool…the same checklist ….
although the checklist covers everything... more than enough … that’s…. better that
way. (BNE2E)
Excerpt 2: When you are at the beginning, you can’t necessarily know the end... but if you are well
appointed and use judgement, that definitely helps keep things on track... Obviously you
have to do that to set the fee to make sure things are going well, you know... before we
even started doing any design work, you probably are thinking how hard the problems
are. I don’t think a normal design process necessarily comes with a program or
guideline because sometimes, you know...people will be getting sketch design to get
work done and agreed on within a certain period of time...mmm you can find yourself
in here documenting this stuff. (BNE2D)
The observation note as illustrated below confirms this point.
Note 1:
A standard template, manual and guideline like staff code of conduct, office
management, project management, etc. were created for the use of staff. The objective
of the templates, manual and guideline is to control and maintain practice quality.
171
However, not everyone in the office can use or interact with it. Just the relevant stuff
can be accessed by staff based on their position and hierarchy. (Observation Notes,
BNE2, 17/10/2011
BNE3 uses standard practice procedures as for the other branches. The information
database in Sydney helps to supply information easily to the network branches, including BNE3.
Excerpt 3: Ermmm…Spec. these days is a standard document and practice. They are produced
online for a specific project with constantly updated standards so you need to fill in all
the information and have the document because it is a legal contract. In fact, the
Melbourne associate director has been fired because they didn’t follow the right
procedures and the project was running into trouble. So even though you’re a small
practice with a small job, you still need to do the same amount of paperwork for legal
reasons. (BNE3A)
Excerpt 4: Ermm…something that I have to keep learning and keep using, trial and error and that
is one reason why I like the fact we have such a large information base, people in
Sydney and here. If I need to ask how to use a material a hundred times, they know
which one is bad and which one is good. So, I don’t have to find out myself the hard
way. (BNE3B)
Business controlling: This refers to management process implemented throughout an
organization to help in achieving specific practice goals. In the context of BNE1, this is done
chiefly though weekly meetings involving updates of project status, finance and administration.
Note 1:
The QA is good and very useful for later use as a legal or evidence document if
something happens to the project. (Observation Notes, BNE1, 25/10/2011)
Note 2:
Although all projects were divided and assigned to each designer, xxxx still monitors
all processes and progress of the project. (Observation Notes, BNE1, 4/10/2011)
Note 3:
Meeting chaired by xxxx. As usual, xxxx with her routines, in every weekly meeting will
check and sort all the bills and invoices. During the meeting xxxx will keep tracking
and updating payment status, incoming and outgoing invoices for each project. Her
main role is more on finance administration. (Observation Notes, BNE1, 4/10/2011)
KUALA LUMPUR
Organizing and solving: KUL1 claims to have competent management skills regarding
manipulating and organising tasks to fulfil the project needs with suitable systems and
processes. Simple management is the approach taken by KUL2 and KUL3 due to their small
scale.
Excerpt 1: I think we conduct a very systematic process. We have a design advisor, project manager,
site manager and quantity surveyor. We are divided into a team. We have a design team,
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contract document team, project, and site management team so that we are more
organized because certain ID firms do not have something like XXXX does. (KUL1D)
Excerpt 2: We are just numbers of peoples...so in terms of management it is quite easy to handle.
Other things might be in terms of the project. Our projects are not handled by 10 people,
not at all, just boss and xxxx, and at the site xxxx and xxxx. (KUL2B)
Excerpt 3: Management is a…I think is governance in the early stages until it is ready. (KUL3A)
Manual and regulations: In the Kuala Lumpur cases, documented regulations are not
widely used unless the project is large.
Excerpt 1: We must have knowledge of how to perform the works. We must have skills, and that’s
why to manage things and people we must be active, not passive. If not, people don’t
follow my instructions. Don’t get me wrong, active doesn’t mean to have been aggressive.
It is action taken in every single aspect to make the project run smoothly. (KUL1D)
Excerpt 2: For XXXX definitely managed by XXXX…we just follow which suits us. They will set up
the time line, upcoming progress and due date. We just follow. (KUL1C)
Excerpt 3: Since XXXX urm...newly set up so management and finance part is still more on the
surface, does not go in depth yet. In depth, meaning, it’s still not necessary to have audited
accounts. Ermm, I’m not sure about other countries, but in Malaysia, an Enterprise
Company does not necessarily have to have an audited account but if you are a private
limited company, after 18 months you must have an audited account. So as an Enterprise
Company we just manage the account in terms of hard copy and soft copy filing. (KUL2B)
Excerpt 4: In terms of management and how I run the office I think it’s same. I must have good filing
systems. Every bill I put in file, as accurate as I can do. You can’t avoid those things. You
can’t avoid the system…it is compulsory. Every single design project must have one file.
(KUL3A)
4.5.1.2 Quality emphasizing
This dimension refers to the act of giving significant intention and attention to a certain
level of excellence with attributable value.
BRISBANE
Job determination: This element relates to how people conduct their behaviour and
practice to get the job done. BNE1 concentrates on comprehensive management involving
collaboration, monitoring, coordinating, and working closely with the client to achieve the
quality outcome they desire.
Excerpt 1: …so we're just waiting on the all the town planning things to come back in and the
document hasn't been finished yet either, so it can't be sent up to him for tender. And
the difference of how he works is, he doesn't just have one contract, electrician contract
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or something like that, he actually goes and sources different quotes and presents them
all to the client is one thing instead of sending it out to 3 different people for tender,
which I think is a good way to work this project because we don't really have the time
to wait. (BNE1B)
Excerpt 2: For a straight interior design job when a client comes to us, we're very controlling I
suppose we like to control everybody including the client but the only way you can do
that is by being good at communicating with the client and the people around you.
(BNE1A)
Data show that BNE2 emphasizes process and action enhancement to acquire better
quality output and goals. The complexities of the processes are to ensure the quality system
works, benefiting all aspects as well as achieving satisfactory outcomes in terms of time, cost
and quality.
Excerpt 3: I think the big challenge is to ensure: that the quality management system assists in
running the practice…erm…achieving the full benefits of our systems and of our staff;
that the quality management system enables staff to find the right issues and connect
the right people to solve issues; that the things set up…to manage the practice more
effectively are maintained; that it appreciates the complexities of our tasks and
promotes good thinking. (BNE2C)
Excerpt 4: We like the concept of tough service. So, sure we serve the client, but we push backward
quite strongly everything…urm...we do continually...enunciate our opinion of
ermm...what’s appropriate built environment. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 5: The challenge is just to win respect. It is really the biggest challenge. Once we get the
trust and respect from the contractor and the client, things work very well. Once you
are in there, things couldn’t be easier. (BNE2E)
In the case of BNE3, Sydney’s directors set up the direction for branch and set targets
with advice from executive management. BNE3 admits that appropriate management is timeconsuming but appreciates its future advantages.
Excerpt 6: Sydney’s director just oversees the position, so…he allocates market, position and
budget and leaves it up to the management of each branch to achieve those results in
their own manner. (BNE3B)
Excerpt 7: In our situation here in Brisbane…ermm…my associate director comes to xxxx…and I
go to xxxx he also provides leadership in those things. We all do, in fact, Sydney sent
me to operate as a sole practitioner which is a fantastic situation for me because you
can operate as a sole practitioner, but they do all the difficult stuff…so you know…all
the practice management all the building …big hard decisions...it’s a perfect situation.
(BNE3A)
Monitoring: This refers to observing for any changes, which may occur over the time. It
is related to the centralised processes and activities that characterise a distributed system. For
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BNE2 the electronic filing database of its project and documents is a valuable monitoring
resource.
Note 1:
xxxx said the ‘NewForma’ is very helpful as this software is able to organize, find,
track, share, monitor and reuse technical project information and communicate it in a
way that is completely aligned with the people and processes that depend on that
information. The problem occurs when he can’t remember the project and file number.
(Observation Notes, BNE3, 17/11/2011)
Note 2:
Other systems has been used such as Revit Architecture software, part of the building
information modelling concept. The functions are beyond the planning and design
phase of the project supporting processes, including cost management, construction
management, project management and facility operation. (Observation Notes, BNE3,
17/11/2011)
KUALA LUMPUR
Job determination: Both KUL1 and KUL2 concentrate on effective teamwork and
communication management. Communication is the way to resolve the issues and any conflict.
