МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Российский химико-технологический университет имени Д. И. Менделеева Т. И. Кузнецова, И. А. Кузнецов ПОСОБИЕ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ ДЛЯ МАГИСТРАНТОВ ХИМИКО - ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ВУЗОВ Утверждено Редакционным советом университета в качестве учебного пособия Москва 2020 УДК 801.3=20(075) ББК 371.64/69-20 К89 Рецензенты Доктор филологических наук, профессор Московского политехнического университета С.С. Хромов Кандидат технических наук, профессор кафедры процессов и аппаратов РХТУ им. Д.И. Менделеева Е.П. Моргунова Кузнецова Т. И., Кузнецов И.А. К89 Пособие по английскому языку для магистрантов химикотехнологических вузов /Т. И. Кузнецова., И.А. Кузнецов – М.: РХТУ им. Д. И. Менделеева; 2020. – 160 с. ISBN 978-5-……… Цель пособия – обучение магистрантов письменной и устной речи, развитие умений читать литературу по своей специальности, совершенствование их переводческих компетенций. Пособие включает тексты, заимствованные из аутентичной научно-технической литературы, которые в учебных целях снабжены пояснениями и комментариями. Отдельные разделы созданы для обучения студентов навыкам презентации научного материала на семинарах и конференциях. Учебное пособие адресовано магистрантам химикотехнологических вузов, а также может быть использовано для обучения слушателей курсов повышения квалификации и переподготовки. УДК 801=30(075) ББК 371.64/69-20 ISBN 978-5-……. © Российский химикотехнологический университет имени Д. И. Менделеева, 2020 © Кузнецова Т.И., Кузнецов И.А.2020 СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ.................................................................................................. 8 UNIT 1................................................................................................................. 10 TEXT: THE CHEMISTRY OF TOMORROW.................................................. 10 WORDS............................................................................................................... 11 COMPREHENSION ........................................................................................... 12 WORD STUDY .................................................................................................. 13 Irregular Plural Forms of Nouns ......................................................................... 13 Adjectives expressing likenes ............................................................................. 15 WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: DERIVATION ............................................ 15 STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: dilute, diffuse, disperse 16 Spelling differences between US and UK English ............................................. 17 WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE ............................................. 20 STRUCTURE STUDY: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.................................. 20 READING AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................... 23 TEXT 1: EUROPEAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY: CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES ................................................................................................. 23 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION ................ 25 TEXT 2: THE MODERN PROMETHEUS (?) .................................................. 25 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Speaking about your speciality and graduation paper. ................................................................................................................... 28 UNIT 2................................................................................................................. 29 TEXT: CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY ............................................................... 29 WORDS............................................................................................................... 31 COMPREHENSION ........................................................................................... 31 WORD STUDY .................................................................................................. 32 Verb + Noun Combinations: Do – Make ............................................................ 32 Differences in meaning: liquid, fluid, flow.......................................................... 34 Differences in meaning: firm, hard, solid ........................................................... 35 WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: PREFIXES .................................................. 36 Prefixes with Similar Leanings: in-, un-, il-, im-, ir- .......................................... 37 STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: devise, device, instrument, tool, apparatus ................................................................................. 38 Words with Similar Meanings............................................................................. 39 3 WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE ............................................. 39 STRUCTURE STUDY: Noun Modifiers ........................................................... 39 The structure: To be of + noun ............................................................................ 41 READING AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................... 42 TEXT 1 ................................................................................................................ 42 TEXT 2 ................................................................................................................ 44 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Analyzing the content and structure of an academic journal.................................................................................................. 47 UNIT 3................................................................................................................. 48 TEXT: BIOTECHNOLOGY .............................................................................. 48 WORDS............................................................................................................... 49 COMPREHENSION ........................................................................................... 50 WORD STUDY .................................................................................................. 51 Phrasal Verbs ....................................................................................................... 51 WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: prefix bio- .................................................... 54 Words with Similar Meanings............................................................................. 55 WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE ............................................. 55 STRUCTURE STUDY: Passive report structures. The Complex Subject. ........ 55 READING AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................... 58 TEXT 1 ................................................................................................................ 58 TEXT 2 ................................................................................................................ 60 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Previewing a Scientific Article .................... 61 UNIT 4................................................................................................................. 63 TEXT: WHERE DID BIOTECHNOLOGY BEGIN? ........................................ 63 WORDS............................................................................................................... 65 COMPREHENSION ........................................................................................... 66 WORD STUDY .................................................................................................. 66 STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: technique and technology, information technology, techno- ......................................................................... 67 WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: SUFFIXES .................................................. 67 WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE ............................................. 68 STRUCTURE STUDY: The Gerund .................................................................. 68 READING AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................... 72 TEXT 1: THIRD TIME LUCKY ........................................................................ 72 TEXT 2: CHEMISTS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY ................................................ 74 4 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION ................ 76 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Reviewing a Scientific Article ..................... 76 UNIT 5................................................................................................................. 77 TEXT: GREEN CHEMISTRY ........................................................................... 77 WORDS............................................................................................................... 79 COMPREHENSION ........................................................................................... 80 WORD STUDY .................................................................................................. 80 Differences in meaning: purpose, objective, aim, goal, intention, target. .......... 80 STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: dangerous, hazardous, precarious, perilous ............................................................................................. 81 WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES ..................... 82 TEXT COMPLETION ........................................................................................ 83 WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE ............................................. 83 STRUCTURE STUDY: The Passive Voice ....................................................... 84 READING AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................... 86 TEXT 1 ................................................................................................................ 86 TEXT 2. FOSSIL FUELS: PRO AND CONTRA .............................................. 88 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION ................ 89 TEXT 3 ................................................................................................................ 90 TEXT 4 ................................................................................................................ 91 Linking devices ................................................................................................... 91 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Preparing a Report for a Conference ........... 93 UNIT 6................................................................................................................. 95 TEXT: GREEN NANOSCIENCE ...................................................................... 95 WORDS............................................................................................................... 96 COMPREHENSION ........................................................................................... 97 WORD STUDY .................................................................................................. 98 STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: ...................................... 98 WORD-BUILDING .......................................................................................... 100 WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE ........................................... 100 STRUCTURE STUDY: Relative Clauses ........................................................ 101 READING AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 103 TEXT 1 .............................................................................................................. 103 TEXT 2 .............................................................................................................. 105 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION .............. 107 5 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Describing an Experiment ......................... 107 UNIT 7............................................................................................................... 109 TEXT: ENERGY AND CIVILIZATION ......................................................... 109 WORDS............................................................................................................. 111 COMPREHENSION ......................................................................................... 112 WORD STUDY ................................................................................................ 112 STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUP OF WORDS: contain, include, enclose, consist of, comprise, be composed of, be made up of ...................................... 112 WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: NEGATIVE PREFIXES ........................... 113 STRUCTURE STUDY: The Participle ............................................................ 114 READING AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 118 TEXT 1 .............................................................................................................. 118 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION .............. 119 TEXT 2 .............................................................................................................. 119 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Writing a Research Paper .......................... 121 STRUCTURING YOUR IDEAS: putting points in order ................................ 123 UNIT 8............................................................................................................... 125 TEXT: MATERIALS SCIENCE ...................................................................... 125 WORDS............................................................................................................. 126 COMPREHENSION ......................................................................................... 127 WORD STUDY ................................................................................................ 127 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION .............. 129 Word-Building................................................................................................... 130 STRUCTURE STUDY: The Functions of the –ed form .................................. 131 READING AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 133 TEXT 1 .............................................................................................................. 133 TEXT 2 .............................................................................................................. 134 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION .............. 137 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Academic Style and English ...................... 137 UNIT 9............................................................................................................... 139 TEXT: MATERIALS SCIENCE AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING ........ 139 WORDS............................................................................................................. 140 COMPREHENSION ......................................................................................... 141 WORD STUDY ................................................................................................ 142 Linking Adverbials ............................................................................................ 143 6 Word-Building................................................................................................... 145 STRUCTURE STUDY: Modal verbs ............................................................... 146 Functions of Modal Verbs and Synonymous Expressions ............................... 146 READING AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 152 TEXT 1: WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING ... 152 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION .............. 154 TEXT 2. MATERIALS: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ................................ 154 SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Making a Presentation ............................... 156 БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК ........................................................... 159 7 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для магистрантов химико-технологических специальностей , уже прошедших базовый курс английского языка в рамках бакалавриата. На этапе подготовки магистров акцент переносится на изучение языка профессионального общения (Professional Academic English), что предполагает развитие углубленных навыков чтения литературы по специальности и формирование профессиональной иноязычной компетенции. Особое внимание уделяется развитию монологической устной и письменной речи (подготовке выступлений на конференциях, совещаниях, симпозиумах и т.п., написанию тезисов, докладов и статей и т.п.), а также целенаправленному поиску и обработке информации на материале обширного чтения научной и научно-технической литературы. Учебное пособие состоит из 9 уроков (Units 1 – 9). Структура каждого урока однотипна и включает следующие разделы: 1. Основной текст урока, предназначенный для изучающего чтения. После него следуют вопросы на понимание (Comprehension Questions). 2. Далее идет подраздел, озаглавленный Word Study. Он нацелен на расширение словарного запаса студентов и включает разнообразные упражнения лексического характера, а также описание словообразовательных моделей, широко распространенных в языке научной прозы. 3. Следующий подраздел – Structure Study – предполагает углубленное изучение только тех грамматических явлений и конструкций, которые регулярно встречаются в научно-технической литературе и – шире – используются в научной коммуникации. Эти конструкции обычно представляют большую трудность для носителей русского языка и недостаточно освещаются в традиционных грамматических пособиях. Такой подход к изучению грамматического материала позволит будущим магистрам распознавать и понимать те грамматические формы и конструкции, которые характерны для ситуаций делового и научного общения специалистов и, соответственно, выбирать грамматические средства в зависимости от своей коммуникативной задачи. 8 4. Раздел Reading and Discussion включает 2-3 текста, которые связаны по своей тематике с основным текстом урока. Эти тексты предназначены на выработку у магистрантов стратегий ознакомительного чтения (Skimming) и поискового чтения (Scanning). Материалы этих текстов служат также основой для того, чтобы мотивировать студентов к активному участию в обсуждении затрагиваемых в них проблем, выражая свое мнение, приводя аргументы, отстаивая свою точку зрения и т.п. Соответственно, задания и упражнения этого раздела носят творческий характер и предполагают различные виды аудиторной и внеаудиторной работы. 5. Отдельный вид работы представляют задания по самостоятельной работе (Self-Study Assignments), которые рассчитаны на самостоятельный поиск информации по теме, связанной с научными интересами магистранта, его самостоятельную работу с источником такой информации, извлечение и обработку наиболее значимой информации и ее представление в виде сообщения для последующего обсуждения в группе. Независимо от того, какова специализация студента и, соответственно, какой именно урок преподаватель выбирает для углубленного изучения, выполнение этих заданий является обязательным для всех студентов. Как показывает практика, основной трудностью для будущих магистров является устное общение на английском языке на профессиональные темы. Поэтому задания в учебном пособии построены таким образом, чтобы именно этот вид учебной деятельности оказался в центре внимания при проведении занятий. Прежде всего, сама тематика текстов строится на проблемах, которые находятся в центре внимания современных химиков, биотехнологов, нанотехнологов и представителей других специальностей и которые вызывают острые дискуссии и споры в научной среде. Кроме того, задания к этим текстам предполагают вовлечение студентов в ситуации профессионального общения и обсуждение возможных вариантов решения дискуссионных проблем. Это облегчает преподавателю возможность воссоздания в учебных условиях ситуаций диалога на профессиональные темы, что необходимо для выработки у учащихся различных стратегий решения коммуникативных задач. Учебное пособие рассчитано на 18 занятий (36 часов). 9 UNIT 1 TEXT: THE CHEMISTRY OF TOMORROW If we try to look to the future and focus on areas of innovation where chemistry will undoubtedly transform human life through the transformation of matter, the first thing that immediately comes to mind is the discovery of hightemperature superconductors that is of revolutionary significance. In 1911 the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Omnes was studying the way in which the electrical conductivity of mercury varies with temperature. As is the case with most metals, mercury becomes a better conductor as the temperature decreases. Metals can be regarded as positive ions in a sea of electrons. When an electric field is applied across a metal, the electrons move, transporting the current. As the metal gets cooler, the ions vibrate less, causing less interference for the migrating electrons. What was unexpected, though, was the large, abrupt increase in the conductivity of mercury that occurred at about 4 K. The metal appeared to exhibit zero resistance to the flow of electrical current. The first superconductor had been discovered. The phenomenon of superconductivity is of tremendous potential utility because so much of modern technology involves the passage of electrical current. Electric generators, motors, electromagnets, and transmission lines use millions of miles of copper wire – a good but not perfect conductor. If the wire could be replaced by a superconductor, the savings in energy would be monumental and undreamed of devices might be possible. The first large-scale practical application of superconductivity has been in superconducting magnets for scientific research and medical diagnosis. Most of these applications relate to the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen atom can be regarded as similar to a spinning top. In the presence of a magnetic field, the energy associated with a clockwise spin is not identical to that associated with a counterclockwise spin. The energy difference is very small, corresponding to the energy of a photon in the radio wave region of the spectrum. When the nucleus absorbs a photon of the appropriate energy, it flips from one spin state to the other. It turns out that the specific amount of energy necessary to cause this flip depends on the 10 immediate electromagnetic environment of the atom involved. This environment, in turn, depends on the structure of the molecule. The NMR spectrum of a compound shows different energy absorption peaks for different hydrogen atoms within the molecule. If the radio frequency and the magnetic field are in proper relationship, the nuclei will change the spins and the signal will be recorded. From this spectrum, chemists often determine the arrangement of the atoms. The nuclei of a number of other isotopes, including carbon-13, nitrogen-14, and phosphorus-31, can also exhibit nuclear magnetic resonance and yield important structural information. An NMR spectrometer consists of a powerful magnet, a radio transmitter, and a detector of radio waves. The sample is placed between the poles of the magnet, the transmitter is turned on and the spectrum is measured. Some NMR spectrometers have permanent magnets, others have electromagnets, but the most powerful have superconducting magnets made of niobium-tantalum alloys or a compound of niobium and germanium with the formula Nb 3Ge. The principle behind a superconducting magnet is similar to that associated with an electromagnet. Recently, this sort of equipment has been scaled up so that a human being can be placed between the poles of the magnet. This technique is called magnetic resonance imaging or MRI (presumably “nuclear” was dropped because someone decided the average citizen was too afraid of that word to ever agree to the procedure). An MRI instrument can detect differences in the energy absorption by hydrogen nuclei in various sorts of cells. In particular, the technique can be used to locate and identify tumors. MRI is thus a valuable (and expensive) diagnostic tool in modern medicine. WORDS 1. superconductor – сверхпроводник; superconductivity – сверхпроводимость 2. come to mind – приходить на ум 3. utility – полезность, выгодность 4. transmission line – линия (электро)передачи 5. large-scale – широкий, крупномасштабный 6. relate (to) – относиться, иметь отношение (к чему-либо) 11 7. nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) – ядерно-магнитный резонанс (ЯМР) 8. spinning top – волчок (игрушка) 9. spin – вращение 10. clockwise – по часовой стрелке; counterclockwise – против часовой стрелки 12. flip (from one state to another) – перебрасывать, переходить (из одного состояния в другое) 13. scale up – увеличивать (в размере, масштабе) 14. magnetic resonance imaging – магнитно-резонансная интраскопия 15. tumor (AE) = tumour (BE) – опухоль COMPREHENSION 1. What problem did the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Omnes work on in 1911? What unexpected result did he obtain in the course of his experiments? 2. Why can we describe the discovery of superconductors as being of revolutionary significance? What are the potential industrial applications of the phenomenon of superconductivity? 3. What was the first large-scale practical application of superconductivity? What is meant by nuclear magnetic resonance? 4. What important structural information can be obtained from the NMR spectrum of a compound? 5. What does an NMR spectrometer consist of? What kinds of magnets can be used within the spectrometer? What are the advantages of superconducting magnets? 6. What is the difference between the equipment used in nuclear magnetic resonance technique and that used in magnetic resonance imaging technique? What can an MRI instrument detect? What makes MRI a valuable, though expensive, diagnostic tool in modern medicine? 12 WORD STUDY EXERCISE 1. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following Russian word-combinations: изменяться в зависимости от температуры; создавать меньше помех для миграции электронов; как это бывает у большинства металлов; переносить ток; явление сверхпроводимости; сбережение энергии; оказывается, что…; в свою очередь; максимумы поглощения энергии; расположение атомов; давать важную информацию; принцип, лежащий в основе; обнаруживать различия в поглощении энергии; ценное средство диагностики. Irregular Plural Forms of Nouns There are words in English that are borrowed from other languages, especially Latin, and that still form their plurals according to the rules of those languages. Many of them are technical or formal, and some are also used with a regular “-s” or “-es” plural ending in non-technical or informal contexts. You may need to check these in a dictionary. formula (sing.) – formulae (formal) – formulas (informal) Some nouns of Latin origin ending in –us have plurals ending in –i. nucleus – nuclei fungus – fungi radius – radii bacillus – bacilli stimulus – stimuli locus – loci However, other nouns ending in –us, have different plurals. corpus – corpora genus – genera Some nouns of Latin origin ending in –um often have plurals ending in –a. datum – data curriculum – curricula spectrum – spectra aquarium – aquaria bacterium – bacteria memorandum – memoranda 13 Some nouns of Latin origin ending in –a have plurals ending in –ae. formula – formulae alga – algae Some nouns of Latin origin ending in –ix or –ex often have plurals ending in – ices. Some of these have two plural forms, one formed with –s and one formed in a different way. Usually the form with –s is used in less formal English. index – indices / indexes helix – helices appendix – appendices / vortex – vortices appendixes matrix – matrices Some nouns of Greek origin ending in –is have plurals ending in –es. analysis – analyses synthesis – syntheses hypothesis – hypotheses thesis – theses axis – axes diagnosis – diagnoses crisis – crises Nouns borrowed from Greek that end in –on have plurals in which –on is replaced by –a. phenomenon – phenomena, criterion – criteria The following words borrowed from French have the same written form for the plural and for the singular. The –s at the end is not pronounced for the singular but it is pronounced [z] for the plural. bourgeois patois chassis précis corps rendezvous EXERCISE 1. Find in the text words of Latin and Greek origin with irregular forms of plural. Translate them into Russian. EXERCISE 2. Make a list of the words belonging to the science you yourself are studying which are made up in this way, and find out the meaning of the Greek and Latin root(s) in each case. Arrange them in alphabetical order for future reference. 14 Adjectives expressing likenes similar, analogous, identical Similar stresses the likeness between different things, implying that differences may be overlooked; analogous applies to things susceptible of comparison even though belonging to different categories; identical indicates an almost exact correspondence without detectable or significant difference. e.g. The two houses are very similar in size. The company is in a position closely analogous to that of its main rival. Chemically, the mineral is almost identical to limestone. EXERCISE. Complete these statements with the proper adjective expressing likeness. 1. Some children are genetically ...... with their parents. 2. The accident was ...... to one that happened last year. 3. The fingerprints of no two people are ...... . 4. The relation between addition and subtraction is ...... to that between multiplication and division. 5. A wild cat is ...... to, but smaller than a lion. WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: DERIVATION A derivational affix combines with a root to form a new word. English derivational affixes include prefixes and suffixes. Just as a building can have several stories, a word can have several layers by adding multiple affixes to the root: Addition of several prefixes: re-un-button, dis-em-power Addition of several suffixes: class-ifi-er, restrict-ive-ness Addition of prefixes and suffixes: un-equal-ity, de-class-ify, un-lock-able. EXERCISE 1. Following the model given in the first line of the table below, supply the correct words in the place of the question-marks. Verb Noun Adjective observe observation observable transform ? transformable 15 ? adapt ? ? apply ? detection ? ? transportation application ? ? ? variable ? ? identifiable EXERCISE 2. Translate the Russian terms given below by means of the corresponding English words with the prefix super- and various suffixes. In case of difficulty, use a dictionary. Сверхпроводник, надмолекулярный, перенасыщение, сверхполяризация, сверхрастворимость, суперпластификатор, перегреватель, сверхтекучесть. STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: dilute, diffuse, disperse 1. Liquid is added to the acid in order to dilute it (= to weaken). Zinc and copper electrodes are put into dilute sulphuric acid. The hot gases have to be diluted by the addition of cool air. 2. The acid diffuses into the rest of the solution in the cell (=spreads out). The dust particles in the air diffuse the light. The air in the pump is diffused in a divergent cone. 3. The light passing through a prism is dispersed into a band of colours (scatter). The factory buildings are dispersed over a wide area. EXERCISE. Insert the correct word. 1. Light gases ...... through porous surfaces more rapidly than heavy gases. 2. The perfumes are …… in vegetable oils. 3. Building tall chimneys to ...... the smoke is no solution at all. 4. He was drinking a glass of wine ...... with water. 5. The mist ...... with the morning sun. 6. The population in this area is quite widely ...... . 7. It allows nicotine to ...... slowly and steadily into bloodstream. 16 Spelling differences between US and UK English Many words, mostly abstract nouns of Latin origin, have the ending spelled –our in British English, but –or in American English. BrE AmE armour armor behaviour behavior colour color favour favor flavour flavor honour honor humour humor labour labor neighbour neighbor odour odor rumour rumor vapour vapor vigour vigor Some words spelled with –oul in British English are spelled with –ol in American English. BrE AmE mould mold moult molt smoulder smolder Many words, mostly of French origin, have their ending spelled –re in British English –er in American English. BrE AmE calibre caliber centre center fibre fiber meagre meager metre meter spectre specter 17 theatre theater Many words, mostly of Greek and Latin origin, are spelled with –ae or – oe in British English, but –e in American English. However, the American spellings are now sometimes used in British English as well. BrE AmE aesthetic esthetic amoeba ameba diarrhoea diharrea gynaecology gynecology mediaeval medieval Note that manoeuvre is spelled maneuver in American English. Many verbs can end in either –ise or –ize. The –ise ending is more common in British English than American English, but British people are increasingly using the –ize ending. BrE AmE apologise / apologize apologize authorise / authorize authorize computerise / computerize computerize criticise / criticize criticize mechanise / mechanize mechanize organise / organize organize realise / realize realize specialise / specialize specialize Note that for the following verbs you can only use the –ise ending in both American British English. advertise exercise advise improvise arise promise circumcise revise compromise supervise despise surmise devise surprise excise televise 18 Note also the following small groups of words that are spelled differently in British and American English. BrE AmE aluminium aluminum analyse breathalyse catalyse paralyse analyze breathalyze catalyze paralyze analogue catalogue dialogue analog catalog dialog defence offence pretence defense offense pretense to practise to practice programme telegramme program telegram cheque check (from a bank) jewellery jewelry licence license tyre tire (on a car) In British English, some items are usually written in two words, but in American English they can be written as one word. BrE AmE 19 any more de luxe per cent anymore deluxe percent In American English, when you add a suffix to a two-syllable word whose final syllable is not stressed, you don't double the 'l'. For example, American English uses the spellings traveling and marvelous, whereas British English uses the spellings travelling and marvellous. In British English, final –l is doubled (after one vowel) even if the syllable is not stressed. BrE AmE travel: travelling / travelled traveling / traveled cancel: cancelling / cancelled canceling/ canceled equal: equalling / equalled equaling /equaled If the final syllable is stressed, the final consonant is doubled in both British and American English. For example, both use the spellings admitting and admitted. WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE Which of the following words are correctly spelled? Choose the correct one (ones). evolition evollution evolution evolution conversion convercion canversion conversion temprature temperrature temmperature temperature fraggmentation fragmentation fragmentation frogmentation condensation conndensation condensation condennsation STRUCTURE STUDY: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES Conditional sentences have two parts: the if-clause (hypothesis) and the main clause (the result clause). There are various types of conditionals: 20 Type 1 Conditionals are used to talk about events which are possible. The Conditional clause can refer to the present or the future. In the if-clause any Present tense can be used. Future tense is not used in the if-clause, e.g. If it rains, we will stay at home. The if-clause can come before or after the main clause. When the ifclause comes first, it is separated from the main clause with a comma, e.g. If you don’t try harder, you will fail. You will fail if you don’t try harder. The following expressions can be used instead of if- : unless (= if not), providing, provided (that), as long as, (just) in case, on condition (that), but for (= without), otherwise, or else, supposing, even if, on condition that. Type 2 Conditionals are used to describe unlikely situations in the present or future. The pattern is: if-clause main clause if- + Past Simple would/could/might + bare Infinitive e.g. If I had money, I would travel round the world. In Type 2 Conditionals in formal situations the form were is used instead of was in all persons, e.g. If I were you, I would rake an umbrella. Type 3 Conditionals are used to talk about an event or situation that did not happen in the past (imagining what would have happened if things had been different) The pattern is: if-clause main clause if + Past Perfect would/could/might + Perf. Inf. e.g. If I hadn’t taken an umbrella, I would have got wet. (= but I didn’t get wet). Sometimes Conditionals of various types can be mixed in the same sentence, especially when a past event has an effect in the present. Such cases are described as Mixed Type Conditionals, e.g. If he were a fast runner, he would have won the race. (He is not a fast runner, so he didn’t win the race). If she had saved her money, she would be going on holiday. (She didn’t save her money, so she isn’t going on holiday). 21 EXERCISE 1. Choose the correct word in the Conditional sentences below: 1. If you don’t hurry / will hurry, you’ll miss the train. 2. His French won’t improve provided / unless he studies more. 3. If I had / will have more time, I would take up tennis. 4. If I were / would be in your position, I would apply for the job. 5. If he had been told about the lecture, I’m sure he would come / would have come. EXERCISE 2. Rephrase the following using unless. 1. If the neighbours don’t stop shouting, I’ll call the police. 2. If he doesn’t pay the fine, he may go to prison. 3. If the traffic isn’t heavy, we should arrive by 9 p.m. 4. If the Chinese restaurant isn’t open, we’ll go for a pizza. 5. If the athlete can’t improve his speed, he won’t break the record. EXERCISE 3. Choose the correct form of the verb in brackets. 1. If the radioactive material were not carefully stored, it (contaminate) its surroundings. 2. If the whole operation (not planned) carefully beforehand, a great deal of time and money would have been lost. 3. Unless laboratory conditions are kept constant, many pieces of apparatus (become) inaccurate. 4. If politicians (know) more about science, they would obtain better results. 5. If the metal lead (Pb) is cooled to a temperature below 7.2 K, it (become) a superconductor. 6. If a NMR spectrometer (be) available, the researchers could work more efficiently. EXERCISE 4. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. It would be necessary to resort to a prior separation of the two elements if one had only cathodic waves to work with. 2. If a free, bridged phenonium ion had been an intermediate, the product would have been largely the p-toluenesulfonate ester. 3. If it were possible to measure such a tension between two different phases in contact, all our problems might be solved. 4. If the operation has been performed properly, the material will give a negative test for unsaturation. 22 5. If the attacking radical had a greater affinity for hydrogen, then the hydrogenabstraction process should be favoured. 6. Had the substances as isolated consisted of a mixture of a polysaccharide and a polypeptide the former would not have been expected to migrate in an electric field. 7. Cramer might have been credited with a discovery of alanine in 1865 had he taken the trouble to purify an amino acid fraction which undoubtedly was rich in alanine. 8. It is essential that the phenol solutions be perfectly clear and free of this lipid. 9. The characteristics required of the electrode material are that the ration of secondary to primary particles should be as great as possible. 10. In the hope that Dieckmann cyclization would yield a piperidone derivative we carried out the following experiment. READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1: EUROPEAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY: CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES Pre-Reading Tasks Before reading the text, discuss the following questions with your partner: – Are scientific and technological advances possible without switching over to innovative chemical products and technologies? Why/why not? – In your opinion, what are the possible ways to develop chemical industry in the future? – Some specialists argue that the chemicals market will not be stirred by revolutionary discoveries, such as the emergence of new molecule classes. Others believe that any revolutionary discovery in chemistry will have an immediate influence on the development of chemical industry. Which of the two opinions do you share and why? The European chemical industry is facing major challenges as the global economy gravitates eastward, driven by economic growth and market opportunities in Asia. Preparing for the future, European chemical companies should develop a platform for growth, continuing their roles as pioneers in 23 developing innovative products – participating in and further developing innovative industries in Europe and worldwide. The focus will be on inventions aligned with global mega trends that ultimately generate future growth platforms. These include alternative feedstock and energy sources, improved energy storage, intelligent materials, and nutrition. These platforms will allow the European chemical industry to derive unique products, which are essential for growth. For example, the chemical industry can be involved in clean tech related to value chains, an area where new growth opportunities reside in using both existing chemical solutions and soonto-be-commercialized chemical innovations. Examples of future growth platforms Alternative feedstock Alternative energy - Bio and renewable feedstock - Shale gas, photovoltaic, and solar - Coal to liquid Thermal - Urban mining - Wind energy Environmental technology Efficiency - Clean air and water - Lightweight materials - Waste treatment - Insulation Energy storage Nutrition - Li-ion batteries - Advanced biotech - Fuel cells - Food chain efficiency Intelligent materials - Nanomaterials - Functional textiles The existing chemical solution will further push improvements in weight reduction – a key trend in transportation. The chemical industry already has significant offerings in this field and might contribute more, for example, with carbon fiber solutions. Insulation can boost reduction of carbon dioxide footprints of buildings to fight global warming. In a world where mega cities grow like mushrooms, recuperating valuable raw materials, known as urban mining, will be increasingly important. The chemical industry has answers to these challenges. 24 The clean tech platform also offers growth potential because of anticipated innovations in chemicals. For example, chemical products drive the cost, performance, and safety of automotive batteries. Advances in chemicals are critical to improving the power and energy density of lithium-based batteries as the automotive industry moves toward electric vehicle production. And second-generation biofuels require a combination of chemical and biochemical knowledge for pre-treatment and sugar and starch extraction. These are just a few examples that illustrate how European chemical companies can use their strengths in product innovation to retain and further build a competitive edge. Innovative solutions will help the chemical industry transition from a traditional supplier role of being paid by the ton of material to play a more important and indispensable role in the industry value chain. There are several ways to meet this goal. Every company has its own strong points that it can use, to a certain degree, to control the development of the industry and earn aboveaverage, sustainable returns. In chemicals, these include materials advantage, process excellence, patent control, and application know-how – and they reach far beyond the chemical industry to have, ultimately, an impact on end users. QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION The text gives examples of future growth platforms for European chemical industry. 