Excerpt 1: Design is a very different entity from management of course and to manage the
design...errr…design is about the package of team work, so I must get the right team work.
If there is one person who can’t work in a team, I will be faced with the difficulty of
managing the whole thing, and that is about design. It’s different than team management.
If I don’t get the right person, it will disturb everybody’s design. I consider designing a
design as studio teamwork. The studio team must have a good communication. I think
management is a cross over. Within the management, you need the management and
within the design you also need management. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 2: You need to manage the design, and that’s why sometimes we have a department that is
called the design department, which is creative department to produce
design…errr…come out with all these ideas and such…but to manage you need another
side of the department, another side of people to manage. If not, the design won’t
work…they don’t know how to manage the design. (KUL2A)
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Figure 4.26: Implication of ‘output and quality’ in interior design management in practice.
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4.5.1 Implication of output and quality concern domain
Output and quality refer to the final work produced in a specific time period. It is
concerned with quality of the services, process or production according to acceptable standards.
The output with the acceptable quality becomes a priority in order to raise their existence
publicly. However, output and quality are also linked to other domains as where certain
methodologies of process or ways of doing are implemented to assure compliance. Figure 4.26
clearly outlines the implication of the output and quality concern for the practices. It highlights
how this involves directing in two senses, commanding and quality emphasizing. Commanding
as described involves the authoritarian use of manuals, regulations and processes with quality
emphasising identifying those aspects that are most likely to contribute to the desired quality
outcome. Monitoring progress to this was considered essential and undertaken through digital
systems, staff meetings, and the like. Again, in this dimension, the scale of the practice and
projects, and the services offered play an influential role.
4.6
POLEMICS
This domain highlights issue that are considered controversial and/or that create
dissatisfaction for the practices.
4.6.1 Survival concerns
This theme reflects the commitment by practices to sustain their existence in a highly
competitive industry.
Professionalism and Economic Anxieties are common dimensions in both Brisbane and
Kuala Lumpur cases. Technology Adaptation was only evident in Brisbane’s cases. Table 4.25
and 4.26 shows the elements that influence the dimensions in each case.
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Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Professionalism
Polemics
Survival
Concerns
Economic
anxieties
Technology
adaptation
Elements
Discipline’s superiority
Case
BNE1
Task limitation
Prejudice
Disagreement of outcome
Growth obstacles
Growth obstacles
Economy pressure
Budget constraints
Economy pressure
Limitations and barriers
BNE2
BNE3
BNE2
BNE3
BNE2
BNE3
Table 4.25: Survival concerns influential factors for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Themes
Dimensions
Professionalism
Survival
Concerns
Polemics
Economic
anxieties
Elements
Prejudice
Case
KUL1
Bureaucratic
Prejudice
KUL2
Bureaucratic
Bureaucratic
KUL3
Market dominance
Sustainability
Market dominance
Sustainability
Market dominance
Sustainability
KUL1
KUL2
KUL3
Table 4.26: Survival concerns influential factors for Kuala Lumpur cases.
4.6.1.1 Professionalism
This dimension refers to the level of competence and ethics expected of practitioners in
the design industry.
BRISBANE
Task limitation and discipline’s superiority are the elements forming the professionalism
dimension in BNE1. For BNE2, the dimension is prejudice; disagreement of outcome; and
growth obstacles. Clearly for BNE3 their challenges regarding growth of the practice represent
a survival concern.
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Discipline's superiority: This element highlights the perception of dominance held by
some design disciplines. Excerpt 1 points to the perception by interior designers that some
architects regard interior design services as inconsequential given that architects are also trained
to do this work. Excerpt 2 highlights concerns faced by young designers in establishing
credibility including with clients.
Excerpt 1: Some architects think they can do it better but that is just because… as designers in
general, we all have quite big egos and are protective of our designs. We don't want to
have someone else come and ruin it. (BNE1D)
Excerpt 2: I mean for me I’m still quite young, I'm only 25, so when you're working with quite highprofile clients and working on a project that they're spending a half a million dollars,
you know, I'm getting better at it but you always have a little bit of self-doubt. What are
they thinking? Telling them how to spend this much money. And that's daunting but with
experience and time working here, you just get used to it, and you realize that they've
come to you because you're a professional and you know what you're talking about.
(BNE1B)
Task limitation: Frustration can also be experienced when client demands clash with
issues outside the control of the designer or unforeseen issues arise.
Excerpt 1: Urm...when that particular project, you know. It was...we had to go through...it
was very rushed at the beginning process. The client just wanted to sign...sign
always...you know, we come up against the town planning issue where it goes to
the heritage register and then have DA so, that something, you know, that is in the
concept planning, and you know...preliminary town planning assessment. That the
client actually didn’t engage the town planner for, not XXXX. So that is something
in the concept stage of the support plan that did come out. You know we've had
budgeting with something that we have done early with the contractor. And kind
of, you know, from the beginning of the brief what the client wanted to…what we've
got on the table now, the design elements, the design development and things like
that, so there have been some changes that have gone through, I mean, I don't think
that the project planning necessarily helped identify the actual filling out of the
forms. But we've got things in there that we can go back and check to make sure
that we've kind of covered it. (BNE1B)
Prejudice: This relates to situations where there is misalignment of values. This can be
manifested in unreasonable client demands, lack of respect for what specific design disciplines
offer and the cost associated with this.
Excerpt 1: Timeframes are often unreasonable and some clients, they don’t share our vision for
quality. Urm, let’s say, at times it’s difficult to maintain our compliance procedures,
then the quality can suffer. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 2: I think that probably people don’t get it in the design industry...I think that is because
of a common perception in the community that’s supposed to value the industry...If
people don’t understand what you carry out, they certainly don’t see its value...and if
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they can’t see it is valuable to them...they do not want to pay for it...if they don’t pay
for it, we get a whole bunch of work, you know...it contributes to the outcome (BNE2D)
Disagreement of outcome: This element relates to conflict of opinions and actions
between staff and management. In BNE2 this is apparent in terms of conflicting goals or the
failure to follow quality management processes.
Excerpt 1: There’s some things that annoy me with our own practice …is the fact really that
people’s goals differ with mine. Mine is more about ensuring the sustainability of
practice whereas it no doubt suits everybody… I think that they get a little bit
compromised in terms of having a good product... (BNE2C)
Excerpt 2: I investigated this...a project performance review. One of them would be a clear job …a
really good outcome, good job, all the forms; all the QA forms were filled in. Everything
would have gone to plan, and we have had good reviews and all that. Then, we review
the other guy's job, and none of the checks have been ticked. A lot of QA wasn’t done,
and the job was a disaster. Either they want to do a good job or not. When they just
think of finishing off the job, they’re not doing it because it’s been in front of us, but
we’re doing it for a reason. (BNE2F)
Growth obstacles: This element refers to interference of certain situation or condition to
improve the practice size or expansion over the period of time. Procurement systems, rapid
innovation of technologies, lack of compliance and cooperation from staff are the growth
obstacle found in BNE2. For BNE3 there is the expectation of performance even with minimal
staff. In general, there is dissatisfaction with unqualified designers competing for the same
work.
Excerpt 1: I think there’s not enough respect or expectation of design by government of design as
the main driver and that manifests itself in different ways. One of the big problems is
the delivery methodologies. You know the procurement...I mean procurement
methodologies…. let’s say of larger institutions and things. (BNE2A)
Excerpt 2: The thing that may annoy me in the future is the industry changing...about to change
pretty drastically. Urm...with the introduction of the building information management
system and the scope of the architecture firms to pick up on it. Err...I fear that we
won’t...because of the strict...sort of design philosophies and not business
philosophies...but it hasn’t happened yet. (BNE2C)
Excerpt 3: I’ve tried to promote the firm, but it was huge…they know in fact; there is just me here
so I’ve found that quite difficult. They also see the only guy, who has a PA and people
who arrange the staff and expect the same here but I’m without any assistant. (BNE3A)
Excerpt 4: What annoys me is people talking about… people, architects and interior designers who
got through several years of training and then have to get experience to do that…and
then you always have people who are getting an interior-design firm, architecture
consultant…you know, building designers, but don’t have qualifications at all. You go
into competition with them, and people don’t understand the difference, you know. You
never get the situation where a doctor would have a problem because somebody
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decided to call themselves a medical doctor…and somehow no qualification for it….and
maybe not even take a night course, you know. Do you see what I mean? Too many
people within the industry are like trying to get work with no qualifications. (BNE3A)
Excerpt 5: The professions are active enough, but the Design Institute of Australia is not active
enough in protecting professionals and copyrights and all those things. (BNE3B)
KUALA LUMPUR
Prejudice and bureaucracy are the elements forming the professionalism dimension in
Kuala Lumpur cases except KUL3.