1) What do you know about the trends and developments described in the text? 2) Which of them are most important for Russian chemical industry? 3) Choose one and explain what opportunities it opens up for the future. TEXT 2: THE MODERN PROMETHEUS SKIMMING: To get the gist of a text quickly, you can SKIM it. This means running your eye quickly down the text to form an impression of what it is about. Look through the text to find answers to the following questions: 1. How can understanding and imitating natural processes help the medicinal and biological chemistry of the future to alter and improve nature? 2. In what way can chemistry contribute to eradicating certain genetic defects? 25 3. What recent achievements in the manipulation of genetic material make it possible to hope that genetic engineering will help solve world hunger and starvation? 4. What risks and hazards is bioengineering associated with? Nature is obviously an indispensable aid and ally in medicinal and biological chemistry. Much of our success has come from understanding and imitating natural processes. If we are as wise we are intelligent, the chemistry of the future will use these processes to alter and improve nature. Molecular engineering has made it possible to create nucleic acids, proteins, enzymes, hormones, drugs, and other biologically important molecules that do not exist in nature. The new molecules must be designed to be more efficient catalysts than their naturally occurring counterparts, more effective and less toxic drugs for treating a wide range of diseases, modified hormones that actually work better than the original. It is not at all fanciful to imagine a whole range of enzymes, engineered to consume environmentally hazardous wastes that are impervious to naturally occurring enzymes. Even more exciting is the possibility of eradicating certain genetic defects. Our growing knowledge of the human genome, coupled with our understanding of the chemistry of genetics, hold the promise of altering out inheritance. The molecular locus of some hereditary diseases is already known. For example, people who suffer from sickle-cell anemia have hemoglobin with a minor alteration in its primary structure. The amino acid valine replaces the glutamic acid in two places in this large, oxygen-carrying molecule. This slight change is sufficient to cause the hemoglobin to polymerize or gel when the oxygen concentration is low. Because we know the genetic code for these two amino acids, we know the sort of error in base sequence that accounts for this substitution. And if we know the error, perhaps we can someday correct it by manipulating the genetic material. The manipulation of our human heredity holds great promise for individuals and for our species. Prospects include the elimination of sickle-cell anemia, diabetes, hemophilia, phenylketonuria, and dozens of other serious hereditary traits. The next logical step would seem to be the creation of new organisms. Frost-resistant strains of strawberries have been developed in the 26 laboratory, and a new species of tomato has been created that is tough enough for long-distance shipping and still tastes like a tomato. Indeed, genetic engineering could do much to help solve world hunger and starvation. But the risks and dangers of molecular biology are equally great. To go back to the genetically engineered tomato mentioned in the previous paragraph: it has been created by removing a small piece of tomato’s DNA that causes over-ripening. Without this bit of genetic information, tomatoes can be picked when they have fully ripened and shipped to market without fear that they will over-ripen and turn to mush in transit. No new genetic information is introduced. Yet, some people are boycotting the sale of the transformed tomatoes. Bioengineering carries with it vast potential for good and evil. It is haunted by the specter of efforts to design a master race or to subjugate or eliminate “defectives” through genetic manipulation. Hence, there is an intentional irony in the title of this passage. Prometheus was the demigod who stole fire and the flame of learning from the gods and brought these incomparable gifts to humanity. “The Modern Prometheus” is the subtitle of Frankenstein1, Mary Shelley’s classic study of scientific knowledge run amok. How to use our ever-growing knowledge of the natural world will be one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century. The last paragraph of the text poses the problem of scientists’ responsibility towards individual people and humanity at large. – Do you agree with the author that this problem is one of the greatest challenges of the 21-st century? Why/why not? – In the same paragraph we come across two proper names those of Prometheus and Frankenstein. What message do these names carry? Why does the author use a question mark in the title of the text? – It is well known that many experiments in the field of medicine, biology, and psychology are not allowed for ethical reasons. For example, cloning of human 1 A novel by Mary Shelley. It is the story of a Swiss scientist, Dr Frankenstein, who makes a living creature from pieces of dead bodies. This manlike monster later slays its maker. Metaphorically, the name can be applied to anything that gets beyond the control of the inventor and causes his destruction. 27 beings has been banned in many countries. What do you think of bans of this kind? Do you know of analogous bans in chemistry? – Explain clearly, and as fully as possible, any examples known to you of unexpected side-effects (both beneficial and harmful) which new chemical products and processes have had or can have in future. SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: SPEAKING ABOUT YOUR SPECIALITY AND GRADUATION PAPER 1. You have all graduated from different universities and colleges with Bachelor's degrees. You plan to go on with your education and to get the degree of Master of Science (MSc). Try to explain the reasons for your decision. 2. Speak about your graduation paper. What was the subject of the paper? What problem did you investigate? How significant is the problem for chemistry or allied branches of science? 3. What served as the material for your investigation? What methods did you use in your research? Did you carry out any experiments? What equipment was used in the experiments? What results did you get? 4. What conclusions did you come to in the course of your research? Do you think the problem formulated in your graduation paper has now been solved or does it require further investigations? 5. What are you going to do next? Would you like to change the field of your study or do you plan to go on with the research you have begun? What results do you hope to achieve? 28 UNIT 2 TEXT: CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY The term “technology” is applied to the tools, machines, and processes that use scientific advances in practical applications. Chemical technology is the kind of technology that aids in doing chemistry. To be more specific, it provides analytical instruments that aid in doing chemistry. This differs from chemistry because the focus is on the instruments rather than the chemistry itself. It can refer to instruments like spectrophotometers (IR, UV-VIS), chromatographs (GC, HPLC), NMR, mass spec, analytical balances, and many others. It can also refer to computer hardware and software used with these instruments. Another explanation of the term “Chemical Technology” is: innovative techniques that involve the transformation and transport of matter and energy with the focus of contributing the knowledge base of industrial manufacture. Research in the field of chemical-based technologies involves the development and commercialization of processes and/or products based upon fundamental engineering principles, mathematical models, and experimental techniques, with an emphasis on projects that have the potential for innovation and broad application in areas such as the environment and chemical processing. Chemical-based technologies are widely used in the areas of separation, catalysis, photochemical and electrochemical systems, fluid flow, combustionrelated processes, thermal analysis, and molecular design. Applications of these technologies in the marketplace can range widely in the areas of gas and liquid separation processes; single and multiphase processes and combustion fluid dynamics; reactor and heat exchanger design; molecular modeling; and chemical characterization. Separation Applications Research is needed to develop highly selective, energy-efficient, and economic processes and effective mass-separating agents (e.g., membranes, adsorbents, extractants) for the separation and purification of all types of substances. Examples include - environmentally benign liquid and gas separation of organic substances (e.g., olefins), and 29 - inorganic substances (e.g., minerals), and - critical and strategic metals. Novel Catalytic Systems Areas of interest include preparation of new catalysts or catalytic systems and of new uses for known catalysts. Applications may include: - consumer products, - chemical production. Petrochemical or Electrochemical Applications - novel applications of radiation to affect chemical reactions - innovative electric current applications to affect chemical reactions. Fluid Flow Applications These aim at improving the commercial applications of fluid engineering or particle technology processes or phenomena leading to advances with significant industrial impact: - improved systems related to single-phase and multi-phase fluid flow - novel spraying applications - innovative particle technology applications - computational software related to the modeling of industrially applicable processes. Combustion-Related Processes Research is focused on uses of combustion in industrial applications. For example, it might address innovative concepts for combustion to synthesize a specific product of economic value; and diagnostic techniques that can function in a high-temperature or high-field environment. Reactor Engineering Applications Commercialization of research in the areas of chemical reaction engineering encompassing the interaction of transport phenomena and kinetics in reactive systems and the use of this knowledge to design complex chemical reactions is of interest. Research areas include, but are not limited to - membrane reactor systems - supercritical fluid applications. Chemical Design and Synthesis 30 Research is needed for the design and synthesis of new organic and inorganic substances that enable the testing of theoretical, mechanistic, or structural hypotheses with commercial promise. WORDS 1. to aid - помогать, оказывать помощь 2. fluid flow – поток текучей среды (жидкости или газа) 3. separation – разделение, выделение, отделение 4. fluid dynamics – гидродинамика 5. heat exchange – теплопередача, теплообмен 6. extractant – экстрагент, экстрагирующий растворитель 7. environmentally benign - экологически безопасный, экологичный 8. cyclic olefin – циклоолефин 9. fuel cell – топливный элемент 10. to encompass – охватывать, покрывать 11. characterization – определение характеристик или параметров 12. interface – граница/поверхность раздела, межфазная граница ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT IR = infrared UV = ultraviolet VIS = visible (spectrum) GC = gas chromatograph HPLC = high-performance liquid chromatograph NMR = nuclear magnetic resonance mass spec = mass spectrometry COMPREHENSION 1. How is the term “technology” defined in the text? What distinguishes chemical technology from chemistry? 2. What is research in the field of chemical-based technologies aimed at? What areas are chemical-based technologies used in? 31 3. How are innovative chemical technologies applied in the areas of: – gas and liquid separation processes; – novel catalytic systems; – fluid engineering and particle technology processes; – combustion related processes; – chemical design and synthesis. WORD STUDY Verb + Noun Combinations: Do – Make Many words in English exist as a part of a group of words which commonly occur together in a certain order. Examples are verbs do and make. These verbs can be combined with some nouns, but not with others, and sometimes choosing the right combination can be a problem. We use do: To talk about activities without mentioning exactly what they are. What's she doing? Are you doing anything tonight? To talk about work or task. Have you done your homework yet? It was a pleasure doing business with you. With a determiner (e.g. the, some) + -ing, to talk about activities that are repeated or take some time. Could you do some photocopying for me please? We need a temp to do the filing. We use make: To talk about creating or constructing. We made new plans for the store based on his suggestions. The company makes photographic equipment. With nouns connected with talking about sounds. I'd like to make a complaint / an enquiry. Those machines make too much noise. 32 With nouns connected with travel. The regional manager is making a visit next week. We had to make a long journey to find this place. There are many other expressions with make and do which do not follow these guidelines. It is best to learn these or use a dictionary if you are unsure. Below you will find some of word-combinations with these verbs: Do means "perform an action or Make means "bring into existence", activity" "produce some result" For example: For example: Do it, do this, do that Make a sandwich, make a meal Do something, do anything, do nothing Make a cup of tea, make a pot of Do the same thing, do the right thing coffee Do a thing like that Make a living, make a profit Do good, do well, do better Make mistakes, make a mess Do a good / bad job Make a copy (of…) Do some (hard) work Make a phone call, make a film Do the housework Make your bed Do some homework Make sense Do the windows, do the dishes Make a decision Do the shopping, do the washing Make a point (of…)/(about…) Do the washing-up (G.B.) Make a case (for…) Do some talking, do some singing Make a left / make a right (U.S. – for Do a course, do a project street directions Make love Make war, make peace EXERCISE 1. Complete the sentence with the correct form of make or do (in everyday English). 1. Sssh! You mustn’t …… a noise. The baby is sleeping. 2. How many times a week do you …… the shopping? 3. I’d like to keep fit, so I …… exercises every day. 4. How do you feel when you …… a mistake in your English? 5. What would you wear to …… a good impression at a job interview? 6. The storm …… a lot of damage to the crops. 33 7. I …… very little progress at the start of the course. 8. Don’t worry, Tim. Just …… your best. 9. She felt she was …… a terrible mess of her life. EXERCISE 2. Complete the sentence with the correct form of make or do (in Academic English). 1. Scientists have …… extensive research into the effects of these drugs. 2. We have been …… business with them for over 30 years now. 3. Investigators now need to …… a series of further experiments in the field of human genetics. 4. If we don't get some orders soon we'll have to …… some of our workers redundant. 5. Investigations have …… a considerable progress in revealing a level of air pollution in the city centre. 6. We have …… a considerable profit on the sales of that land. 7. Laboratory tests were …… on blood samples. 8. We have received a small grant to …… scientific research into the effects of acid rain. 9. Further experiments will be …… to verify the results. 10. He was …… investigative work on this project in organic chemistry. 11. A customer has …… a complaint about one of our salespeople. 12. The bank has decided to …… extra provision against bad debts this year. Differences in meaning: liquid, fluid, flow Liquid, fluid are comparable both as adjectives meaning composed of particles that move easily and flowingly and change their relative position without any perceptible break in their continuity. Both terms imply an opposition to solid, but liquid is more restricted in its application, for the term implies the flow characteristic of water and refers only to substances which, like water, have a definite volume. Fluid, on the other hand, implies flow of any sort and is applicable not only to all liquids but also to gases, which, unlike liquids, have neither independent volume nor shape. When ice is melted, it changes from the solid to the liquid state. Benzol, petrol and kerosene are liquid fuels. 34 Liquid metal is sometimes used as a reactor coolant. A liquid pump is one which pumps liquids, such as water, oil, etc. A fluid is any substance which flows. The working fluid used in this reciprocating engine is steam. A gas turbine uses hot gases as the working fluid. In a hydraulic system, oil is normally used as the working fluid. The rate of flow of a fluid through the pipe is measured. Flow is a continuous movement of a liquid in one direction. Drugs that improve the blood flow around the body. The river flows southwest to the Atlantic ocean. New channels are deliberately cut to alter the flow of the water. Differences in meaning: firm, hard, solid Firm suggests such closeness or compactness of texture that the substance or material quickly returns to shape or is difficult to pull, distort, cut, and displace. The ground underfoot was fairly firm and not too muddy. Exercise is important if you want your muscles to stay firm. We want a firm commitment that resources will be provided. Hard implies impenetrability or relatively complete resistance to pressure or tension but, unlike, firm, hard really implies elasticity. The plastic was chosen because it is very hard and durable. The green fruits were as hard as rocks. Diamonds is one the hardest substances known. Solid implies such density and coherence in the mass as enable a thing to maintain a fixed form in spite of external deforming forces. It remains solid at room temperature. If you put in the freezer, it will go solid. The containers have to be solid enough to withstand the pressure. 35 WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: PREFIXES A very large proportion of English words, especially those used in technical writing, came into the language from Greek or Latin or French. We can often learn something of their meaning if we know the meaning of the Latin or Greek or French prefix. Here are some of the prefixes: en-, em- (forming a verb from a noun or adjective), e.g. ensure, enrich, enlarge, enable, entrain, enclose, encapsulate, embody, embrittle, empower, enforce inter- (= between or among), e.g. interlock, interweave, interconnect, interact, interface, intersection, intermediate re- (= again), e.g. reuse, recirculate, reheat, recharge, reload, regroup, re-align, reassemble, reinforce, regenerate, renewal, reproduction. rearrangement counter- (= against, opposite to), e.g. counteract, counterbalance, counterweigh, counterattack, countermeasure, counterpart, counterforce, over- (= too much), e.g. overcharge, overheat, overload, overwind, overstrain, overwork, overactive, over- (= above), e.g. overhead, overtone, overhaul, overall, under- (= too little), e.g. underload, underestimate, underpay, undersize, underrate, under- (= below), e.g. underpin, undercut, undercharge, underdevelop, underestimate, underlie, undergrowth, underfeed dis- (= the opposite), e.g. disconnect, discharge, disjoin, disregard, disintegrate, disclose, dissociate, dissolve im-, in-, ir- (= not). e.g. 36 immature, impurity, immoderate, impermeable, inanimate, incompatible, inactive, inelastic, ineffective, irrespective, irrational, irresponsible un- (= not). e.g. unstable, uncontaminated, unspecified, unknown, unlimited, unsaturated, unavailable super- (= above, more than), e.g. superconductor, superheat, supercharge, superphosphate, superstructure, supersonic, supersaturated, superimpose, supersensitive sub- (= beneath, less than), e.g. substructure subsoil, sub-grade, subgroup, sub-surface, sub-stratum, substandard, submerge, subnormal, subordinate Prefixes with Similar Leanings: in-, un-, il-, im-, irThe basic meaning of the prefix in- is "not". Thus, inactive means "not active". In- is related to and sometimes confused with the prefix un-, which also means "not". In fact, sometimes in- is used interchangeably with un-, as when incommunicative is used instead of uncommunicative. Before the consonants l and r, in- becomes il- respectively: illogical, irregular. Before the consonants b, m, and p, in- becomes im-: imbalanced, immeasurable, impossible. EXERCISE 1. Give the opposite of these words by adding the correct prefix. reversible controllable probable convenient soluble variable permeable efficient fertile distinguishable available proportionate consistent correct definable attainable limited comprehensible EXERCISE 2. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences, using the prefixes re, under-, over-. 1. When the engineer …straightened the bent piece of metal, he found it had lost part of its strength. 2. Researchers tend to …estimate the importance of subjective factors in an investigation. 3. These factors may cause a scientist to …stress irrelevant details. 37 4. The result of …production is a surplus. 5. The bulk of the population in the emerging countries is …nourished. STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: DEVISE, DEVICE, INSTRUMENT, TOOL, APPARATUS 1. We must devise some way of overcoming the difficulty. (= think out) A separation is process was devised for the extraction of plutonium. 2. A device is (usually) a clever mechanism which is devised to solve some particular mechanical problem. A thermostat is a device for regulating temperatures. A clutch is a device for engaging and disengaging gears. A burglar alarm is a device forgiving warning that thieves are trying to enter a building. 3. An instrument is (usually) a small manufactured object which enables us to perform some precise action or measurement. A pyrometer is an instrument for measuring high temperatures. A seismograph is an instrument for recoding earth tremors. A spectroscope is an instrument for measuring the spectra of rays. 4. A tool is an instrument or piece of equipment that you hold in your hands in order to help you to do a particular kind of work. There are many kinds of tool. For example, spades, hammers, knives are tools. 