Prejudice: Again these cases reference unreasonable behaviour by clients in terms of
unrealistic expectations including the perception that interior design is inferior due to a
misconception of it as interior decoration.
Excerpt 1: They don’t have any knowledge of material or the market. They just request and request
without knowing the cost implications. (KUL1F)
Excerpt 2: Ermm…our profession is like 2nd class profession. Sometimes client perception on us is
very poor by looking us as a low class profession. They were thinking we just do
decoration. (KUL1C)
Excerpt 3: The thing that I hate is along the way the process is the argument with the contractors,
the argument with the client. Sometimes the client doesn’t see it on drawings or doesn’t
know how to read the drawings, and then when we gave them the real thing they simply
don’t like it. Just about the same from past until nowadays. We provide them with 3D
drawings, and you know, with the 3D computer generated available today, everything
looks like a super real. (KUL2A)
Bureaucratic: The involvement of the Malaysian practices in government work reveals
how its associated bureaucracy and authoritarian attitude can be impediments to efficient and
effective practice as can having to deal with stubborn contractors.
Excerpt 1: The problem is now we are starting to have interaction with the end user…so it’s become
a conflict, they start asking the things that we provide not as they're requested…suppose
XXXX need to inform them that their requirement is above the government standard…but
they keep silent…so we also can’t do anything because we are appointed by XXX as ID
consultant....so indirectly, XXX is some sort of our client actually…end user is a client for
XXX. (KUL1C)
Excerpt 2: Dealing with...urmmm...the person who handles the account or finance from the client, or
on behalf of the client ermm...let say perhaps, in term of their reaction and response is
too slow. The most critical thing is dealing with the government project. Response and
feedback from client was good because direct deals with them. Too many bureaucracies
in a government project like XXXX. Ermmm...before we can proceed to the account
department, we need to undergo with the person who handles the property department
first. We need to get an approval from them and then the financial department so on so
far. (KUL1B)
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Excerpt 3: I had this experience with XXXX project. I made a complaint about a wall light not being
level but nothing was changed because they have a connection with somebody in there.
They can go straight up to the particular person and just ignore it. What can you do?
Towards to the end if the project is successful and well managed, the client will be happy.
That part is most interesting and pleasant about design and management. (KUL3A)
4.6.1.2 Economic anxieties
This dimension refers to the nervousness and anxiety created from an unstable and
fluctuating economy. The economic chain is beyond the practice control due to the production,
distribution or trade, and consumption of goods and services by different agents in the global
market subject to supply and demand.
BRISBANE
Economy pressure is the element forming the anxieties dimension in BNE2 and BNE3
and for BNE2 associated budget constraints.
Economy pressure: This element refers to the situation where there is local or global
economic instability. Due to this the impact is felt in different ways by different people and
practices. BNE2 describes how with the recession there was the expectation by clients of the
same quality at less cost.
Excerpt 1: Urm probably in times of economic crisis clients who choose the cheapest architect’s
fee and not the best architect. It can be that kind of thing. Urm, these continually add
pressure on fees and the ability to do an adequate project. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 2: It’s always some of the social elements within the architecture industry…when the
recession hit…probably architecture was first to get the fever. …with the bank not
lending money…there are no projects. So we were one of the first to fall … it is the
financial trend. (BNE2E)
For many such as BNE3 this led to a drop in projects and loss of staff.
Excerpt 3: During that time, the architecture side started to grow in Brisbane, interiors kept going
and basically with the global economy crises in 2010, 2011 and…obviously we lost a
lot of staff through loss of business in Brisbane, and in fact, were not making money
here. (BNE3B)
Note 1:
xxxx agrees to allow me to observe the refurbishment of shop and office block project
that currently in designing stage. The project is located in XXXX and this is the only
project they had. (Observation Notes, BNE3, 23/11/2011)
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Budget constraint: Attempting to manage cost and negotiate variations is a major source
of anxiety.
Excerpt 1: I think it comes down to time and cost and compliance with our procedures to ensure
the high-quality outcomes. (BNE2B)
Excerpt 2: The fee negotiation is really hard especially the variations… everything is to do with
money… it’s something, especially the negotiations with the client about the variations
to the contract…I’ve tried to be nice but I feel like a bad man. (BNE2E)
KUALA LUMPUR
Market dominance and sustainability are the elements forming the economic anxieties
dimension in the Kuala Lumpur cases.
Market dominance: This element recognises aggressive strategies to gain market share
in a specific geographical area. A business that has achieved market dominance makes it hard
for others to enter the market. Architectural firms with interior design services and firms
offering inferior services at lower fees are impacting the smaller interior design market.
Excerpt 1: ID scope and market are too small and that is why we need to include interior signage
and graphics as part of our service. We can’t do architectural work, and the problem is
the architect always pinches our job so ID market becomes small and smaller. (KUL1E)
Excerpt 2: Another issue is a certain ID firm gives a lower fee to hit the market. Our profession has
been controlled by the Malaysia Society of Interior Design. They provide a standard fee
as outlined but those companies don’t follow that and bring it down. When this happens,
this industry will die, definitely will die. (KUL1A)
Excerpt 3: We talking here, Kuala Lumpur, particularly...there are too many architects who carry
out or run ID businesses. Normally, for new works or new building, the client will ask
an architect...professional architect even if they know an ID consultant. Most of the
architects will set up both, architecture and ID firm, like XXXX Architects and Interiors.
What I can say is the architect plus ID. They will conquer and monopolize the job, but
the worse thing is some of them are not able to get the architecture job, so they start to
focus on ID works. I think there are conflicts. (KUL2B)
Sustainability: The capacity to ensure business success has always been important and
has become a major task in Kuala Lumpur cases influenced by many factors. A major one is the
notion of interior design still operating in the shadow of architecture. This is reinforced by the
fact that interior design does not have a strong, distinct from architecture, representative body.
From the experiences of the case practices it appears that interior design firms remain quite
vulnerable, a situation exacerbated by their small-scale operation relying on only a few staff.
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The lack of management training and professional development opportunities are non-existent
or limited due to the need to reduce costs.
Excerpt 1: The management and planning aspects are not really the priority. Even though I have
made a suggestion to the boss to provide certain training for the staff…ermm sort of staff
development programmed. It is really fewer and not so many ID firms willing to spend to
train their staff. (KUL1C)
Excerpt 2: We need a strong organization or society to protect our profession. Current society is not
strong enough, and we still sit under the architect in the Malaysia Board of Architects.
We should stand alone and not under anybody else's umbrella. (KUL1E)
Excerpt 3: I think ermm…not only previous time but until now…those architects and interior
designers are not actually business people because they are typical of full flash of design
and designer thinking. (KUL2A)
Excerpt 4: If you are a relatively small firm, just having 2 or 3 staff, the power is on your staff. If both
of them are on medical leave or quit, you will suffer but if your firm is big, staff will start
to be worried because if they do not perform they easily can be terminated. So this is the
dilemma by having a small firm. (KLU3A)
Excerpt 5: Still in the shadow of an architect. I think the ID scope is still not 100% recognized by
public department of works and the local minister. We are supposed to stand on our own
and not depend on architects. (KUL3A)
4.6.1.3 Technology proficiency
Technology proficiency is another dimension related to sustaining a practice but that
creates significant frustration particularly sophisticated software as is the case with BNE2 and
BNE3.
Technology limitation and barrier: Whether it is due to staff proficiency or equipment
malfunction, technology can be source of frustration and anxiety.
Note 1:
Even though the function of the software is to make all documents manageable and
accessible, xxxx’s still have difficulties tracking intended document files. There are too
many project files stored in it and it is difficult to find the right file unless the user knows
the project and file number. Every project stored in it has a project and file number.
After 30 minutes, xxxx’s still not be able to find the project brief and project report for
the Jury room and Refurbishments of XXXX due to not being able to recall the file
number. (Observation Notes, BNE2, 17/11/2011)
Note 2:
According to xxxx, kinds of software that are normally used are Revitt, NewForma,
Microsoft office, 3D Max for presentations, CutePDF and AutoCAD but currently little
in used. xxxx gets xxxx help to explain the Revit and NewForma software to me. He is
not very sure how all the software works within the XXXX systems. This is clearly
explains xxxx getting into difficulty tracking project files during my first observation.
He does not really understood how it works as he only assists the architect….
(Observation Notes, BNE2, 22/12/2011)
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For BNE3, the diversity of software to facilitate different tasks and store files and
documents in electronic filing systems for easy access of the XXX network is viewed positively.
However, there are limitations with server issues to link files, especially to and from the head
office.
Note 3:
XXXX implements online filing systems with all their documents stored either on
Brisbane’s or Sydney's server. The entire completed project will be stored in central
server in Sydney’s office. (Observations Notes, BNE3, 9/12/2011)
Note 4:
xxxx constantly swaps her work between manual and computer to get her work more
efficient. However, due to the Internet problem, xxxx and xxxx not able to link all their
working files to the server. According to xxxx, this is a common problem, especially to
open files from Sydney's server. (Observations Notes, BNE3, 12/12/2011)
4.6.2 Physical appearances
This theme refers to the relationship between image and physical appearance. The study
reveals issues for BNE1 in terms of the multi-use of office space and for BNE3 relating to need
to share office space and facilities with other businesses.
Domain
Themes
Polemics
Physical
Appearances
Dimensions
Functional
imperfection
Elements
Space and conditions
Sharing space
and facilities
Image representations
Case
BNE1
BNE3
Table 4.27: Physical appearances influential factors in Brisbane cases.
4.6.2.1 Functional imperfection
This dimension relates to how specific uses of the office space can compromise image.
Space and conditions: BNE1 is a boutique interior design practice the image of which is
compromised by the spatial characteristics of the office. In addition to acoustic problems
associated with the open plan configuration, the use of the reception to store furniture items for
specific projects creates a messy, chaotic appearance (Figure 4.28). Several spaces
accommodate a number of activities such as the reception and discussion area on the ground
floor (Figure 4.27).
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Note 1:
Meeting will start at 9.30, and she asks me to sit while waiting. XXXX doesn’t have a
proper lounge or waiting area, so we just sit in round-table discussion area.
(Observation Notes, BNE1, 6/9/2011)
Figure 4.27: Discussion and director area on ground floor.
Note 2:
Common situation during lunch hours is preparing and heating food as well as chatting.
A bit noisy due to conversations between them, as sound echoes and crosses over from
down to upstairs. (Observation Notes, BNE1, 18/10/2011)
Note 3:
There is a fair degree of calm and quite this morning. Everybody concentrates doing
their work. There is the new item (mattress and pillow/cushion) arrives making a mess
and obstructing views and image at ground floor. This situation happens due to XXXX
purchasing and doing the decoration involving items such as chairs, sofas, pillows,
display items, rugs, etc. on their own. Normally, purchase items will put in transit at
XXXX before delivered to site (Observation Notes, BNE1, 1/11/2011)
Figure 4.28: Decoration and furniture items in transit in BNE1.
4.6.2.2 Sharing space and facilities
In some situations, as in the case of BNE3, it is necessary to sublet facilities to other
practices (Figure 4.29).
Image representation: While the inclusion of other practices in the BNE3 office space
creates an image of the one busy office, it also creates problems in controlling noise and
behaviour contrary to that wanting to be promoted by BNE3.
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Note 1:
Even though this space is shared with 4 other practices, interestingly in terms of
appearance its looks like the whole office belongs to XXXX. Once someone enters the
office they directly see the XXXX signage without any signage for other practices. For
the first time XXXX visitor, they will assume this practice has a number of staff but the
reality is it doesn’t. XXXX only possesses a principal and one other staff member. I
think this office appearance is representative of the XXXX design style as it is similar
with other project designed by XXXX as published in the company profile. (Observation
Notes, BNE3, 9/12/2011)
Figure 4.29: BNE3 office layout shared with others.
Note 2:
Due to a number of practices being under one roof, there are difficulties in controlling
the conduciveness of the office, especially regarding noise. Talking or having a
conversation loudly, watching a movie or listening to songs without using an earphone
contribute to a high level of noise. They are free to do what they like without concern
of other practices. Maybe, there is a common understanding between them.
(Observation Notes, BNE3, 12/12/2011)
4.6.3 Practice and academic anxieties
This theme refers to the knowledge and skills gaps that appear between tertiary education
and practice needs.
Domain
Polemics
Themes
Practice and
Academic
Anxieties
Dimensions
Tertiary
education
issues
Elements
Case
BNE1
Gap in university program
BNE2
BNE3
Table 4.28: Practice and academic anxieties for Brisbane cases.
Domain
Polemics
Themes
Practice and
Academic
Anxieties
Dimensions
Tertiary
Education
issues
Elements
Case
KUL1
Gap in university program
KUL2
Table 4.29: Practice and academic anxieties for Kuala Lumpur cases.
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4.6.3.1 Tertiary education issues
This dimension refers to the syllabus of the design programme in universities and claims
that it does not prepare graduates for the business of practice.
Excerpt 1: I think when you get a technical degree in something you began studying design, you
began studying art that teaches you to do 20% of your job. It doesn't teach you how to
be a good communicator. It doesn't teach you how to listen to clients. It doesn't teach
you organizational skills. It doesn't teach you all the different things about running a
business. (BNE1A)
Excerpt 2: Mmmm... the syllabus at XXXX is slightly deficient in a creative kind of manner, but I
don’t really feel that is a problem because you know...I really believe I was able to
create a nice thing. (BNE2D)
Excerpt 3: The university actively says…err…I meant university is to do dreaming, and you learn
to be a practitioner when you're out there. Well, it doesn’t work like that. You need to
understand finance. You need to understand how to manage human resources and
manage time or plan for a future and all those things. Otherwise, you go to both and
ermm…architects don’t get training on that. (BNE3A)
Excerpt 4: I think there are obvious conflicts of ideas and understanding between practice and
academia. Industry claims that university should follow them because this is the real
world of practice and academia relies on theory. So, I think it is a huge conflict. (KUL1B)
Excerpt 5: Not all design schools in Malaysia or what so ever actually provide that kind of business
syllabus. They wouldn’t know about...errr…how to manage and how to plan the
business…because that is not in the syllabus, and they are not taught how to run the
business. (KUL2A)
4.6.4 Implication of polemics domain
One of the issues that emerged from these findings is a polemic that circulates within the
practice. Arguments and controversial issues lead to dissatisfaction creating a loop connecting
practice, industry and tertiary education systems as illustrated in Figure 4.30. In this study, the
frustrations of practice come from the need for survival, the desire to present an appropriate
image in constrained physical situations, and deficiencies in tertiary education to do with the
development of relevant business skills.
In this study, most of the practices highlight the issues of survival to sustain the existence
of the company’s highly competitive industry. Economic anxiety, professional rivalry,
professional misunderstanding and lack of professional representation are major concerns while
technology is a double edge sword in one way helping to make practice more efficient and
networked and, in another, creating challenges in relation to proficiency and reliability.
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Figure 4.30: Implication of ‘polemics’ to interior design management in practice.
4.7
SUMMARY
This chapter has presented the findings of the study as six domains with their respective
voices and stories of interior design management in practice. The domains represent the main
theoretical constructs of interior design management in practice. Expression of existence, the
first domain described, focuses on market positioning and relevancy. In this respect, the study
shows specific relationships between the organisational structure and scale of the practice, the
types of services provided, and the scale and types of projects undertaken. The relationship of
interior design to architecture and other design disciplines is also highlighted. The second
dimension, workplace milieu, further explores practice as a cultural setting and from this
position focuses on the values, mores, attitudes that characterise particular practice settings. The
physical manifestation of practice culture is also explored in terms of the physical nature of the
practice environment. The issue of competency is then acknowledged in the form of its own
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domain revealing issues to do with professional knowledge, skills, experience and
predispositions. The following domain dealing with the variables factor examines more closely
the internal and external factors that impact the practice and its management. This examination
further exposes the nature of management at design, project and practice levels. Other views of
management are also revealed through the domain that examines how the practices manage the
relationship between output and quality. In this respect, mechanisms and processes for
regulating and controlling become more evident. The last domain of polemics recognises the
frustrations and anxieties of practice and their main sources. As revealed these are both internal
and external. The discussion identifies a loop connecting practice, industry and education.