5. An apparatus is (usually) a complicated mechanism or assembly of many different pieces used for some scientific experiment or test. An Orsat apparatus is used to analyze the products of combustion. A bomb calorimeter is an apparatus for finding out the calorific value of a solid or liquid fuel. EXERCISE. Taking the example of an instrument or apparatus which is used in the discipline you yourself are studying, explain clearly for the layman (=someone who is not a professional in a particular subject, non-scientist) what it is, how it works, and some of its main uses. 38 Words with Similar Meanings EXERCISE. After each of the following sentences there is a choice of three words. Pick the word that is closest in meaning to the word in italics as used in the sentence. 1. It was far brighter than had previously been expected. calculated / anticipated / hoped 2. The composition of the planet is unknown. organization / element / make-up 3. The surface has been eroded by hostile conditions. formed / shaped / worn away 4. It confirmed the earlier reports. supported / announced / helped 5. They speculated that the cause of the erosion was surface wind. argued / discussed / conjectured WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE Which of the following words are correctly spelled? Choose the correct one (ones). proprties propperties properties properties mesurements measurements measurments measurements transmited transmitted transmmitted transmeatted observeation obcervation obcervattion observation theretical theoretical teoretical theoretical STRUCTURE STUDY: Noun Modifiers Nouns are usually described by putting an adjective before them: stainless steel But in English we can very often put another noun before the noun. carbon dioxide salt water 39 heat treatment Such nouns are described as noun modifiers because they are used to modify other nouns or to give more specific information about something or someone. Noun modifiers form strings of nouns, or compound nouns which are used to show a wide range of relationships between two, three, or even more nouns, as can be seen from the following examples: Heat treatment = treatment with or by heat Metal tubes = tubes made of metal Cylinder head design = the design of cylinder heads A heat removal plant = a plant for the removal of heat Hydrocarbon fuel cell technology = the technology of hydrocarbon fuel cells X-ray diffraction crystal structure analysis = the analysis of the structure of crystals by means of the diffraction of X-rays Note that the key element in such strings of nouns always takes the final position and that noun modifiers usually do not take a plural form. This device is frequently used in scientific English for the usual reason, that is, conciseness: the compound noun is shorter than the corresponding phrase. EXERCISE 1. Explain the relationship between the nouns in the following compound terms used in the text. Translate them into Russian. – fluid flow – computation fluid dynamics – fuel cell – membrane reaction system – gas separation – particle technology application – mass spectroscopy – heat exchanger design EXERCISE 2. Replace the italicized phrases by compound nouns: 1. The Industrial Revolution led to a radical change in methods of production. 2. The mechanics of fluids is a specialized branch of physics. 3. Nuclear energy has been utilized by some of the latest plants for the supply of electric power. 4. Gas is one of the by-products of the industry concerned with the refining of oil. 40 EXERCISE 3. Form compound nouns from each of the following phrases. Remember to be careful about plurals. 1. A theory about the waves of earthquakes 2. A study concerned with the distribution of the population 3. Chemistry of the nucleus of cells 4. Techniques applicable to the breeding of plants 5. Measurements of the transfer of heat 6. Interpretation of photographs taken by X-rays 7. Devices for the control of the flow of heat 8. A gas known as carbon dioxide 9. A vessel in which some process is carried out under pressure 10. Regulations affecting public health The structure: To be of + noun When the verb to be is followed by the preposition of, the verb to be has the meaning to have (иметь) or to present (представлять). EXERCISE 1. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. The article under consideration is of crucial importance for all those interested in chemical technology. 2. It was discovered that the results obtained were of great value for specialists working in the field of biochemistry. 3. At the end of the paper the author arrives at the conclusion that the problem discussed is of vital significance for all investigators concerned with green chemistry. 4. It is an issue of major concern to ecologists who believe that protecting the environment is of prime importance. 5. In his attempt to solve the problem he found out that the approach proposed in earlier investigation was of no practical use to him. 6. The problem of alcohol-related crime is becoming a matter of great concern to forensic chemistry. 7. It should be emphasized that the "double bonds" in the benzene ring are of inert character. 8. The optically active 2-benzylbutane is probably of the inverted configuration. 41 9. The reaction of hydrogen with carbon to produce methane is not of great significance at the moment. 10. Electrolytic reduction is of little practical value except for the production of amino-phenols. EXERCISE 2. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. Этот метод представляет большой интерес для нашего исследования. 2. Это вопрос первостепенной важности. 3. От него нет никакой пользы. 4. Эта картина представляет большую ценность. 5. Эта статья не представляет для меня интереса. 6. Могу ли я чем-нибудь помочь вам? 7. Это не мое дело (это меня не касается). READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1 Pre-Reading Tasks Before you read, discuss these questions with your partner: – What do you know about nanotechnology? – What is so promising about this technology for it to be considered a key technology of the 21st century? – What are the possible applications of nanotechnology in chemical research? NANOTECHNOLOGY Nanotechnology, which is sometimes shortened to “nanotech”, refers to a field whose subject is the control of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with the structure of the size 100 nanometers or smaller, and involves developing materials or devices within that size. One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10-9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12-0.15 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular lifeforms, the bacteria of the genus Micoplasma, are around 200 nm in length. 42 To put that scale in another context, a nanometer is the amount a man’s beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face. A number of physical phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, it becomes dominant when the nanometer size range is reached. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to microscopic systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio, altering mechanical, thermal, and catalytic properties of materials. Novel mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research. Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances become transparent (copper); stable materials turn combustible (aluminum); solids turn into liquids at room temperature (gold); insulators become conductors (silicon). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Thus, the nanometer scale of substances alone allows new functions and properties to arise, e.g. hardness and fracture strength, but also conducting and storage capacity. In the medium term, nanotechnology is expected to have an impact on almost all areas of industry. Nanotechnology may make it possible to manufacture lighter, stronger, and programmable materials that require less energy to produce than conventional materials and produce less waste than with conventional manufacturing. Nanocoatings for both opaque and translucent surfaces may render them resistant to corrosion, scratches, and radiation. Nanoscale electronic, magnetic, and mechanical devices and systems with unprecedented levels of information processing may be fabricated, as may chemical, photochemical, and biological sensors for protection, health care, manufacturing, and the environment. Using the processes of nanotechnology, basic industrial production may change dramatically the course followed by steel plants and chemical factories of the past. Raw materials will come from the atoms of abundant elements – 43 carbon, hydrogen, and silicon – and these will be manipulated into precise configurations to create nanostructured materials that exhibit the right properties for each particular application. For example, carbon atoms can be bonded together in a number of different geometries to create variously a fibre, a tube, a molecular coating, or a wire, all with the superior strength-to-weight ratio of another carbon material – diamond. Nanotechnology ultimately may allow people to fabricate almost any type of material or product allowable under the laws of physics or chemistry. WRITING AN ABSTRACT An abstract is a valuable tool for the researcher investigating the literature of his speciality. The aim of an abstract is to give a brief account of the main conclusions of a report or any other publication, usually without entering into details. This serves as a quick guide for the investigator faced with a mass of literature and helps him to locate relevant information quickly and efficiently. Below are given key-patterns which can be used as a framework for a summary. Using the prompts given, make an abstract of the text. The text is concerned with ...... The author outlines ...... Attention is focused on ...... Special comments are made on ...... The text discusses current developments and foreseeable trends with regard to ...... Much attention is paid to describing the advantages of …… which offers the possibility of …… The text presents ...... and ends with ...... The text is intended for …… working in the field of …… and for broad circles of readers. TEXT 2 SKIMMING: Look through the text and say which of the four statements given below best summarizes its main idea. 1) The text describes the methods used by oil companies in search for alternative sources of carbonaceous fuels. 2) The text explains the role heavy distillation fractions play in converting crude oil to transportation fuels. 3) The text outlines the techniques used to find metal contaminants in petroleum and how they will lead to superior fuels. 4) The text is concerned with the problem of developing new technologies to improve the efficiency of oil processing. 44 METAL DETECTORS FOR CLEAN FUEL Petroleum is, and has always been the primary source of energy on our planet. The shortage of oil reserve, combined with increasing energy demands, has brought a surge of interest in revisiting petroleum processing technology in the quest for better performing and cheaper fuels. Metals and sulfur found in heavy petroleum fractions can poison the catalysts used during refining processes. They also corrode equipment and contaminate the environment. So investigations focus on detecting metal content in petroleum and petroleum products. The metals’ behavior during the refining processes depends on their chemical form. Knowing the size and structure of metal complexes is crucial in choosing catalysts suitable for removing them. Yet, despite progress in analytical methodology, relatively little is known about the metal species in crude oil. Metalloporphyrin complexes with nickel and vanadium are often cited, but non-porphyrin complexes with molecular weights reaching several thousand Daltons should also be present. More information is available about the forms of sulfur in petroleum or mercury and arsenic in gas condensates but there is no definite agreement on their exact nature. Analyzing the elements in petroleum is a nightmare for analysts as the fuel contains thousands of molecules of different sizes and polarities, which interact with different forces. Direct analysis is barely possible and multistep analysis techniques are required to separate and properly identify target metallomolecules. This has led analysts to develop special analytical techniques and methods. They include direct analytical techniques such as X-ray absorption spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance and molecular mass spectrometry (using laser desorption, electrospray and chemical ionization) as well as techniques that combine chromatography’s high separation potential (for example, high-performance liquid chromatography or gas chromatography) with an element specific detector’s sensitivity (for example, atomic absorption spectrometry). As these techniques become more widely available, identifying metal species in complex organic mixtures such as petroleum becomes easier and meeting the challenge of removing them for cleaner fuels becomes a step away. 45 EXERCISE 1. Make sentences using all jumbled phrases given below. a) in the quest for the shortage of oil reserves in revisiting petroleum processing technology better performing and cheaper fuels has brought a surge of interest combined with increasing energy demands b) about the forms of sulfur in petroleum but on their exact nature more information is available or mercury and arsenic in gas condensates there is no definite agreement c) thousands of molecules analyzing the elements in petroleum the fuel contains with different forces as of different sizes and polarities is a nightmare for analysts which interact d) meeting the challenge as these techniques and in complex organic mixtures becomes a step away of removing them become more widely available identifying metal species for cleaner fuels becomes easier such as petroleum 46 EXERCISE 2. In the text you can find an extensive list of direct and multistep analytical techniques used by chemists, e,g, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance, molecular mass spectrometry, highperformance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, atomic absorption spectrometry. Which of these techniques are you familiar with? Which of them do you use or are going to use in your own research? What for? SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: ANALYZING THE CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF AN ACADEMIC JOURNAL 1. Look up in the library or on the Internet the titles of the journals relevant for your field of study. Report on these to the rest of the class and explain your choice. 2. Choose one journal and speak on its structure and contents. – What academic society or organization is the journal published by? – How often does it come out? – What are the scope and aims of the journal? – What sections is it divided into? – Is the emphasis mainly put on fundamental studies or on applied investigations? – What kinds of readers is the journal intended for? 47 UNIT 3 TEXT: BIOTECHNOLOGY Biotechnology, sometimes shortened to “biotech”, is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products. For thousands of years humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production and medicine. The term itself is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky. In the late 20th and early 21st century, biotechnology has expanded to include new and diverse sciences such as genomics, recombinant gene technologies, applied immunology, and the development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests. Biotechnology draws on biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology). And in many instances it is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology, including chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, bioinformatics (a new branch of information technology), and biorobotics. Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities, and also to produce biological weapons. In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as drug production, pharmacogenomics, and gene therapy. Pharmacogenomics Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. The term is derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. Pharmacogenomics is aimed at designing and producing drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup. 48 Pharmaceutical products Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively small molecules that bind to particular molecular targets and either activate or deactivate biological processes. Small molecules are typically manufactured through traditional organic synthesis. In contrast, biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules such as proteins that are developed to address targets that cannot easily be addressed by small molecules. Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants. Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given pharmaceutical. Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites is expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets. Gene therapy Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. Recently, for example, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells. WORDS 1. to coin a term = придумать термин 2. recombinant gene – рекомбинантный ген 3. health care – здравоохранение 49 4. crop production – растениеводство 5. biodegradable –разлагающийся естественным образом 6. bioleaching – биовыщелачивание (руд) 7. to recycle – утилизировать, использовать повторно 8. waste – отходы 9. genetic inheritance – генетическая наследственность 10. response to (drugs) - реакция на (лекарства) 11. genetic make-up - генетический состав, набор генов 12. landmark breakthrough – прорыв, ставший поворотным пунктом 13. AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome – синдром приобретенного иммунного дефицита (СПИД) 14. genetically engineered cells – клетки, полученные методом генной инженерии COMPREHENSION 1. What is meant by “biotechnology”? When did the term come into use and who was the first to coin it? What new branches of science were included into biotechnology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries? 2. What sciences does biotechnology draw on? 3. What major industrial areas is biotechnology used in nowadays? Give examples of various applications of biotechnology. 4. How can you define pharmacogenomics? What words is the term derived from? 5. What advantages do biopharmaceuticals have over traditional pharmaceutical drugs? 6. What breakthroughs in the field of pharmacological medicine is biotechnology associated with? What new opportunities in the field does it open up? 7. What does the method of gene therapy consist in? Has it yielded any results yet? 50 WORD STUDY Phrasal Verbs A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and an adverb, a verb and a preposition, or a verb, an adverb and a preposition, which together have a single meaning. The adverb or preposition is sometimes called a particle. Phrasal verbs extend the usual meaning of the verb or create a new meaning. The alarm clock went off at 7 o'clock. I had to look after the kids. John has given up smoking. Some phrasal verbs have three parts, the verb and two particles. Kevin tried to talk her out of it. I will not put up with such bad behavior (tolerate). Other examples include: to catch up on = do something you did not have time to do earlier to face up to = accept that a difficult of unpleasant situation exists to get away with something = to escape due punishment for something to get on with = to give you time to do something and make progress with it to look down on = to think that you are better or more important than someone else to look forward to something = to feel happy and excited about something that is going to happen to look out for = to watch or search carefully for somebody or something to make up for = to compensate for what is lost or missing to speak up for = to talk publicly to defend somebody or something to stand up for = to defend somebody or something It is generally recognized that the role of English phrasal verbs has increased dramatically in recent years. They are used more and more wisely, not only in colloquial English, but also in academic writing, in official reports, and in mass media. Some students try to avoid using them altogether. But phrasal verbs are not only a central feature of the English language, they are also extremely useful. Expert speakers use phrasal verbs in all kinds of contacts – not just in informal 51 situations such as conversations or emails, but quite often in formal and technical writing too. There are many contexts where phrasal verbs are simply the best, most natural sounding way of expressing an idea. Generally, a native speaker of English tends to use phrasal verbs where speaker who has learned English as a foreign language more often employs a more formal word or phrase. In the examples given below, the first sentence represents the native speaker's idiomatic, colloquial style, while the second represents the foreign speaker's more formal counterpart. In each case the two sentences have the same meaning. Guess who I ran into this morning. Guess who I encountered this morning! Is that a true story, or did someone make it up? Is that a true story, or did someone contrive it? Don't look down on him just because he never went to college. Don't view him with contempt just because he never went to college. I'll take back that remark. I'll retract that remark. Throw out the broken glass before you cut yourself. Discard the broken glass before you cut yourself. I enjoyed the concert, but I wasn't carried away. I enjoyed the concert, but I wasn't entranced by it. Phrasal verbs are very widely used in all varieties of English, especially in everyday spoken English, and are often preferred by speakers to their more formal one-word counterparts. Sometimes there are also nouns formed from these verbs, for example, a break-down - поломка, a check-in – стойка регистрации (в аэропорту). EXERCISE 1. Replace the following sentences with take or get. a) What time do you …… up during the week? 52 b) How well do you and your brother …… on? c) Do you find that grammar rules are easy to …… in? d) What time do you usually …… off work? e) What sort of things …… you down? EXERCISE 2. Respond to the statements below, using the proper form of the word given in brackets. a) This suitcase is too heavy. (put down) b) I can’t remember what that word means. (look up) c) These papers are all mixed up. (sort out) d) I’d like to invite Ann to the party. (ring up) e) I don’t need these old note-books any more. (throw away) EXERCISE 3. Underline the twelve phrasal verbs in these sentences. a. I sent off the order last week but the goods haven't turned up yet. b. I came across an interesting book in the library. I took down the title. Here it is. c. We asked some friends around to watch a film, but the video was playing up and it eventually broke down. d. I brought up this problem at the last meeting. It's really time to sort out the problem. e. I wish he'd stop messing us about! He's put the meeting off three times and now he wants to call it off altogether. EXERCISE 4. Write answers to these questions using the phrasal verb in brackets. a. What are your plans for the summer holidays? (look forward to) b. What homework have you got to do this weekend? (catch up on) c. If you've been away somewhere by train and arrive back late, how do you usually get home from the railway station? (pick up) d. What is your favourite album and why do you like it? (associate with) e. What sorts of things make you feel stressed? (contend with) f. How easy do you find it to fall asleep at night? (drop off) EXERCISE 5. Replace the underlined verbs in these sentences with phrasal verbs made using the verbs and particles from the boxes below. make chase brush leave fall up for out aside out 53 a. They just ignored my complaints; it made me very angry. b. I believed his story about having lost all his money. How stupid I was! c. I couldn't understand what he was saying with all the noise. d. Could you pursue Jane's report? She promised it last week but I haven't seen it yet. e. If you are phoning from outside the country, omit the first zero in the city code. EXERCISE 6. Use more formal equivalents from the box instead of the phrasal verbs in these sentences. Write the formal verbs in the correct form. decline issue organize cancel escape a. The government have put out a statement condemning the recent protests. b. The union accepted the new pay deal and called off the strike. c. The number of people not owning a TV set nowadays has gone down dramatically. d. There was a disturbance in prison camp yesterday and three prisoners got away. e. Could you see to lunch to our visitors? There will be four of them. WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: prefix bioBio- comes from the Greek word “bios”, meaning “life”. When used to form words in English, bio- generally refers to living organisms or to biology, the science of living organisms. Many of the words that begin with bio- as bioethics, biophysics, and biotechnology, have only come into being in the 20th century. EXERCISE. Give English equivalents for the following Russian words: биохимия; поддающийся биологическому разложению; биотехнология; биографический; биотопливо; биоинформатика; биовыщелачивание; биоинженерия. 