These domain outcomes are brought together in a more synthesised way in the following
discussion chapter as a theoretical framework. The framework constitutes the theory generation
expected of a grounded theory approach. The significance of the framework in addressing the
aim and questions of this research is also explored.
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Chapter 5: Theoretical Framework and
Significance
This chapter considers the findings of the research presented in the previous chapter as
they contribute to the development of a theoretical framework of interior design practice as it is
managed in selected cases in Brisbane and Kualar Lumpur. The framework facilitates
discussion in relation to current theoretical discourse and the gaps as noted in the literature
review chapter (Chapter 2). Central to this is the work of various authors such as Knackstedt
(2008); Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov (2010); and Minkov (2013). The main questions and
sub-questions underpinning the research are used to structure the discussion and establish its
significance. The main questions are:
•
What is the nature of interior design management as it is currently practiced in
Australia and Malaysia?
•
How is interior design practice perceived and positioned in relation to other
disciplines such as architecture?
•
5.1
What are the structural implications of practice for interior design identity?
What is the nature of interior design management as it is currently practiced in
Australia and Malaysia?
The responses of the participants in this study revealed a complex interplay between the
nature of interior design management currently practiced and the cultural demographics of the
practice organisation itself. They suggest various relationships between organization and
management that informs and impacts the nature of the practice. This is captured in Figure 5.1
as follows.
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Figure 5.1: Interior design practice models.
As conveyed in Figure 5.1, the discipline undertaking the main leadership role is
significant in influencing the nature of interior design practice. For example, if the practice is
predominantly architecture led interior design will occupy one of two places:
•
As a sub-discipline playing a complementary role to architecture, or
•
As one of several disciplines contributing in either a complementary way, in it’s
own right, or together on an equal footing with another or other disciplines. This
differentiation was most evident in network practices with local conditions
determining the role of interior design.
If, on the other hand, the practice is interior design led, interior design will occupy one of
the following places:
•
As one of several disciplines contributing in their own right, or together on an
equal footing with another or other disciplines. This situation was most associated
with single practices.
•
As a sole practice offering interior design services in the traditional sense. While
these practices tend to offer a traditional form of interior (architecture) design
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services focussing on interior environments ranging from the residential to the
commercial to the specialist, they can, as in one case in the study, provide a service
that is also more architectural as well as decorative.
This thesis argues that the differentiation of interior design practice conveyed in Figure
5.1 as a relational model represents a complementary and richer understanding of interior
design diversity to that provided by Keane & Keane (2002) through their cooperative,
separated, interior design, architecture categorisation.
The following discussion will now use the sub-questions raised in the previous chapter,
to understand more fully the nature of interior design management as reflected in the practice
models as identified. The sub-questions relate to the following aspects:
•
The way interior design work is implemented/enacted in practice
•
The way practice and management is understood by designers
•
The relationship between project type and management approach
•
Management levels and approaches
Figure 5.2 as follows diagrammatically captures the nature of interior design management
as informed by the response to these questions. With Figure 5.1 depicting the various interior
design practice models at the centre, Figure 5.2 draws out further other interrelationships such
as between organizational structure and management style, and management approach and
project type.
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Figure 5.2: Theoretical framework of interior design management in practice.
5.1.1 The way interior design work is implemented/enacted in practice
The study found that the way in which a practice positions and portrays itself reflects
specific kinds of relationships between organisational structure and the services offered. It is
these relationships that influence how interior design is conceptualised and constituted in
practice. Whether architectural or interior design led, the study clearly shows that the nature of
interior design management as currently practiced operates in a “form follows function” mode
as described by Beckhard (2006). For Beckhard (2006), the sign of a healthy practice is one
where the work to be done determines the structures and mechanisms to do it. As conveyed
through the ‘expression of existence’ and ‘workplace milieu’ domains presented in Chapter 4
(Sections 4.1 and 4.2) interior design practice is characterised by multiple structures. Further to
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this, however, the study shows how the strong attachment between services and values
(expression of existence) and the internal environmental elements (workplace milieu) regulates
what and how work needs to be done.
The cultural emphasis of the study allows further insight drawing on the work of Hofstede,
et al (2010) and their femininity/masculinity dimension. As highlighted in Figure 5.2, there is a
relationship between organisational structure and masculine/feminine traits with the
hierarchical structures reflecting a masculine management style and the flat/matrix a feminine
management style. Figure 5.2 also draws a connection between architecturally led practices and
a masculine management style and interior design led practices and a feminine style. The
distinction blurrs however in the cases of BNE2 and KUL2 each of which has a female director.
This is further apparent in Figure 4.18 in terms of mutuality and interrelation dimensions of the
‘workplace milieu’ domain. Overall, the study theorises that the chosen core business model
and how practices position themselves in the market (regarding firm/project scale and services
scope) influence the way in which interior design is implemented and a practice culture
formulated.
5.1.2 Practice and management as understood by designers
Across the cases, the need to differentiate the following became evident: how practitioners
explicate their understanding of practice and management; and how interior design practitioners
actually manage in practice. While the varying interpretations suggest the need for greater
clarity and consistency regarding terminology, what is more significant from a theoretical and
knowledge point of view is a structural understanding of how practitioners ‘practice’ interior
design.. The responses of the participants in this study revealed a complex interplay between
the nature of interior design management and the cultural demographics of the practice itself.
Figures 5.1/5.2 illustrate the structure of interior design management and practice as revealed
through this study.
In the cases studied, the practice directions and philosophies set by the management guide
the designers. The way management shapes their direction relates to the nature of the workplace
milieu. As mentioned by Dixon (2003) competent management models require attention to
rational goals, internal process, human relations and open systems. In this study, this was
recognised in the dimensions of ‘mutuality activities’ and ‘working alliances’ as part of the
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‘connections and relations’ theme. Section 4.2.1.2 clearly highlights mutuality activities
emphasising connections and relations, and their role in producing positive outcomes for the
people and practice sometimes through an explicit governance system and task boundaries
establishing the scope and nature of management roles (Section 4.2.1.3).
Through this study, evidence is presented of the fundamental role played by practice
philosophy and organizational and management structure in directing the performance of design
practitioners. In part, this aligns with the nature of (creative) knowledge based practice as
described by Winch & Schneider (1993). Similarly, Bashouri & Duncan (2014) state the
systematic management involving knowledge is an asset which is vital for survival in the
twenty-first century. How people in managing positions undertake their roles in relation to
knowledge creation strongly influences the way designers see and understood the situation. As
revealed in BNE1, BNE2 and KUL1 in the ‘existence’ and ‘milieu’ domains, this can be quite
fluid with everyone learning from each other.
5.1.3 The relationship between project type and management approach
The previous section in this chapter addressed the nature and type of practice management
as it appears in this study. As described there is a strong connection between the practice model
in terms of its direction and management and how work tasks are implemented. In another
respect, as shown in the theoretical framework (Figure 5.2), there is also a relationship between
the management approach and project type. Social and economic concerns are some of the main
factors influencing the representation and survival strategies of practices and decisions to vary
project type. Economic practice anxieties are emphasised in the ‘polemics’ dimension.
While Stephenson & Frankel (2002), Duffy (2002), Wheeler (2010) and Barnes (2015)
draw a connection between the global economic situation and the need to transform practices
in more competitive ways, possibly through joint venture approaches as noted by Knackstedt
(2008), this was not always presented as the main reason by the case practices for diversifying
their service. Indeed, in some of the multidisciplinary cases and the sole practice case, a prime
motivation was one of adopting a holistic position to produce a richer, and what they would
argue, better design outcomes for the client and the user.
Having said this, it was also recognised that the ability to offer niche or boutique services
provided competitive advantages, as did networked distribution for the larger practices. As the
study found in the case of BNE3, the networked system offered some agility to the network as
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a whole in responding to broad financial impact or opportunity. In the case of BNE3, this agility
was provided largely through its interior design service. At the time of the study, the work in
the Brisbane branch was 90% interior design and 10% architecture. This was contrary to its
projection of 60% interior design and 40% architecture due to the downturn locally in the
construction industry and the global financial situation generally. As with such large firms, there
is an expectation of profit delivered essentially through volume and or scale of work. This is
reflected in the size of the BNE3 office capable of accommodating approximately 22 staff. The
need to reduce the staff to two then meant that much of the space had to be sublet for the practice
to remain viable in its present location.