54 Words with Similar Meanings EXERCISE. After each of the following sentences there is a choice of three words. Pick the word that is closest in meaning to the word in italics as used in the sentence. 1. Some risks can be greatly reduced by a modest expense. inconsiderable / shy / relatively small 2. There is the possibility of catastrophes of unprecedented magnitude. size / importance / horror 3. It is dangerous to have too naïve a view of this problem. immature / simple / careful 4. This number should be roughly constant from activity to activity. permanent / unchanging / satisfactory 5. It seems to me that we do this to ensure public confidence. persuade / satisfy / make certain of WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE Which of the following words are correctly spelled? Choose the correct one (ones). phemonema phenomena fenomena phennomena specialization spesialization specializacion specializasion organnism organisme organizm organism uttilization utilazation utilization utilizasion photosynthetic fotosynthetic photosinthetic photosyntetic STRUCTURE STUDY: PASSIVE REPORT STRUCTURES. THE COMPLEX SUBJECT. There are two ways of presenting a passive report structure: 1) It is/was + Past participle of reporting verb + that + subject phrase, e.g. It is said that reading in dim light can damage your eyes. 2) subject + is/was/are/were + Past Participle of reporting verb + Infinitive, e.g. He is considered to be a promising scientist. 55 When reporting what people consider (considered) to be true, it is often easier to drop the “people”, especially if you don’t know or you don’t care which people, and use a passive report structure. If you are writing or submitting a formal spoken report, it is more appropriate. In this structure the subject is expressed by a noun or a pronoun and the Infinitive, and is called the Complex Subject. The most reporting verbs are say, think, consider, believe, assume, expect, report (used in the Passive Voice) and the verbs seem, appear, turn out, happen (used in the Active Voice), e.g. She is known to be a good chemist. Your brother appears to know the problem well. They are reported to have obtained good results. He happened to have been knocked down by a car. Peter is said to be learning Italian, as he is going to Italy soon. The task turned out to be too difficult for me. The Complex Subject can also be used with to be likely/unlikely, to be sure, to be certain if the speaker wants to express the degree of certainty/uncertainty about the action of the Infinitive, e.g. He is sure to come in time. They are unlikely to have translated the article. Students from our University are certain to take part in the conference. The English simple sentence with the Complex Subject is translated into Russian by means of a complex sentence beginning with: известно, говорят, полагают, считается, оказалось, представляется, что…; по-видимому, вероятно, маловероятно, вряд ли. EXERCISE 1. Make up sentences matching the suggested parts. Use the following reporting verbs: to suppose, to seem, to expect, to know, to be likely. The results obtained to sign the document The scientists to have been conducted The discussion to have come to mutual agreement The student to be held in the atmosphere of mutual understanding The leaders of the two powers to have proved the hypothesis 56 The experiment to be answering a question EXERCISE 2. Make suggestions concerning actions that one is expected (supposed, certain) to perform in certain situations: at the English lesson; if you have promised something; if you apply for a job; at midnight; if you find a lost purse. EXERCISE 3. Characterize the following groups of people as having common professional features: chemists; astronauts; sportsmen; writers; actors; teachers. e.g. Teachers are known (likely, supposed, expected, etc.) to be good judges of people’s character. EXERCISE 4. Translate the following sentences into Russian: The formation of trimethylene oxide is assumed to arise from a simultaneous shift of electrons. The close agreement of the six compounds listed is unlikely to be a coincidence. The alkyl nitrates appear to act merely as a source of nitrous acid. Cholic acid was known to contain a carboxyl group and three alcoholic hydroxyl group. After boiling for three hours, the mixture was found to be on the point of exploding. The results obtained proved to be analogous to those reported by previous workers. The cerium-sulfate complex ions are believed to involve sulfate ion and not bisulfate ion. The surface of this portion of the catalyst was postulated to consist of cobalt atoms. The conditions of the experiment are set to be favourable. The disulfides are, of course, well-known, but are not thought of as a related the sulfenic esters. These correlations appear to hold, also, for many hydrocarbons. The isomers are deemed to be in dynamic equilibrium with one onother. 57 READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1 SCANNING: When looking for a particular piece of information in a text, don't read the whole text from beginning to end. Glance through the whole text to find the relevant part and then read this more carefully. This is known as SCANNING. Read the text below and say what is new in it when compared with the previous text about biotechnology. RECENT ADVANCES IN BIOTECHNOLOGY At its simplest, biotechnology is technology based on biology. Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop technologies and products that help improve our lives and the health of our planet. We have used the biological processes of microorganisms for more than 6,000 years to make useful food products, such as bread and cheese, and to preserve dairy products. Modern biotechnology provides breakthrough products and technologies to combat debilitating and rare diseases, reduce our environmental footprint, feed the hungry, use less and cleaner energy, and have safer, cleaner and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes. Currently, there are more than 250 biotechnology health care products and vaccines available to patients, many for previously untreatable diseases. More than 13.3 million farmers around the world use agricultural biotechnology to increase yields, prevent damage from insects and pests and reduce farming’s impact on the environment. And more than 50 biorefineries are being built across North America to test and refine technologies to produce biofuels and chemicals from renewable biomass, which can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Recent advances in biotechnology are helping us prepare for and meet society’s most pressing challenges. Here is how: Heal the World Biotech is helping to harness nature’s own toolbox and use out genetic makeup by: 58 – Reducing rates of infectious disease; – Saving millions of children’s lives; – Tailoring treatments to individuals to minimize health risks and side- effects; – Creating more precise tools for disease detection’ and – Combating serious illnesses and everyday threats confronting the developing world. Fuel the World Biotech uses biological processes such as fermentation and harnesses biocatalysts such as enzymes, yeast, and other microbes to become microscopic manufacturing plants. Biotech is helping to fuel the world by: – Improving manufacturing process efficiency to save 50% or more on operating costs; – Reducing use of and reliance on petrochemicals; – Using biofuels to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 52% or more; – Decreasing water usage and waste generation; and – Exploiting the full potential of traditional biomass waste products. Feed the World Biotech improves crop insect resistance, enhances crop herbicide tolerance and facilitates the use of more environmentally sustainable farming practices. Biotech is helping to feed the world by: – Generating higher crop yields with fewer inputs; – Lowering volumes of agricultural chemicals required by crops; – Using biotech crops that need fewer applications of pesticides; – Producing foods free of allergens and toxins such as mycotoxin; and – Improving food and crop oil content to help improve cardiovascular health. EXERCISE. The sentences given below make up part of an abstract of the text. Put them in the right order: a) Recent advances in biotechnology are helping to heal the world, to fuel the world and to feed the world. b) Biotechnology is technology based on biology. c) Examples are given of the numerous applications biotechnology finds in modern industry and agriculture. d) The biological processes of microorganisms have been successfully used for more than 6.000 years. 59 e) Thanks to biotechnology, people can save energy and have safer, cleaner and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes. TEXT 2 SKIMMING: Look through the text quickly to find answers to the following questions: 1. Why can the first bakers or the first animal breeders be described as fledgling biotechnologists? 2. How did “prehistoric biotechnologists” contribute to the development of biotechnology? 3. What are the latest achievements in the field of biotechnology? BIOTECHNOLOGY: THE PAST AND THE PRESENT Biotechnology in one form or another has flourished since prehistoric times. When the first human beings realized that they could plant their own crops and breed their own animals, they learned to use biotechnology. The discovery that fruit juices fermented into wine, or that milk could be converted into cheese or yogurt, or that beer could be made by fermenting solutions of malt or hops began the study of biotechnology. When the first bakers found that they could make a soft, spongy bread rather than a firm, thin cracker, they were acting as fledgling biotechnologists. The first animal breeders, realizing that different physical traits could be either magnified or lost by mating appropriate pairs of animals, engaged in the manipulations of biotechnology. What, then, is biotechnology? The term brings to mind many different things. Some think of developing new types of animals. Others dream of almost unlimited sources of human therapeutic drugs. Still others envision the possibility of growing crops that are more nutritious and naturally pest-resistant to feed a rapidly growing world population. This question elicits almost as many first-thought responses as there are people to whom the question can be posed. In its purest from, the term “biotechnology” refers to the use of living organisms or their products to modify human health and the human environment. Prehistoric biotechnologists did this as they used yeast cells to raise bread dough and to ferment alcoholic beverages, and bacterial cells to 60 make cheeses and yogurts and as they bred strong, productive animals to make even stronger and more productive offspring. Throughout human history, we have learned a great deal about the different organisms that our ancestors used so effectively. The marked increase in our understanding of these organisms and their cell products gains us the ability to control the many functions of various cells and organisms. Using the techniques of gene splicing and recombinant DNA technology, we can now actually combine the genetic elements of two or more living cells. Functioning lengths of DNA can be taken from one organism and placed into the cells of another organism. As a result, for example, we can cause bacterial cells to produce human molecules. Cows can produce more milk for the same amount of feed. And we can synthesize therapeutic molecules that have never before existed. Look at the second and the third paragraphs of the text. What is the relationship between the third paragraph and the one preceding it? a) It contrasts what is known now with what was thought earlier; b) It develops the theme of the earlier paragraph; c) It proves that the statements made earlier are contradictory. SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: PREVIEWING A SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE The structure of a scientific article usually includes the following subdivisions: 1) Title 2) Abstract 3) Introduction 4) Experimental Section 5) Results 6) Discussion 7) Conclusion(s) 8) Acknowledgments 9) References 61 Take an article from the journal you have chosen and describe it briefly from the point of view of its structure and content. While doing this, answer the following questions: a) Who is the article written by? Is the author a well-known authority in the field? b) Does the title of the article give you an idea of what the article is about? Are there any subtitles? c) Does the article include any photographs, pictures, graphs, tables, etc.? What is their function? d) In your opinion, is the article worth careful reading or just scanning to obtain specific information? 62 UNIT 4 TEXT: WHERE DID BIOTECHNOLOGY BEGIN? Certain practices that we would now classify as applications of biology have been in use since man’s earliest days. Nearly 10,000 years ago, our ancestors were producing wine, beer, and bread by using fermentation, a natural process in which the biological activity of one-celled organisms plays a critical role. In fermentation, microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds are mixed with ingredients that provide them with food. Like all other living organisms, yeasts and bacteria need to feed. They do so by producing enzymes that cause decomposition. For example, yeast produces an enzyme that breaks down the sugar glucose from fruit and grains into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide. In the process, energy is released which the yeast cells use to multiply. glucose → ethanol (alcohol) + carbon dioxide C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy (sugar) (alcohol) (carbon dioxide) Fermentation is an anaerobic process – it takes place in the absence of oxygen. In beer making, yeast cells break down starch and sugar (present in cereal grain) to form alcohol; the froth, or head, of the beer results from the carbon dioxide gas that the cells produce. In simple terms, the living cells rearrange chemical elements to form new products that they need to live and reproduce. By happy coincidence, in the process of doing so, they help make a popular beverage. Bread making is also dependent on the action of yeast cells. The bread dough contains nutrients that these cells digest for their own sustenance. The digestion process generates alcohol (which contributes to that wonderful aroma of baking bread) and carbon dioxide gas (which makes the dough rise and forms the honeycomb texture of the baked loaf). Discovery of the fermentation process allowed early peoples to produce foods by allowing live organisms to act on other ingredients. But our ancestors also found that, by manipulating the conditions under which the fermentation 63 took place, they could improve the quality and the yield of the ingredients themselves. Crop Improvement Although plant science is a relatively modern discipline, its fundamental techniques have been applied throughout human history. When early man went through the crucial transition from nomadic hunter to settled farmer, cultivated crops became vital for survival. These primitive farmers, although ignorant of the natural principles at work, found that they could increase the yield and improve the taste of crops be selecting seeds from particularly desirable plants. Farmers long ago noted that they could improve each succeeding year’s harvest by using seed from only the best plants of the current crop. Plants that, for example, gave the highest yield, stayed the healthiest during periods of drought or disease, or were easiest to harvest tended to produce future generations with these same characteristics. Through several years of careful seed selection, farmers could maintain and strengthen such desirable traits. The possibilities for improving plants expanded as a result of Gregor Mendel’s investigations in the mid-1860s of hereditary traits in peas. Once the genetic basis of heredity was understood, the benefits of cross-breeding, or hybridization, became apparent: plants with different desirable traits could be used to cultivate a later generation that combined these characteristics. An understanding of the scientific principles behind fermentation and crop improvement practices has come only in the last hundred years. But the early, crude techniques, even without the benefit of sophisticated laboratories and automated equipment, were a true practice of biotechnology guiding natural processes to improve man’s physical and economic well-being. Harnessing Microbes for Health Every student of chemistry knows the shape of a Buchner funnel, but they may be unaware that the distinguished German scientist it was named after made the vital discovery (in 1897) that enzymes extracted from the yeast are effective in converting sugar into alcohol. Major outbreaks of disease in overcrowded industrial cities led eventually to the introduction, in the early years of the 20 th century, of large-scale sewage purification systems based on microbial activity. By this time it had proved possible to generate certain key industrial chemicals (glycerol, acetone, and butanol) using bacteria. 64 Another major beneficial legacy of early 20th century biotechnology was the discovery by Alexander Fleming (in 1928) of penicillin, an antibiotic derived from the mold Penicillium. Large-scale production of penicillin was achieved in the 1940s. However, the revolution in understanding the chemical basis of cell function that stemmed from the post-war emergence of molecular biology was still to come. It was this exciting phase of bioscience that led to the recent explosive development of biotechnology. WORDS 1. one-celled - одноклеточный 2. yeast - дрожжи 3. mold (AE) = mould (BE) – плесень, плесневой гриб 4. starch – крахмал 5. by-product – побочный продукт 6. to break down – разлагать 7. cereal grains – зерно хлебных злаков 8. froth = head (of the beer) – пена (на пиве) 9. beverage – напиток 10. dough – тесто 11. nutrient – питательное вещество 12. sustenance – питание, пропитание 13. honeycomb texture –ячеистая текстура 14. yield – выход продукции, (полезная) производительность 15. seeds – семена, посевной материал 16. cross-breeding – скрещивание 17. Buchner funnel – воронка Бюхнера 18. enzyme – фермент, энзим 19. sewage purification – очистка сточных вод 20. legacy – наследство, наследие 65 COMPREHENSION 1. How long ago did people begin to apply what is now described as biotechnology? Give examples of the earliest applications of biotechnology. 2. What forms the basis of fermentation? What chemical reaction underlies this process? Why did the discovery of the fermentation process prove to be so important for man? What new possibilities did it open up? 3. What important discoveries were made by primitive farmers? What possibilities for improving plants did they use? When and how did these possibilities expand? 4. What discovery concerning enzymes was made by Buchner? Why is it described as “vital”? 5. What industrial applications did microbes, bacteria and molds find in the early 20th century? When did the first antibiotic first come into use and whose name is it associated with? WORD STUDY EXERCISE 1. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following words and word-combinations: одноклеточные организмы; играть решающую роль; разлагать крахмал и сахар с образованием спирта; побочные продукты; по счастливому совпадению; зависеть от; условия, при которых происходит ферментация; основополагающие методы; насущно важный для выживания; возможности расширились в результате… ; преимущества скрещивания стали очевидными; автоматизированное оборудование; благосостояние человека; назвать в честь кого-то; вспышки болезни; в конечном итоге привести к чему-либо; в самом начале 20-го века; оказалось возможным; полезное наследие; широкое/массовое производство. EXERCISE 2. For each of the words given below, find in the text a word which means approximately the same. finally, component, evident, produce, transform, profit, decompose, catalyst, (pleasant) smell, crop, drink, comprehension 66 STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOTechnique = a way or a method of doing something, especially one that requires special training, e.g. "The purpose of these seminars is to keep our staff up to date with the latest teaching and testing techniques." Technology = scientific and industrial manufacturing processes and skills, e.g. "Space research has produced major advances in computer technology." Information technology = the study or use of computers and electronic systems for storing and using information. Information technology is often simple called IT. Techno- = is used at the beginning of words that refer to technology: techno-societies, techno mania and technocrats. EXERCISE. Which of the two words - technique or technology – would you use in the following sentences? Explain your choice. 1. She needs to work on her interview ...... if she's going to get a job. 2. Modern ...... has improved our standards of living. 3. The company is investing heavily in new ...... . 4. He has an ingenious ...... for dealing with problems of that sort. 5. Can you imagine what the world would be like without science and ......? 6. He developed a new ...... in heart surgery. WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: SUFFIXES EXERCISE 1. Each suffix in list A can be connected to the three words in list B. Form these words and translate them into Russian. A. -ify -ly -less -ent -ence -or -ness -able -ible -ant -ance -er B. use investigate differ effective boil reverse possible identify diverge exist transfer simple count assistant direct reason predict resist motion convert 67 solid maintain evident persist distant meaning divide hard produce absolute react perform interfere signify research EXERCISE 2. Using words formed in Exercise 1 above, fill in the blanks in the following sentences: 1. An eroded area of land is u…less for agriculture . 2. The d…ance between the Earth and the Moon is about 385,000 km. 3. Most volcanic lavas s…ify at 800-12000 C. 4. Diamonds, which are a form of carbon, have many industrial applications, due to their h…ness. 5. To some people, the concept of anti-matter is me…less. 6. Mass is co…ible into energy. 7. The atomic r…or was developed with the as…ance of re…ers from many different countries. WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE Which of the following words are correctly spelled? Choose the correct one (ones). аvailability evailability availability availability evaparation evaporation evaporation eveporation exclusive exclucive ixclusive exclusive analisis analysis analysis analycis technology tecnologie technology technology STRUCTURE STUDY: THE GERUND Gerunds are forms derived from verbs and combining characteristics of verbs and nouns. Gerunds have the same grammatical categories as verbs (voice, aspect, time correlation). They are formed in a similar way, but the first element is always in the “-ing”-form, e.g. She enjoys dancing. I hate being interrupted. 68 You mentioned having visited Greece last year. Like nouns, Gerunds can be used as the subject, the direct object, the prepositional object, or as a predicative, e.g. Painting is Mary’s hobby. (subject) Mary enjoys painting. (direct object) Mary earns a living by painting. (prepositional object) Mary’s hobby is painting. (predicative) Gerunds are regularly used after - such verbs as: admit, avoid, consider, delay, deny, enjoy, finish, give up, imagine, involve, keep, mention, mind, miss, postpone, prevent, propose, put off, report, recall, resist, risk, suggest, etc.; - verbs followed by prepositions, e.g.: accuse of, agree to, approve of, apologize for, blame for, count on, depend on, inform of, insist on, look forward to, object to, persist in, prevent from, rely on, result in, succeed in, think of, etc.; - after such word-combinations as: it’s (not) worth, it’s no use, it’s (no) good, what’s the use of, can’t help, be busy, there’s no point (in), can’t stand, have difficulty (in), be aware of, be capable of, be sorry for, be worried about, in addition to, as well as, etc. - nouns followed by the preposition of, e.g. idea, intention, plan, chance, hope, opportunity, way, tradition, etc. Some verbs can be followed by either by Gerunds or by Infinitives with no difference in meaning, e.g. begin, start, continue. Some other verbs can be followed by either Gerunds or Infinitives, but with a difference in meaning, e.g. 1) try + to-Infinitive = attempt, do one’s best They tried to help but it was no use. try + Gerund = do something to see what happens Try adding some more sauce to your pasta. 2) remember + to-Infinitive = not forget to do it I remembered to turn off the oven. remember + Gerund = have a memory of it I remember flying over the Alps for the first time. 3) forget + to-Infinitive = not remember to do something I’m sorry, I forgot to lock the car. forget + Gerund = forget a past event 69 We’ll never forget visiting Paris. 4) stop + to-Infinitive = interrupt what you are doing to do something else I stopped to tie up my shoe lace. stop + Gerund = no longer to do this I really must stop reading in bed. The possessive pronouns my, your, etc. and nouns in the possessive case (my wife’s, John’s, etc.) can be used with Gerunds, e.g. Do you mind my making a suggestion? I am annoyed about John’s forgetting to pay. Compare the following sentences: I don’t mind saying I was wrong. (= I admit that I was wrong.) I don’t mind your saying I was wrong. (= I don’t mind it if you say that I was wrong.) In the first example “I” is the agent of both “mind” and “saying”. In the second example the agents are different: “I” and “you”. In informal English it is more common to use forms like me, you, my wife, John, etc. instead of my, your, my wife’s, John’s, etc. Do you mind me making a suggestion? I am annoyed about John forgetting to pay. EXERCISE 1. Pick out sentences with Gerunds from the text and translate them. EXERCISE 2. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets (the Gerund or the Infinitive): 1. We have now finished (to program/programming) the computer for the experiment. 2. The investigator decided (to repeat/repeating) the experiment before (to publish/publishing) the final report on his work. 3. Discovery of the fermentation process enabled early peoples (to produce/producing) foods by (to allow/allowing) live organisms to act on other ingredients. 4. It’s no use (to go/going) to university if you don’t intend (to study/studying). 5. Precision instruments allow scientists (to measure/measuring) minute quantities with a high degree of accuracy. 6. Our research group stopped (to make/making) controlled experiments. 70 7. A good scientist enjoys (to try/trying) (to solve/solving) difficult problems. EXERCISE 3. Choose the correct form of the verbs given in brackets. Sometimes more than one answer may be possible. Einstein: an Ordinary Child Einstein was not a remarkable child. He began (1) (take)...... piano lessons at the age of six. He didn’t seem (2) (be) ...... particularly talented. He liked (3) (day-dream) ...... and (4) (play) ...... . He didn’t enjoy (5) (talk) ...... very much; in fact, he waited till he was three before (6) (start) ......to talk. In spite of not (7) (have) ...... a very exciting childhood, Einstein later appeared (8) (have) ...... a vivid memory of it. He remembered (9) (be) ...... impressed by how a compass works and by the mysterious force which made the compass needle (10) (point) ...... in a given direction. EXERCISE 4. Combine the following sentences using the Gerund with a possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case. e.g. I’m going to smoke. Do you mind it? Do you mind my smoking? 1. She is going to tell the whole truth. Are you afraid of it? 2. I think I’ll be late for the meeting. Will you excuse it? 3. We’re going to speak to him. What do you think of it? 4. He wants to come to our party. Will you object to it? 5. The students don’t want to hold a meeting today. Do you insist on it? EXERCISE 5. Combine the following sentences according to the model given: a) She never tells lies. She hates it. She hates telling lies. b) John tells her lies. She hates it. She hates being told lies. 1. They treat him like a child. I don’t approve of it. 2. They treat him like a child. He doesn’t like it. 3. Somebody was watching him. He was aware of it. 4. He wanted to be introduced to this scientist. He was constantly thinking of it. 5. He tried to express his opinion on the problem. But he was prevented from it. 6. She was so deeply impressed by what she saw, she couldn’t hide it. 71 The exercises given below show how the Gerund is used in Academic English, in particular in texts dealing with problems of chemistry. EXERCISE 6. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. This can be achieved by oxidising the substance. 2. Solubility parametres are useful for selecting solvents. 3. Upon switching off the current the pressure dropped. 4. In brominating the ketone a second bromine atom enters the nucleus. 5. These compounds offer the advantage of being almost non-volatile. 6. This must have taken place as a result of the molecule having changed its conformation. 7. There is no hope of our getting high yields in the near future. 8. The most generally useful expression for giving the composition of a solution is the mole fraction. 9. The nature of the interface appears to be of great importance in determining the rate of polymerization. 10. They have worked for three years with a view to improving the quality of the end product. 11. Nitrobenzene cannot be heated above 170º with sulfuric acid without violent decomposition occurring. READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1: THIRD TIME LUCKY INDUSTRIAL BIOTECH: A “THIRD WAVE” OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IS ARRIVING. WILL IT BE ABLE TO AVOID A POOR RECEPTION FROM THE GENERAL PUBLIC THIS TIME AROUND? For a long time the public has perceived biotechnology to mean dangerous meddling with the genes in food crops. But biotechnology is of course about much more than transgenic food: it also encompasses the use of microbes to make pharmaceuticals, for example. The many benefits of the first wave of biotech products, in medicine, have unfortunately been overshadowed by the supposed risks of biotech’s second wave, in agriculture. Might its third wave – 72 the so-called industrial biotech, also known as “white biotech” or “green chemistry” – resolve biotech’s image problem? As with other forms of biotechnology, industrial biotech involves engineering biological molecules and microbes with desirable new properties. What is different is how they are then used: to replace chemical processes with biological ones. Whether this is to produce chemicals for other processes or to create products such as biopolymers with new properties, there is huge scope to harness biology to accomplish what previously neededg, dirty chemical factories, but in cleaner and greener ways. One company which has been working in industrial biotechnology for years is DSM, based in the Netherlands. In the 1990s it developed a biological process to produce cephalosporin, an antibiotic, in a much cleaner way than the chemical processes used to make the drug. Its most recent effort has been to find a biological way to produce a chemical called succinic acid (C4H6O4), which is used to make a wide range of products including spandex, biopolymers for agriculture, de-icing salts, esters, resins and acidity regulators in foods. The usual chemical process involves making succinic acid from crude oil or natural gas. DSM’s approach is based on fermentation using enzymes and genetically engineered microbes. After a successful pilot-production phase, the nest step is a demonstration factory in Lestrem (France) which will be running by the end of the year. If that goes well, a much bigger commercial operation will follow. The company says that as well as making succinic acid from biologically derived starch rather than fossil fuels, its process also uses 40% less energy and produces fewer carbon-dioxide emissions. Proponents of industrial biotechnology are optimistic that they can avoid the pitfalls that hindered the adoption of biotech crops. For one thing, unlike transgenic tomatoes, say, industrial-biotech products are not sold directly to consumers. And instead of displacing “natural” products with bioengineered alternatives, as in agriculture, industrial biotechnology generally displaces fossil fuels and their associated chemical processes with greener biological alternatives. Surely that should make it easier to convince people of its benefits, and hence to rehabilitate the notion of biotechnology more widely? 1. Say which of the author’s conclusions about industrial biotechnology you agree or disagree with and why. Think if there are any other factors to be 73 taken into consideration. Make use of the following: as for me…; on the one hand…; on the other hand…; it seems reasonable to assume…; it seems doubtful that…; there’s no denying that…; I agree entirely that…; I’m afraid it’s too much to say that…; I have reason to believe that...... . 2. Here are some opinions about the text. How would you describe the text? – inconclusive; dull; trivial; muddled; – contains insufficient evidence, but the conclusions are valid; – wrong; weak; inaccurate; irrelevant; – contains essential facts; the arguments are valid and convincing. TEXT 2: CHEMISTS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY The real future of biotechnology has more to do with chemistry than was ever imagined. Biotechnology depends on the ability to manipulate chemical structure. Opportunities are opening up for chemists across the biotechnology industry, offering the chance to work on the cutting edge of a dynamic and still largely developmental field. “Molecular biology has not given us everything that we thought it would,” says Gary Kuroki, a chemist and research scientist at DNA Plant Technologies. “Companies are integrating the sciences, bringing new perspectives from chemistry, biochemistry, and genetics to tackle questions from as many angles as possible.” Blake Pepinsky, a group leader at Biogen, agrees. “When I started out, you could clone a new gene and it was automatically a product,“ he says. “Now, we need a better understanding of both biology and chemistry to discover new products.” When the biotechnology industry started to reach this conclusion, more companies began hiring chemists than ever before. “What we do,” explains Mark Reynolds, a chemist and scientist who works on biotechnology drug development, “is use biological products like peptides, DNA, and amino acids to develop a molecule that will bind to receptors in the human body. When these molecules bind to the receptor, they can turn it on or off. Having achieved this result, we can then make a new drug.” 74 This process requires years of work and almost constant interaction between scientists, including peptide chemists, crystallographers, and molecular modeling specialists. “Everything is a team project,” says Pepinsky. “It is unusual to work alone.” Therefore chemists in biotechnology must be able to work with others. “In this business, you also have to be driven,” Reynolds adds. “As a research scientist, you have to be a good chemist with good laboratory skills. And, you have to like what you are doing. I think this trait is what really determines an individual’s success.” Chemists in biotechnology generally work in a laboratory atmosphere not unlike an academic environment. The laboratory may be involved in five to ten projects, and the scientists have varying degrees of responsibility for each project. Teamwork is a vital part of the biotechnology industry. Most chemists in biotechnology say they work more than 40 hours a week, although they add this is largely an individual choice and not necessarily required. Most scientists in biotechnology work for small, innovative biotechnology companies that were founded relatively recently by scientists. However, as the field develops, many major drug companies have added biotechnology divisions. Chemical companies with large agricultural chemical businesses also have substantial biotechnology labs. A chemistry student interested in entering this field should keep in mind the interdisciplinary nature of biotechnology. While it is important to have a strong background in your own discipline, scientists must have the mental flexibility to pick up and incorporate other approaches. Most work is done in teams, making strong communication and personal skills vital to success in this field. Opportunities for chemists in biotechnology are undoubtedly growing as the field matures and branches outside molecular biology. Although jobs in biotechnology will probably never be as plentiful as they were in the last 10 years, the employment outlook is still considered very good. As more entrepreneurs begin new businesses and more existing companies advance in the biotechnology field, there will be an increasing demand for chemical engineers in biotechnology. 75 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION 1. Biotechnology is often described as the science of the future. As a chemist, would you like to work in the field of biotechnology? Why/why not? 2. The text gives a list of personal traits a chemist working in the field of biotechnology must have. What are they? Is the list exhaustive or can you add more items to it? Explain why these traits are really indispensable. 3. If you applied for a job in a biotechnology company, how could you prove that you are the right candidate for the job? Are you highly motivated to work in the field of biotechnology? Do you have all or most of the personal traits necessary for the job? Do you have a strong background in chemistry? 4. In your opinion, what career possibilities can work for a biotechnology company offer? A career in industry usually means making a decision early on about whether your career will follow a research or a more administrative track. What requirements must a person meet to be a success in either? Would you prefer a career of a researcher or an administrative career? Give your reasons. SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Reviewing a Scientific Article Choose a scientific article that you’d like to present to the class in the form of a short review. In reviewing the article, concentrate on answering the following questions: 1) What problem is the article concerned with? What were the author’s objectives in writing it – what did he want to find out? What is the hypothesis under test? 2) Does the author make the logic leading to the experiments clear to the reader? 3) What was the experimental plan adopted by the author? 4) What materials did the author use in his research and how did he use them? 5) What methods and statistical techniques were used for analyzing the data? 6) What results were obtained by the author? Do they seem valid? How does the author interpret the results and what conclusions does he draw from them? 7) Do you think the article is relevant for your own research? Can its results be used as a background to your own work? 8) If you feel critical about the article, explain why. 76 UNIT 5 TEXT: GREEN CHEMISTRY Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Whereas environmental chemistry is the chemistry of the natural environment, and of pollutant chemicals in nature, green chemistry seeks to reduce and prevent pollution at its source. In 1990 the Pollution prevention Act was passed in the United States. This Act helped create a modus operandi for dealing with pollution in an original and innovative way. It aims to avoid problems before they happen. As a chemical philosophy, green chemistry applies to organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, and even physical chemistry. While green chemistry seems to focus on industrial applications, it does not apply to any chemistry choice. Click chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with the goals of green chemistry. The focus is on minimizing the hazard and maximizing the efficiency of any chemical choice. It is distinct from environmental chemistry which focusses on chemical phenomena in the environment. In 2005 Ryoji Nayori (a Japanese chemist) identified three key developments in green chemistry: use of supercritical carbon dioxide as green solvent, aqueous hydrogen peroxide for clean oxidations and the use of hydrogen in asymmetric synthesis. One example of applied green chemistry is supercritical water oxidation. Bioengineering is also seen as a promising technique for achieving green chemistry goals. A number of important process chemicals can be synthesized in engineered organisms, such as shikimate, a Tamiflu precursor which is fermented by Roche in bacteria. The term “green chemistry” was coined by Paul Anastas in 1991. Paul Anastas, then of the United States Environmental Protection Agency, and John C. Warner developed twelve principles of green chemistry, which help to explain what the definition means in practice. 77 The principles cover such concepts as: – the design of processes to maximize the amount of raw material that ends up in the product; – the use of safe, environment-benign substances including solvents, whenever possible – the design of energy-efficient processes; – the best form of waste disposal: not to create it in the first place. The twelve principles are: 1. It is better to prevent waste than to treat or to clean up waste after it is formed. 2. Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. 3. Wherever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. 4. Chemical products should be designed to preserve efficacy of function while reducing toxicity. 5. The use of auxiliary substances (e.g. solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used. 6. Energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and economic impact and should be minimized. Synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. 7. A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting wherever technically and economically practicable. 