In terms of the Malaysian cases, these appeared to be more client-led demanding greater
speed and emphasis on how the work is undertaken. This supports the view of Stephenson &
Frankel (2002) that speed has replaced quality as an emerging global trend. The Malaysian
practices are also characterised further by their integrated project delivery
Across all cases, interior design presented itself as a multidimensional, hybrid discipline,
where different dimensions were emphasized, depending on the philosophies of the practice, its
skill base, and the local market. Within larger architecturally led practices, it tended to occupy
a subsidiary supportive role enabling the practice to package together a number of services for
the one architectural project under the one roof. This afforded economies of scale to both the
practice and the client. In other smaller scale interior design led practices, undertaking smaller
projects, interior design afforded the possibility for the practices to manage projects from
inception to construction. This was evident in both BNE1 and KUL1. In all the practice cases,
as reflected in the early work of Cuff (1991) and the more recent work of Hofstede et al. (2010),
there were relationships between what a practice does and how it does it. Further to this, there
were distinctive relationships between the nature of what the practice does and the nature of
how it does it with both playing an integrative role in defining practice culture. In this sense,
then, management plays a central role at all levels of practice. From an interior design
perspective, the study has demonstrated the way in which it has enabled practice to negotiate
competing values as outlined by Dixon (2003) that in this study are discipline as well as market
driven.
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5.1.4 Management levels and approaches in the different disciplines in the various
practice models
According to Cuff (1991) and Drucker & Maciarello (2008), management levels and
approaches are culture-conditioned. How management is structured and implemented varies
depending on the various aspects that comprise that organisation (Quebe, 2010) and that
motivate it to differentiate itself from its competitors (Knackstedt, 2008).
On the surface, the sole practices in this study appear to have an uncomplicated structure
and are easier to manage due to this structure and their autonomous nature. These practices
tended to have a flat-matrix management approach with designers interacting closely and
directly with their management. While these may appear to have greater simplicity than
multidiscipline, networked practices, the study has shown a sophisticated form of operation
relying on relations rather than systems alone. This is not to say that hierarchically structured
practices do not value human relationships and collaboration. A case in point is KUL2 where
there is an explicit attempt by management to consider staff morale by providing “pleasant” and
secure working conditions; empowering staff by involving them in all aspects of the project.
These forms of management are what Hofstede, et al (2010) refers to as a feminine form of
management.
As highlighted earlier, Hofstede, et al (2010) further contrasts feminine forms of
management with masculine forms. For Hofstede, et al (2010), masculine approaches favour
individualism and internal as well as external competitiveness and the pursuit of opportunities
for high earning and recognition. There also appears to be emphasis on systemic centralised
forms of control. In this study, this form of management is apparent in the architecturally led
networked practices. The following excerpt exemplifies this approach:
… as a managing director his roles…are …really deals with top rules. He started the
practice, and he keeps it on the track…so he is above everybody…and between these
directors, there are as such four of them. As directors, these people are financially
responsible for the practice and the principal is heading up the practice, but they just
get paid salaries… [when] you become a director you have to invest money.
Ermm…now below the directors … are associate directors. They’re usually the
second in command… (BNE3A)
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In contrast to BNE3, BNE2, which was also part of a national and international network,
had greater autonomy. Here we see an attempt to encourage participation and openness as
characterised by a relational, feminine approach in management while also having a very
systematised, hierarchical structure; one that still relegates interior design to a supportive role.
Multiple practices as part of a national and international network apply a centralized
management style with full autonomy to their network offices. This type of practice has a
hierarchical structure with a balanced feminine and masculine style of management.
…We know what those processes are, and that is control by group rather than
individual. So, you know why? Because of the scale of it and because of the number
of individual involved in architecture…this system is very clear …. I think this
practice is very focused on it...and I think part of the reason for, it is the system that
has operated across a number of practices...and so partly, it because of that sort of
communication and control that has to happen... (BNE2A)
5.2
How is interior design practice perceived and positioned in relation to other
disciplines such as architecture?
One of the significant findings from this study is how management practice culture is
integrally linked to the disciplines in a relationship with interior design, particularly
architecture, as well as to the nature of this relationship, and generally, correspondingly, to the
nature and scale of the projects pursued and undertaken. Figure 5.2 aims to capture these
interrelationships.
The study highlights how interior design can be conceptualised and branded in various
ways. In several of the cases, it is apparent that interior design is regarded as a specialisation
within architecture. Other cases show how it can operate as a stand-alone profession extending
to encompass other disciplines such as graphic design, furniture design, project management
and construction management. In one case, architecture and decoration are presented as
specialisations in interior design.
In the literature review reference was made to Knackstedt (2008) and the argument for
interior design practice to react to demand rather than trends and that its success depends on
how it can operate within various business patterns. The cases in this study illustrate interior
design’s adaptability, agility and robustness. With construction’s limited pie in the economy
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Stephenson & Frankel (2002), interior design has the potential, as inferred by this study, to play
a key role in enhancing the sustainability of many types of practice involved in the building
construction industry.
5.2.1 The contribution and relevancies of management theory to empirical research
and interior design’s creative process and practice
Management theory as reviewed in Chapter 2 has made a contribution at a broad level.
Organizational culture theory as developed by scholars like Hofstede, et al (2010), Minkov
(2013), Beckhard (2006) and Cuff (1991) invited this study to explore the cultural nature of
organizations and behaviour. Fayol (1949) and Dixon (2003) emphasise management function
and tools as a way of gaining deep understanding of the general organizational management
context. Their contribution aligns with findings of the study in relation to ‘expression of
existence’, ‘workplace milieu’ and ‘competency’ domains. The way in which practices present
and represent themselves relates to the work environment at physical, social and psychological
levels, while values and employee abilities (knowledge and expertise) comprise the human
capital. In all, the study highlights, as reinforced by Hofstede et al. (2010), the significant role
played by culture as the basic foundation of organization management, and the need for sound
management as noted by Fayol (1949) and Dixon (2003).
As this study focuses on interior design management in practice, the research also covers
project management theory. Thus, the theory provided by Project Management Institute (2008),
Fewing (2005) and Kemp (2004) and others was referenced. Their theories regarding how the
project should be managed sensitized the research in relation to the interior design projects
identified by the case practices. In the study, this is revealed in the ‘competency’, ‘variable’s
factors’ and the ‘quality concern’ domains. Surprisingly, each practice conducts the project
management task according to their own practice situation especially the types of projects they
are involved with. The findings reveal confusion regarding how each practice and even
practitioners in the same practice understand and differentiate between practice, design and
process management suggesting the need for clarification regarding boundaries and
terminology. This is reflected in the statement by BNE2A:
We need to highlight the project management in architecture is like this and
project management in the builder is like this because it’s obviously crossed
over...because in the building, it’s a very specific thing about designing, about
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delivering the building or the project whereas the architect, you're managing the
project from the inception of it. Even from getting the job...you know, right from
the early journey of it...right to usually to...well beyond completion of
construction.
In regard to design management and process, scholars such as Harpum (2007), Lawson
(2005) and Cross (2000) are notable for establishing theory in their fields. The evolution of the
theories about design management and process are varied but reflect the same principle, which
is the need for a systematic and organised process.
I think we conduct very systematic process. We have design advisor, project
manager, site manager and quantity surveyor. We are divided into a team. We have
design team, contract document team, project and site management team so that
we are more organized because certain ID firms not having something like XXXX
did. (KUL1D)
However, while scholars such as these have produced theory and frameworks to inform
the body of design management knowledge and its use as guidelines and references, the findings
in this study reveal the failure of such work to capture the unique multidimensional
characteristics of interior design management in practice. As evidenced in the findings,
management is an integral aspect of all the practice domains identified in this study providing
a compelling case for further exploration.
5.2.2 ‘Best’ management practice
The previous section in this chapter identifies four types of interior design practice; two
that are predominantly architecture led; and two that are interior design led. Each practice
exhibits its own style of management subject to their business projection as illustrated in the
‘expression of existence’ and ‘work milieu’ domains in Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.18. The
respective practice scenarios reveal how the positioning of core business services contributes to
the nature of their practice management.