8. Reduce derivatives – unnecessary derivatization (blocking group, protection/deprotection, temporary modification) should be avoided whenever possible. 9. Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents. 10. Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they do not persist in the environment and break down into innocuous degradation products. 78 11. Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for a realtime, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. 12. Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires. Attempts are being made not only to quantify the greenness of a chemical process but also to factor in other variables such as chemical yield, the price of reaction components, safety in handling chemicals, hardware demands, energy profile and ease of product workup and purification. In one quantitative study, the reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline receives 64 points out of 100, marking as an acceptable synthesis overall, whereas a synthesis of an amide using HMDS is only described as adequate with a combined 32 points. Green chemistry is increasingly seen as a powerful tool that researchers must use to evaluate the environmental impact of nanotechnology. As nanomaterials are developed, the environmental and human health impacts of both the products themselves and the processes to make them must be considered to ensure the long-term economic viability. WORDS 1. green – бережно относящийся к окружающей среде 2. a philosophy – основные принципы; теория, подход; ср. philosophy философия 3. hazardous – опасный 4. environmental chemistry – химия окружающей среды 5. natural environment – естественная среда, природная среда 6. pollutant – загрязняющее вещество 7. modus operandi – (лат.) способ действия 8. asymmetric synthesis – асимметрический синтез 9. supercritical – сверхкритический 10. shikimate – шикимат 11. precursor – исходное вещество; промежуточный продукт, полупродукт 12. waste disposal – уничтожение отходов, захоронение отходов 79 13. toxicity – токсичность 14. efficacy – эффективность 15. innocuous – безвредный 16. ambient temperature – температура окружающей среды, температура окружающего воздуха 17. feedstock – сырье, исходный материал 18. derivative – производное (соединение) 19. stoichiometric – стехиометрический 20. to factor in - включать COMPREHENSION 1. What is meant by green chemistry, or sustainable chemistry? What is the difference between environmental chemistry and green chemistry? 2. What can green chemistry apply to, as a chemical philosophy? What techniques can be used to achieve green chemistry goals? 3. What broad concepts underlie the 12 principles of green chemistry developed by Paul Abastas and John C. Warner? 4. Which of the 12 principles deal directly with environmental protection? Which of them refer to the design of specific chemical products or methods? 5. Choose one of the principles and comment on it. 6. Why is it important to quantify the greenness of chemical processes? WORD STUDY Differences in meaning: purpose, objective, aim, goal, intention, target. These nouns are the commonest ways of expressing the purpose for which we do something. Purpose – The strongest of these words. It implies a fixed determination and the will to do something. You are determined to do or get something. Objective (=object) – It is used to indicate a secondary purpose and it 80 Aim – Goal – Intention – Target – is more concrete. What you are trying to achieve by a particular course of action. If you aim to do something, you plan or hope to achieve what you intend to do. It is something that you hope to achieve, especially when much time and effort is needed in order to achieve it. You have an idea or a plan of what you are going to do. A result that you aim to achieve. EXERCISE 1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word. 1. Our …… is to provide a good standard of medical care. 2. Not many states will meet the …… for energy conservation. 3. You must decide which method suits your …… best. 4. It wasn't my …… to upset you. 5. Oil production was 15% below ....... 6. The principal …… of the department is to identify market opportunities. 7. My main …… on this course is to gain confidence. 8. I'm not sure I understand the …… of this exercise. 9. No one goes to college with the …… of failing. 10. The …… of the test is to calculate the total temperature rise. 11. The …… of lubricating bearings is to reduce the friction. STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: DANGEROUS, HAZARDOUS, PRECARIOUS, PERILOUS All these adjectives mean involving the possibility of loss, evil, injury, harm, however, they are frequently not freely interchangeable in usage. dangerous – Applies to persons, things or situations that should be avoided or treated with exceeding care because contact with them or use of them is unsafe. hazardous – Hazardous means a far stronger implication 81 than dangerous carries. It is often the preferred term when the chances of loss, death, or severe injury are comparatively great. precarious (a fairly formal – The basic meaning of this word is uncertain or word) insecure. Therefore, it may be used without implication of a threatened danger of possible hazards. perilous (a fairly formal – Carries a stronger implication of a threatened word) evil than dangerous. EXERCISE. Fill in the blanks with the correct word. If you think there is more than one possibility, explain why. 1. It is not yet known whether these chemicals are …… to humans. 2. Air pollution has reached …… levels in some cities. 3. Life for most people will be more …… in the year 2050 than it is now. 4. Breathing asbestos-laden may be …… to health. 5. The first leg of the …… journey was over. 6. Drugs are …… to health. 7. The management of the department was then in a …… position. 8. The road grew even steeper and more ....... WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES A common way of making new words in English is by adding prefixes or suffixes (or both) to existing words. By noting these carefully, you will find it easy to make large increases in your vocabulary. The suffix –ion (-tion, -ation) forms nouns from verbs with the meaning of: process or result of doing something. EXERCISE 1. Using -ion (-tion, -ation), make nouns from the following verbs: generate, reduce, apply, prevent, identify, quantify, separate, pollute, protect, degrade, purify. Translate them into Russian. EXERCISE 2. Fill in the blanks using a suitable form of word given at the end of the lines. It is no ...... to say that the world has become a global exaggerate village. Modern methods of ...... have made the world much communicate 82 smaller and the problems we face such as...... are not restricted to this country. The ...... of rare species is a tragedy for the planet as a whole and the...... of oil supplies will shake the ...... of the world’s economy. The ...... of the environment is the responsibility of all nations, rich and poor. However, uncontrolled economic ...... between strong and weak nations leads to the ...... of the greater inequality between the rich and poor nations of the world. pollute extinct exhaust found protect compete create TEXT: COMPLETION As you read the text below, choose the word from each group of words in italics which completes the passage best. People around the world are concerned that chlorofluoromethanes released (1) from/through/in aerosol spray cans pose a serious threat to the (2) sickness/interest/health through depletion of the ozone layer. The primary concern (3) of/above/in the ozone layer depletion is that the ultraviolet ray (4) length/occurrence/intensity at the surface of the Earth would increase, bringing (5) up/down/about more skin cancer fatalities among Caucasians. According to the IMOS (6) report/comment/insight, “Fluoro Carbons and the Environment” issued earlier this year, “there (7) stands/is/proves persuasive, although not absolutely conclusive clinical and epidemiological evidence (8) from/of/through a direct link between solar radiation and the historically (9) deduced/observed/counted incidence of several, generally non-fatal types of skin cancer (10) by/for/in humans.” I certainly do not find this evidence conclusive, (11) but/instead/and believe an alternative case can be made. WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE Which of the following words are correctly spelled? Choose the correct one (ones). quantitative quantitative quantative quontitative superfisially superficially superficially existence existence existence existense 83 diffraction diffraction diffraction defracsion experience experience experience experience STRUCTURE STUDY: THE PASSIVE VOICE The Passive is used when we have little interest in or knowledge of, the doer of the action but are more interested in what happens to, or is done to, the person or thing thus affected. The Passive is far more common in English than in Russian. Passive forms are especially often used in scientific writing and other kinds of expression where we are most interested in events and processes: in things that happen. The Passive is formed by the appropriate tense of the verb to be plus the Past Participle, e.g. Bioengineering is seen as a promising technique for achieving green chemistry goals. The term “green chemistry” was coined by Paul Anastas in 1991. Attempts are being made to quantify thee greenness of a chemical process. A new process has been developed for obtaining low temperatures. By the end of next year all the equipment in the laboratory will have been modernized. The doer of the action is only mentioned in the Passive if it adds information. When the doer is unknown, unimportant or obvious from the context, it is omitted. Doers such as someone, people, we, you, etc. are regularly omitted. EXERCISE 1. Make the following sentences Passive, eliminating the unspecified doer of the action. 1. People are blaming climate change for the recent flooding. 2. Somebody has stolen the painting from the gallery. 3. They will consider the problem at next week’s meeting. 4. People were watching the game outside the stadium on a huge screen. 5. We will give you the questions a week before the exam. 84 EXERCISE 2. Make the following sentences Passive, mentioning the doer of the action. 1. A combination of two elements forms a chemical compound. 2. Every day, applied scientists produce new drugs, fibers, and chemicals. 3. In the next ten years women will have achieved full equality. 4. The research team has made experiments on corrosion in metals. 5. At present the company is collecting data about new materials. EXERCISE 3. Use appropriate forms of the verbs given to complete this text. In each case, decide whether an active or a passive form is needed. Slowly but surely the coastline of Britain (1) is being worn away (wear away) by an advancing sea. The country which once “ruled the waves” now (2) …… (rule) by them, with huge forces threatening to destroy vast areas of human and wildlife habitat. Already some of Britain’s last wild, natural areas (3) …… (disappear), and experts (4) …… (fear) that this is just the beginning. It (5) …… (estimate) that there will be a 38-55 cm rise in average sea levels by the year 2100. According to the Department of the Environment, during the next 50 years at least 10,000 hectares of farmland (6) …… (turn into) mud flats and salt marshes by the increases in sea levels. Many of the country’s major cities could also (7) …… (affect). London, Bristol and Cardiff all (8) …… (expect) severe flooding as our sea defenses (9) …… (destroy) by the rising tides. EXERCISE 4. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. Where the kinetic cannot be completely determined, the distribution curve may be used to provide additional data to make a decision between alternative mechanisms. 2. After the gel has solidified, the cell will be turned upright and enough pure mercury is added to the reference electrode compartment. 3. Substrate is disappearing, the products of the reaction are being formed, and the forward reaction may be opposed to reverse process. 4. A novel empirical method was developed recently by Franklin wherein the resonance energy is calculated from group equivalents. 5. Multilayers of different substances may be deposited above one another, and their interdiffusion might be followed with a help of X-rays. 6. The problem is undoubtedly very involved and conclusions drawn solely from viscosity measurements must be treated with reserve. 85 7. Silicone tetracetrate was much more stable and could be made to react with such compounds as alcohol, ether, and ammonia. 8. The problem must be attacked from another point of view. 9. After having being discussed the report was published. 10. The active platinous chloride may condense to give the non-reactive polymer or it may be reduced by carbon monoxide to give platinum. 11. The reagent chosen in a particular case depends upon the compound to be sulfonated and the number of sulfo groups to be introduced. 12. Neither component alone is effective as a biological catalyst, but activity is restored when solutions of the components are mixed. READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1 SKIMMING: Read the text and identify the main topic of the passage: 1) Chemistry and the problems of environmental protection. 2) Chemistry and conservation of natural resources. 3) Chemistry and climate change. People demand products to support their lifestyles. This demand has a direct impact on our environment. Working over the last several decades, scientists have shown that for the first time ever, human activities are altering the climate; the data supporting this conclusion continue to grow in depth and breadth. Since the Industrial Revolution began, research shows that the concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs), which trap heat in the atmosphere, have increased. The most prevalent greenhouse gas studied is carbon dioxide (CO2), which is produced from burning fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum. A rise in global temperatures corresponds to the rise in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Energy from the Sun passes through the atmosphere in the form of electromagnetic radiation, much of which reaches the Earth’s surface. The atmosphere, made of a mixture of gases including water vapor, absorbs some of the solar radiation. At the Earth’s surface, the radiant energy from the Sun is transformed into thermal energy. Most of the energy is reflected from the 86 surface of the Earth back towards space. When greenhouse gas concentrations are at normal levels, most thermal energy continues out into space. However, when greenhouse gas concentrations are high, the thermal energy is absorbed by the greenhouse gases, heating the atmosphere. The reason that much of this energy remains in the atmosphere is due to the properties of greenhouse gases. The atmosphere is composed mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. The rigid bonding structure of nitrogen (triple bonds) and oxygen (double bonds) does not allow for much flexibility with the bending, vibration, and stretching of their bonds. The greenhouse gases of carbon dioxide, methane, water, and nitrous oxide have a great deal of flexibility in the bonds of each molecule. Therefore, as the molecules are exposed to radiant energy, the bonds within these molecules have a great deal of potential to absorb it and transform it to thermal energy. It is the increase of the kinetic energy within the bonds of these molecules that raises the internal energy of these molecules and can then be transmitted to other atmospheric gases to increase the temperature of the atmosphere. The result is a net increase in the average kinetic energy of the atmosphere gases, and an increase in the temperature of the land and water on the Earth’s surface. As concern for the impact of human activity on global climate patterns becomes more prominent in the world, many people are working to change behaviors to reverse human impact on the environment. The chemistry industry is committed to not only reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions from the production process, but also producing products that use less energy and draw on renewable energy sources. The International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA) commissioned a report to analyze the impact of chemical products on climate change. The report, called McKinsey Report, was released in 2009. The analysis showed that by applying new technology to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, substantial decreases in the amount of greenhouse gases produced by other industries and consumers can be achieved. For one unit of greenhouse gas emitted by the chemistry industry, 2-3 fewer units of greenhouse gases were subsequently produced when using the new technology. According to the data cited within the report, the chemistry industry has increased its production world-wide over the last 20-30 years, while at the same time reducing its total 87 energy consumption. The study looked at more than 100 products and their role in the reducing greenhouse gases during their life cycles. The most significant emissions savings by volume came from building insulation materials, agrochemicals, and lightning improvements. Explain what is meant by: global climate patterns; renewable energy sources; to be exposed to radiant energy; rigid bonding structure; to trap heat in the atmosphere; to reverse human impact on the environment; the most significant emissions savings by volume. SCANNING: Make the right choice: 1. Working over the last several decades, scientists have shown that a) climate changes are due to changes in the geological structures; b) climate is changing because of human activities; c) there have been no significant changes in the climate. 2. Since the Industrial Revolution began, a) the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have increased. b) the concentration of nitrogen in the atmosphere has decreased. c) the chemical composition of the atmosphere has changed dramatically. 3. When greenhouse gas concentrations are high, a) there is an immediate danger of an explosion; b) they may do harm to people’s health; c) the thermal energy is absorbed by the greenhouse gases. 4. Over the last 20-30 years, a) the chemistry industry has reduced its total energy consumption; b) the chemistry industry has failed to increase its production worldwide; c) chemists have been mostly engaged in theoretical research. TEXT 2. FOSSIL FUELS: PRO AND CONTRA The fossil fuels are the remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. Coal, oil, and gas are fossil fuels. They are made of organic 88 compounds, based on carbon. They are used as fuels because they give out plenty of heat energy when they burn. Unfortunately this causes many environmental problems, For example: – Fossil fuels may contain sulphides, Iron (IV) sulphide (FeS2) is often found with coal. Sulphides burn in air to form sulphur dioxide which causes acid rain. Since power stations burn huge quantities of coal, they are major contributors to acid rain. – The burning of fossil fuels upsets the natural balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This could lead to global warming. How long do fossil fuels take to form? Known sources of oil and gas are at least one to two million years old, So it takes at least that long to form them. It takes 10,000 years just to grow enough plant material to form a one meter layer of soft coal. How long will fossil fuels last? Oil, gas, and coal are still being formed. But the processes that form them are very slow compared with the speed at which we are using them up. Experts say we are depleting them 100,000 times faster than they are being formed. This means they’ll run out eventually. We therefore think of them as finite and nonrenewable resources. It makes sense to use them very carefully. It is difficult to estimate how much of each resource remains and can be recovered. Many areas of the world have not yet been explored. Technology is also improving, so a resource that’s not recoverable now may become so later. But many experts believe that 60 years from now, oil will be in short supply. By the end of the 21 st century only coal will be abundant. QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION 1. Fossil fuels are stores of solar energy? Is this true? Explain. 2. Fossil fuels are considered a non-renewable resource. Why? Give your reasons. 3. “We must become less dependent on fossil fuels in the 21st century.” Give two reasons why, and suggest a list of steps to achieve this aim. 89 TEXT 3 The text below explains how scientists turn used plastic bottles into ultrastrong carbon spheres. Describe the technological process used and say what is innovative about it. What other innovative technologies do you know which help to deal with the problem of waste plastic? NEW LEASE OF LIFE FOR USED COLA BOTTLES Discarded plastic bottles can be broken down to make ultra-strong carbon spheres that could be used in lubricants. Vilas Pol from Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel, and colleagues produced strong carbon microspheres from waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET). They heated used cola bottles at 7000 C for three hours in a closed reactor. The plastic then decomposed under self-generated pressure to form the hard carbon spheres with diameters between two and ten micrometres. “We broke one diamond knife and damaged a second while cutting a cross-section of the spheres,” says Pol. “The strength of these materials is interesting,” says Neil Coville, coordinator of the Carbon Nanotubes and Strong Composites Group at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. “The results are impressive and suggest others should be measuring this property in the future.” “The process is particularly interesting.” says Philippe Serp, an expert in carbon nanostructures at the National Centre for Scientific Research, Toulouse, France, “as it does not use any catalyst.” Pol’s scalable process also does not require solvents and improves on existing methods that can be limited by low yields and poor separation of the spheres from carbon soot. Carbon spheres are used in energy storage and nanodevices. Pol’s microspheres can withstand significant pressure, so they could be used in lubricants. Lowering the reaction temperature to below 700 0 C gives larger carbon particles that could be used in printers, toners and filtration technology. “The challenge facing today’s scientific community to find an innovative solution to the degradation of waste polymers motivated us,” explains Pol’s colleague Aharon Gedanken. “Our process demonstrates a way to remediate waste PET polymers to fabricate value-added products.” 