In the architecture led practices which include interior design as a sub-discipline playing
a complementary role to architecture, architecture played a dominant role in management
decisions with the nature of the practice controlled in the main by the architectural services. All
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management direction and decisions had to portray the practice existence as an architectural
firm as seen in BNE2. If practice conditions exist such as in BNE3 where there are more interior
design projects than architectural projects, existing architecture-informed procedures are
adapted or replaced by practices more relevant to interior design.
The unique nature of these approaches and procedures which open up additional
opportunities for firms is particularly apparent in the interior design led practices where they
exist in their own right or on an equal footing with other non-architecture disciplines. These
practices such as KUL1 and KUL2 show an ability to adapt or include other types of services
such as graphic design or design and build. In the practices offering a traditional form of interior
(architecture) design service such as BNE1 and KUL3 focussing on interior environments
ranging from the residential to the commercial to the specialist, the primary focus on the interior
expands opportunities ranging from the architectural to the decorative.
While the previous discussion suggests a link between management approaches and
whether a practice is architecturally focussed or interior focussed, management style and
organizational culture, particularly professional values, also play central roles in informing
management approaches and ‘best’ practice management. As illustrated in Figure 4.7,
professional values of identity, integrity, trust, reliability, establishment and recognition have a
direct relationship with the core business model and the practice’s public representation and
expression of existence overall. Therefore, the study suggests that there is no single
management theory that can fit all practices and claim to be a ‘best’ practice management
model. As mentioned by Hofsetede (2010) and Minkov (2013), appropriate organizational
management is that where there is close alignment with organizational culture. Connected to
this is the point made by Knackstedt (2013) that management cannot replace leadership.
5.3
What are the structural implications of practice for interior design identity?
Irrespective of interior design’s role in various practices, it continues to struggle to
establish a credible identity and to be valued on an equal basis along with other spatial design
disciplines. From this study, this struggle appears to relate in some way to the nature and scale
of projects. Architectural projects generally involve a building where the interior is regarded as
a component. This relationship appears to automatically place interior design in a supportive
(subservient) as opposed to complimentary role. This is visible in this study where despite a
philosophy of cooperation and collaboration, the interior design area within one of the
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multidisciplinary architecturally led practices is staffed by one designer as opposed to the
several architects several of whom are at senior management level. The rhetoric of this practice
is interesting in how it overtly conceptualises interior design as interior architecture.
In terms of the interior design led practices, the projects varied in type from hospitality,
residential, office and so on. In these cases, projects tended to be interior environments of
existing buildings and ranged in scale from small to medium with scale of project undertaken
being largely determined by the size of the practice and its philosophy of working closely with
the client. In the Malaysian KUL3 case, the nature of the projects undertaken was also dictated
by the market, the available skills and capacity of the sole operator, and the need to find a
competitive niche. In terms of the other Malaysian cases, KUL1 is a medium-size practice
managing to bid for large projects in the office, commercial and institutional markets, while
KUL2 is small-scale capable of handling up to medium-scale projects, mainly in residential,
office and institutional sectors.
Figure 5.2 illustrates that the practices whether architect led or interior design led are
continually attempting to respond to social and economic conditions and demands. As
highlighted in the previous discussion, scope of services and management structure reflect how
practices wish to position themselves in relation to the public and the market.
In terms of economy cake, you must work hard. You must build up your name,
and then you will get the job. If you prove you’re good, then the business is with
you. During that time, I will guarantee bank will be looking at you and give you
a lot of facilities because they know you are okay. (KUL3A)
For all case practices, interior design provides opportunities for greater responsiveness
through its hybridity. For BNE 2 and BNE 3 the inclusion of interior design allows these
practices to respond to specific client demands and competitive external markets and conditions.
In terms of BNE2 interior design is offered as a complement to architecture and at the time of
the study for BNE3 it allowed them to sustain what is essentially an architecturally led network
practice until the market changed to the point where they could be more competitive in obtaining
larger scale architectural and interior projects. The need to diversify to be competitive is
particularly prevalent in the Malaysian practices of KUL1 and KUL2. The impact of survival
concerns and other anxieties is explored and represented through the ‘polemics’ domain
(Section 4.6)
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So, we are not just going to concentrate on interior design. Personally, I think the
design industry needs to be quite open and wise so…you know….it is good for a
company, especially company like us to venture out…basically on graphics and
furniture…(KUL2A)
In all, the study reveals awareness by the practices of the changing social and economic
context. Changing client attitudes and expectations as well as greater bureaucratization
especially in relation to government projects appear to have had roles in heightening this
awareness. For these practices, having a business foundation that allows the practices to be
responsive is central to thriving in a highly competitive and dynamic market. Stephenson &
Frankel (2002) recognises this in their comparison of the old economy and the new economy;
the latter being more interactive and no longer following the traditional linear pattern. The
‘competency and variables factor’ domain described in the previous chapter provides insight
into the nature of the interior design practice as a (creative) knowledge-based organisation. The
approach in the study to include a range of interior design practices helps to make more explicit
the nature and values of this knowledge at a collective rather than individual level. For Barnes
(2015, p184) it is this understanding at this collective level that will help “drive practice into
new ways of thinking that may not fit snugly into old modes of practice”.
5.4
Conclusion
In summary, this chapter presented a synthesis of the interior design practice domain
frameworks representing the first level of findings of the study (Chapter 4). The synthesis in the
form of a theoretical model of interior design management in practice (Figure 5.2) represents a
collective outcome structurally capturing some of the diversity of interior design practice and
in so doing provides an empirical basis to facilitate more extensive research and informed
debate and speculation about the future of interior design.
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Chapter 6: Conclusion
As outlined at the beginning of this thesis, the main aim of this study was to develop a
better understanding of interior practice by focussing on its management at process, project and
practice levels. The study has achieved this within a cross-cultural case context by producing a
theoretical framework. This chapter concludes the thesis by highlighting its contribution within
the constraints of the case context. The contextualisation then provides a basis for suggesting
future research directions.
6.1
Summary
This thesis reports in detail the approach adopted in producing the resultant findings and
their theoretical significance and future research implications. Specifically, Chapter 1
introduced and contextualised the study, identifying its primary and secondary aims and
associated research questions. It also provided an indication of its expected contribution and a
glimpse of what eventuated.
Chapter 2 presented a review of literature relevant to the research topic. It included both
interior design as well as organizational theory and management literature. The review exposed
deficiencies in existing literature in relation to interior design management in practice,
specifically that no culturally oriented research such as that undertaken in architecture exists to
do with interior design practice. A detailed review of organizational culture and management
literature including project management literature reinforced further the need for disciplinespecific studies that acknowledge the creative nature of design service and knowledge and the
inherent tension between this, aesthetic ideals and the need for design practices to operate as a
business. A closer examination of design project and design process management undertaken
in the chapter draws out the nuanced complexity of the design process and the limitations in
applying general organizational and management theory, particularly if they are not culturally
based. Further to this, the chapter revealed conflicting positions regarding the future of interior
design such as the argument that for it to become a legitimate profession it needs to clearly
define its boundaries, particularly in terms of its relationship with architecture. This contrasts
with the position that in order for it to survive in the emerging social and economic context, it
needs to capitalise on its hybridity and become more ‘undisciplined’ and fluid. In all, the chapter
205
highlighted a major gap in interior design discipline knowledge regarding how it is currently
practiced in different settings; a gap that the thesis argues has to be addressed to better inform
interior design’s evolution in a rapidly changing world.
Chapter 3 followed by describing how the study was designed and implemented. As
illustrated at the beginning of the chapter in Figures 3.1 and 3.2, the research adopted a
systematic methodical and highly analytical approach. In this respect, the research employed a
triangulated methodological approach involving a grounded theory ethnographic informed case
study to reveal the nature of interior design management as it is currently practiced in Australia
and Malaysia. Three different types of interior design practice cases in each city (Brisbane and
Kuala Lumpur) were chosen in recognition of the global significance of the research problem
and an awareness of the diverse nature of interior design as a discipline and a profession. The
combination of the research methodologies was focused on the actions, interactions and
processes of the participant in interior design practice. The ethnographic lens and associated
management focus gave emphasis to the cultural nature of practice. Overall, as outlined in the
chapter, the study was primarily underpinned by grounded theory methodology playing a major
role in the overall structure of the research, its analysis and reporting, and its delivery of a
theoretical outcome.
Chapter 4 presented the findings of the study in the form of six domains with their
respective voices and stories of interior design management in practice. The domains represent
the main theoretical constructs of interior design management in practice. They include:
•
‘expression of existence’ focusing on market positioning and relevancy.
Discussion in the chapter revealed specific relationships between the
organisational structure and scale of the practice, the types of services provided,
and the scale and types of projects undertaken. The relationship of interior design
to architecture and other design disciplines was also highlighted.
•
‘workplace milieu’ exploring practice as a cultural setting in terms of values,
mores, attitudes. The physical environmental characteristics were also examined.
•
‘competency’ revealing issues to do with professional knowledge, skills,
experience and predispositions.
•
‘variables factor’ internal and external that impact practice and its management.
This examination further exposed the nature of management at design, project and
practice levels.
206
•
‘output and quality’ highlighting the mechanisms and processes for regulating
and controlling practice.
•
‘polemics’ which recognised the frustrations and anxieties of practice and their
main sources.
These domain outcomes are brought together in a more synthesised way in the chapter 5
as a theoretical framework of interior design management in practice. The framework
constitutes the theory generation expected of a grounded theory approach and was used in
Chapter 5 to substantiate the significance of the study.
This chapter (Chapter 6) as well as providing the previous summary of the thesis
document will now position the contribution of the study within constraints, which operated at
the time including those imposed on the study due to its nature as PhD thesis. Identification of
these constraints, which have limited the study in various ways, will then form the basis for
making recommendations for future research.
6.2
Constraints
The aims for this study were ambitious, but it is reasonable to suggest that the study makes
a significant contribution to theory in relation to interior design within the practice context. As
stated previously the selection and exploration of cases guided by an ethnographic informed
grounded theory approach has produce a sophisticated theoretical framework that provides a
credible basis for future research and the future envisioning of interior design. The decision to
complement the grounded theory methodology with an ethnographic lens has been central to
understanding interior practice as both a cultural as well as physical setting. Methodologically,
the study also highlights the unique value of including practitioners as participants with their
insights playing a central role in understanding the cultural nuances of interior design practice.
This research will serve as a base reference for interior design directors wanting to
establish a practice that focuses on the client relationship. In this respect, the study suggests a
link between this emphasis, the nature and scale of the project, and the size and structural
organisation of the practice. The study is also useful to interior design educators and students
in highlighting how different types of practice afford different experiences in terms of
professional development and career advancement.
207
Undertaking research of a discipline that has various faces, and that many commentators
consider still as emerging, is a challenge. From this perspective, it was important to include
several types of interior practice. This thesis does not claim to be wholly representative but
rather to have sufficiently balanced the need for some breadth and a lot of depth as facilitated
by a case study approach. The decision to include cases across two cultures was also considered
important to inform an internationally relevant framework (aligned with the tendency of firms
to operate globally in a dispersed network or to hire staff from diverse cultures) and capture
external cultural influences of the internal practice culture. As noted, the study does not claim
to be an ethnographic study but it rather uses related approaches to appreciate better the cultural
attributes of practice. The decision to adopt this approach and immerse oneself in the practice
added considerable time to the study. Conducting observational studies and interviews with
respondents in their practice required additional attention to ways of minimising distractions
and ensuring privacy. There was also the issue of the researcher not having English as his first
language prompting the need for closer attention to translation accuracy.
While the researcher approached a considerable number of practices to participate in the
study, most refused concerned about the presence of a researcher in the office and
confidentiality issues. In the main, this influenced the intention to include similar practices in
both the Australian and Malaysian study, which was not considered a major limitation from a
case study or grounded theory perspective, as the study was not designed to be a comparative
case study.
6.3
Recommendations for further research
This study is regarded as a foundation study of interior design management in practice.
Consequently, it is acknowledged that further research is necessary to address the limitations
noted in the previous section and refine the outcomes in a more extensive way. As indicated
future studies could expand the study to other countries as well as extend the diversity of cases
represented. The influence of demographics physical and cultural would be more effectively
considered by including practices of a similar size offering similar services. This study did not
include or develop criteria for judging the effectiveness of specific management strategies.
While this was not considered relevant for this study it would constitute useful future research
to complement studies such as this.
208
Additional studies might also focus on:
•
Client perception and recognition of the value of interior design. As the study
revealed, the client played major roles in establishing business opportunities for
various interior design practices.
•
The workplace milieu and its relationship with designer motivation and
satisfaction. In the study, the milieu was shown to play a major role in practice
culture.
•
The development of a preliminary indicator framework measuring the nature of
the relationship between design and project management and associated nature
and quality of skills and knowledge as specifically related to interior design.
•
The impact of social and economy changes and demands on interior design
practice. A longitudinal study would be most relevant for this type of study.
•
Making more apparent interior design’s implicit transdisciplinary potential and
how this can be managed.
6.4
Concluding remarks
In summary, the study produced three major outcomes that align with its original aims.
These included the primary and secondary aims:
•
To describe the nature of interior design management as it is currently practiced
in selected cases in Australia and Malaysia.
•
To identify how interior design practice is perceived and positioned in relation to
other disciplines such as architecture.
•
To reveal the structural implications of practice for interior design identity and its
future evolution are suggested through the case study approach.
As conveyed in the theoretical framework of interior design management constituting the
main outcome of the study, specific relationships are highlighted involving organisational
structure and scale of the practice, the types of services provided, and the scale and types of
209
projects undertaken. The study identifies four types of interior design practice typologies with
their own respective management structures, approaches and cultural milieu. These are
•
Sole practice – offering traditional or boutique interior design services
•
Multidisciplinary – offering allied services such as graphics, furniture design and
supply, project management, to complements or in addition to the interior design
service
•
Multidisciplinary network – operating from a networked multidisciplinary firm
undertaking separate discipline projects, for example, interior design projects
separate to architectural projects; or projects where interior design complements
the architectural component or vice versa.
•
Multidisciplinary network – Usually architecturally led with interior design
playing a supportive role.
The framework emphasising practice as a cultural milieu with particular values, mores,
attitudes and physical settings, and which contributed to the identification and characterization
of the typologies also revealed the relationship of interior design to architecture and how
particular organisational settings contribute to its role and perception of value.
As noted in Chapter 1 and described further in the literature review in Chapter 2, there are
contrasting positions in relation to interior design and its future. On the one hand there is the
argument for the discipline of interior design to better define its core body knowledge and in so
doing establish firmer boundaries between itself and other disciplines such as architecture. On
the other hand are calls for it to become more ‘undisciplined’, for the boundaries to be more
flexible and the connections more fluid. It is interesting to note that in both cases it is its
hybridity that is highlighted as a major contributing factor. In other words, its hybridity is
attributed to its resistance to being more bounded and defined as well as to its ability to be more
responsive to the demands of the new world economy pre-empted fourteen years ago by
Stephenson & Frankel (2002). Based on the findings of this study that are a response to calls by
international professional organisations such as the International Federation of Interior
Architects/Designers (IFI) to “better understand its business, culture, knowledge, and identity”
and to speak with one voice (Caan, 2011) it would appear that the first position is untenable for
interior design’s evolution in a rapidly changing world where practices are striving to negotiate
210
the tensions between their social role and economic reality. In this respect for the built
environment professions, the study suggests that interior design may play a key role in providing
flexibility, agility and robustness. It would appear from the study that interior design in a
hybridised state is well placed to survive but in saying this requires future research that seeks
to make more apparent its implicit transdisciplinary potential and how this can be managed. It
is in this respect that the study draws attention to new knowledge and its universal intellectual
capital (Coleman, 2002a) thereby making a significant original contribution to interior design
knowledge as well as to emerging debate about its future and that of the design professions in
general.
211
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Appendix A1 – Human Ethics Approval Certificate
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Appendix A2 – Participant Information & Consent
Form
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221
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Appendix B1 – First layer of mapping process
according to group’s division
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Appendix B2 – Second layer of mapping and
clustering was derived from coding process to
build up elements
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Appendix B3 – Third layer is a clustering the
elements to construct the dimensions
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Appendix B4 – Elements and dimensions was
merged to identifies the themes
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–
The overarching and
interconnected with themes, dimension and
elements lead to form a domain
Appendix
B5
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Appendix B6 – Triangulation is a comparing
process for common identification and differences
between practices and cities.
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