90 For bottles, a sensible alternative to recycling is to wash thoroughly and then refill them. The table below compares energy costs in the factory for returnable and non-returnable bottles. Energy needed (MJ) To make bottle To wash and fill bottle Returnable 7.5 2.5 Non-returnable 4.7 2.6 1. More energy is used to make a returnable bottle than a non-returnable one. Suggest a reason. 2. In your factory you have to make a choice between non-returnable bottles, or returnable bottles which you will wash and refill. Which is cheaper in terms of energy: to make a returnable bottle and get it back once for refilling, or to make two non-returnable bottles? TEXT 4 Read the text about bottled water and choose the correct linking word. LINKING DEVICES Whether in speech or in writing, you help people to understand your message by signalling how one idea leads on from another. The words and phrases which have this connecting function are like "signposts" on a journey. Linking devices are used to ensure that your message is coherent and cohesive. Below is a list of common linking devices that have been grouped under their usual function: Sequencing ideas Expressing conditions firstly, secondly,… if the first reason unless finally when first of all whether next lastly 91 Expressing contrast but however nevertheless yet although Stating results thus as a result so Providing reasons in order to so as not to so that consequently Giving examples for example Adding further support besides also furthermore moreover what is more Expressing similarities likewise similarly in other words Concluding statements in summary to sum up to conclude on balance BOTTLED WATER Production of bottled water has grown over the past 30 years from nothing into a $16 billion-per-year business. (1) However / Furthermore, a backlash has begun, and environmentalists are urging people to go back to the tap. (2) In other words / The first reason why you should seriously think about giving up bottles water, they say, is that it’s bad for the environment. The manufacturing of plastic bottles requires vast quantities of petroleum. (3) As a result / Although factories create toxic plastic waste and release it into the environment. (4) What is more / So, the overwhelming majority of plastic water bottles aren’t recycled. In virtually every part of the world, discarded water bottles swell landfills and release hazardous toxins into air and water when they are burned in industrial incinerators. (5) Secondly / On balance, the distribution of bottled water is fuelintensive. In the USA alone, one billion bottles of water are moved around each week in trucks, emitting polluting gases and wearing down the roads. (6) In fact 92 / However, some high-priced waters are shipped from one side of the planet to the other. (7) To sum up / Finally, bottled water isn’t even better for your health. Tap water regulations in many countries are far stricter than those for bottled water. (8) Furthermore / So, tap water contains fluoride, which promotes strong teeth and prevents tooth decay. (9) But / Consequently, as bottled water consumption has increased, so has tooth decay. (10) As a result / To sum up, by staying off bottled water and encouraging others to do so, you will be doing the planet an enormous favour and benefitting your own health as well. SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: PREPARING A REPORT FOR A CONFERENCE A report should be practical and business-like. It should present the necessary information as clearly as possible so that the reader/listener can follow it easily, and should express an overall opinion at the end. Structure – Give your report a clear, factual heading. – Divide the report into paragraphs or sections to deal with separate aspects of a subject. – Start by saying what the report is about and/or how you gathered the information. – End with a conclusion which gives a summary of the situation (and a recommendation if necessary). Introduction The aim/purpose of this report is to… In order to prepare this report, I visited/interviewed/studied … Many people believe/feel that… People’s opinions on … differ widely. Supporting your argument One of the main advantages of … is that… In the first place, … Firstly/to begin with. … Secondly, … Thirdly, … Finally, … 93 Last, but not least, … Adding further reasons Both … and…/Not only but also… In addition,/What is more,/Furthermore,… Expressing opinions and impressions In my view/opinion, It seems to me that… I think/feel/believe that… Most people/The majority of people seem to/tend to… It is interesting/surprising/strange that… Interestingly,/Surprisingly,/Strangely,… Generalizing In general, … On the whole,… Summing up Sum up your argument and give a balanced personal opinion. You can use the following introductory phrases: In conclusion, … To sum up, … On balance, … Making a recommendation In my opinion/view, … I would recommend (+ -ing form) EXERCISE. Imagine that you are taking part in a conference. Prepare a short report in English on some of the ways in which recent technical advances in your discipline can help to solve some of the practical problems faced by the industry. 94 UNIT 6 TEXT: GREEN NANOSCIENCE Extraordinary advances in chemistry have made it possible to design and manipulate chemical properties at the molecular level, leading to innovative technologies and useful products. Advances in molecular-level design have been catalyzed by multidisciplinary contributions from across the physical sciences and engineering. Green chemistry and nanoscience are both emerging fields that take advantage of molecular-level design and have enormous potential for advancing our science. Nanoscience is the study of materials that are on lengthscale of 100 nanometers or smaller and have properties that are dependent on the physical size. Green chemistry is the utilization of a set of principles that reduces or eliminates the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture, and application of chemical products. Taken together, the principles of green chemistry can guide responsible development of nanoscience, while the new strategies of nanoscience can fuel the development of greener products and processes. The parallel development of green chemistry and nanoscience and the potential synergy of the two fields can lead to more successful and profitable technologies with reduced environmental impact and improved conservation of resources. Recently scientists have developed techniques for synthesizing and characterizing many new materials with at least one dimension on the nanoscale, including nanoscale particles, layers, and tubes. These nanostructured materials exhibit physical, chemical, and biological properties that are different from those of the bulk material and depend exclusively on their size and structure. The search for materials with ultra-small size and novel properties has led to the recent interest in nanoscience research. The principles of green chemistry have been applied to the rational design of an increasing number of chemical products and processes with the aims of reducing waste and intrinsic hazard, preventing pollution, and protecting human health and the environment. New technologies based on green chemistry have resulted in dramatic reductions in the use of hazardous reagents and solvents, improved energy 95 efficiency of chemical processes, and enhanced awareness of the entire life cycle of products. The goal of incorporation of green chemistry into industry is to improve processes and products and to achieve sustainability through science and technology. The ultimate potential for green chemistry and nanoscience lies in integrated approach, the development of green nanoscience. New strategies that take advantage of rational control of properties at the molecular level will lead to the development of greener products, processes, and applications. Examples of successful merging of green chemistry and nanoscience can be found in the developing fields of nanoelectronics, nanocomposites, and thermoelectrics. New approaches to the manufacture of nanoscale electronic devices may simultaneously address the technological challenges facing the electronics industry and reduce the environmental impact of their products and processes. For example, functionalized metal nanoparticles self-assembled onto biomolecular scaffolds (DNA, polypeptides) form closely and evenly spaced metal particle chains, and their electronic properties could be developed for use in nanoelectronic devices. Mild conditions and a wide range of suitable materials and synthetic methods allow for choices of non-hazardous reagents. The selectivity of chemical self-assembly onto polymer scaffolds leads to better material integration and energy-efficient processes and products. In the transportation industry, nanocomposites currently used to make vehicle panels can result in increased fuel efficiency and reduced CO2 emissions. Life-cycle analysis of these nanocomposite products suggests that environmental impacts would be greatly reduced by substituting these nanocomposite materials for steel panels. As a final example, a novel self-assembly process at relatively low temperatures has been used to prepare nanostructured thermoelectric materials for efficient heating and cooling or capture waste heat. Green nanotechnologies, such as those discussed above, demonstrate the successful coalescence of the powerful tools of nanoscience and rational designs of green chemistry. WORDS 1. to catalyze – активизировать, хим. катализировать 2. to fuel – подпитывать 96 3. synergy – синергия, совместное действие нескольких факторов 4. conservation of resources – рациональное использование ресурсов; охрана природных ресурсов 5. tube – трубка, труба 6. bulk material – вещество в массе или в объеме 7. integrated approach – комплексный подход 8. self-assembly – биол. само-сборка 9. scaffold – биотехн. клеточный каркас 10. panel – панель управления, пульт управления 11. fuel efficiency – топливная экономичность, кпд топлива 12. life cycle – срок службы, период эксплуатации 13. capture – захват, поглощение 14. waste heat – использованная/сбросная теплота 15. coalescence – коалесценция; соединение, сращение; слияние COMPREHENSION 1. Why are nanoscience and green chemistry both described as emerging fields? What multidisciplinary contributions have they been catalyzed by? 2. How would you define nanoscience? What is meant by green chemistry? What does the epithet “green” add to the traditional definition of chemistry? 3. How can nanoscience and green chemistry interact? What can the potential synergy of the two fields lead to? 4. How can you account for the recent interest in nanostructured materials? What do the properties of these materials depend on? 5. What have new technologies based on green chemistry resulted in? What can green chemistry incorporated into industry help to achieve? 6. What potential advantages can the development of green nanoscience offer? Give examples of successful merging of green chemistry and nanoscience in the fields of nanoelectronics, nanocomposites and thermoelectrics. 97 WORD STUDY The combining form nano- (from Greek nanos, “dwarf”) has two meanings: 1. exceedingly or abnormally small (e.g. nanoplankton, floating plant and animal organisms of microscopic size); 2.one-billionth of (a specified unit), e.g. nanometer = нанометр (10-9 м). EXERCISE 1. Explain the meaning of the following terms and terminological word-combinations used in the text: nanoscience; nanoscale; nanoscale particles; nanoelectronics; nanocomposites; nanoparticles; nanocomposite materials (products); nanotechnology. EXERCISE 2. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following Russian words and word-combinations: - поразительные достижения химии; - энергоэкономичные процессы; - свойства, которые отличаются от свойств материала в массе или объеме; - обладать огромным потенциалом; - проблемы (вызовы), стоящие перед электронной промышленностью; - проектирование, изготовление и применение химических материалов; - рациональное регулирование свойств на молекулярном уровне; - уменьшить воздействие на окружающую среду; - все большее количество (чего-либо); - резкое сокращение использования опасных/вредных реагентов; - зависеть исключительно от размера; - влияние (воздействие) материалов на окружающую среду STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUPS OF WORDS: to differ (from… in…), to be different (from… in…) = различаться, отличаться (от… чем-либо) e.g. English differs from Spanish both in grammar and pronunciation. Being a soldier is different from being a civilian. 98 to differentiate (between thIngs) = to differentiate (one thing from another; to distinguish (between things) = to distinguish (one thing from another); to discriminate (between two things) = различать, отличать (одно от другого) All three of these words mean “to note differences”. To discriminate is to note fine details of difference, e.g. A gourmet discriminates the tastes of food more keenly that most people. To differentiate is to point out or enumerate the differences between two things, e.g. In planning a household budget it is helpful to differentiate necessities and luxuries (or differentiate between necessities and luxuries – either way is correct). To distinguish is merely to note the different identities of things, e.g. People who are colour-blind cannot distinguish certain colours. EXERCISE. Complete the following sentences with a proper word from the group of words given above. Give reasons for your choice. 1. The two animals come from the same family but ...... in body shape. 2. There is something about music that ...... it from all other art forms. 3. Your method ...... from mine. 4. The device can ...... between the cancerous and the normal cells. 5. It is impossible ...... between the twins. 6. The ability to speak ...... humans from other animals. 7. Modern cars ...... from the early ones in many ways. 8. The two brothers ...... widely in character. 9. During his illness he found it difficult to...... reality from dreams. 10. The techniques used ...... from company to company. 11. It can be difficult to ...... one shape from another. 12. At this age your baby cannot …… one person from another. 13. How can you ...... between moral and religious questions? 14. This ...... from what he said. 15. I can’t ...... between cheap and expensive wines. 16. The computer lacks the ability to ...... between speech and other sounds. 17. Babies learn to see by ...... between areas of light and dark. 18. His interests ...... from mine. 99 WORD-BUILDING EXERCISE 1. Complete the following table where possible. to operate operation operational automatic to advance elaborate acceptance to interrupt economical substitution Use your dictionary to check the words you have written. EXERCISE 2. Complete the following sentences using the words from the table. 1. In several cities of the world, the amount of air pollution has passed beyond an ...... level. 2. Alternative materials have been ...... for asbestos in most sectors of the construction industry. 3. Nuclear power stations are now …… in several countries. 4. Realizing that they might overrun their budget, the director ordered drastic …… in the remainder of the programme. 5. Proponents of …… argue that it will release workers from boring, repetitive jobs. 6. After making the preliminary announcement, the professor refused to …… on the results of his experiment. WORD RECOGNITION BY GRAPHIC SHAPE Which of the following words are correctly spelled? Choose the correct one (ones). distribution distribution distribution distribution consentration concentration concentration concentracion characteristic characteristic charachteristic characteristic hypothesis hypothesis hypothesis hypotheosis compound combound compounde compound 100 STRUCTURE STUDY: RELATIVE CLAUSES A relative clause is a subordinate clause that gives more information about someone or something mentioned in the main clause. The relative clause comes immediately after the noun that refers to the person or thing being talked about. There are two kinds of relative clauses: defining relative clauses and nondefining relative clauses. Defining relative clauses identify the person or thing being spoken about. A defining relative clause is essential. The sentence doesn’t really make sense without it. e.g. He spends his money on the things that he wants. Without “that he wants” the sentence is just “he spends his money on the things”. But we need to know what things. The relative clause completes the sense: “the things that he wants”. A non-defining relative clause gives additional information about the person or thing being spoken about. This information is not essential. The sentence is complete without it? e.g. The summer here, which I don’t like, lasts for two months. Without “which I don’t like” the sentence still makes sense: The summer here lasts for two months. The relative clause only adds some extra information. Defining relative clauses are much more common in the spoken language, and non-defining relative clauses are more common in the written language. The rules for defining and non-defining relative clauses are not the same. 1. Commas are not used in defining relative clauses. But non-defining relative clauses are usually separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. 2. In a defining relative clause, when you are referring to people, you use who or that as the subject of the clause. You use who, that or whom as the object of the defining clause. (Whom is a formal word, and who is commonly used instead, except when you say to/for/with whom). e.g. We met the people who live in the cottage. He was the man that bought my house. That’s the company for whom you work, isn’t it? He is the man with whom I share an office. 101 She’s the woman who (whom, that) I saw on TV last night. 3. In a non-defining relative clause, you use who as the subject of the clause, or who or whom as the object of the clause. e.g. His wife, who is French, speaks three languages. His wife, who (whom) I met in Paris, is French. 4. In a defining clause, when you are referring to things, you use which or that as the subject or object of the clause. e.g. The job that (which) they asked us to do was almost impossible. This is the house that (which) we live in. 5. When a non-defining relative clause refers to things, you use which as the subject or object. e.g. I’m teaching at the local college, which is just over the road. He had a lot of money, which he mainly spent on cars. 6. You can leave out the relative pronoun in a defining clause if it refers to the object of the sentence. However, non-defining clauses cannot be used without a relative pronoun. e.g. The woman you met yesterday lives next door. She sold her car, which she had bought the year before. (Not: She sold her car, she had bought the year before). 7. Prepositions usually come at the end of the relative clause. e.g. Come and meet the people I work with. This is the book I was telling you about. She’s a friend I can always rely on. 8. When you want to talk about something belonging or relating to a person, thing, or a group, you use a defining or non-defining relative clause beginning with whose + a noun, e.g. This is Henry, whose wife works for my brother-in-law. He’s the writer whose latest novel is much spoken about. EXERCISE 1. Fill the gaps with who, which, whose or that. Where possible, leave out the relative pronoun. 1. I received a letter this morning …… really upset me. 2. Toby, a boy …… I went to school with, is ill in hospital. 3. He’s going to have an operation …… could save his life. 102 4. She told me a story ...... I found hard to believe. 5. Apparently, he lost all his money gambling, …… really annoyed her. 6. The people ...... used to live next door moved a long time ago. EXERCISE 2. Join the following pairs of sentences using who, whose, which, that. Make the underlined sentence the relative clause. e.g. You gave me a magazine. It is very interesting. The magazine that you gave me is very interesting. 1. The new director is very popular. She gets on well with everyone. 2. I went to see the film Titanic. I enjoyed it very much. 3. George speaks Spanish. His wife is from Argentina. 4. The winters are very cold. I enjoy them. 5. Here are the exercises You must do them. 6. What’s the name of the girl? You’ve just spoken to her. EXERCISE 3. Rewrite these sentences, putting the preposition at the end, e.g. Computer programming is something about which I know little. Computer programming is something (which/that) I know little about. 1. It was a mistake for which they have already apologized. 2. Mathematics is a subject in which she has little interest. 3. It was the bank from which he borrowed money. 4. That’s the hospital in which the twins were born. 5. March 25 is the day on which the country celebrates its independence. READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1 THE ROLE OF GREEN CHEMISTRY IN NANOSCIENCE Green chemistry has enormous potential in steering the responsible development of nanotechnology through the design of greener nanoscale materials and the discovery of green nanomanufacturing methods. Assessment of the potential toxicological and environmental effects of nanoscale materials before they are incorporated into technologies presents an opportunity to minimize negative consequences and promote a sustainable nanotechnology industry. 103 A staggering number of applications have been proposed for the use of nanoscale building blocks (for example, nanoparticles) and hybrid materials containing nanoscale additives or nanoscale structure. Nanoparticles exhibit size-dependent optical, electronic, and chemical properties that are already finding use in applications ranging from optical materials to consumer healthcare products. In addition to their use as discrete products, the incorporation of nanostructures into typical polymeric materials can dramatically improve the properties of these materials. For example, the addition of nanoscale metal or metal oxide layers into polymers produces coatings that may eventually replace environmentally-harmful chromate coatings traditionally used for corrosion resistance. Nanocomposite polymers based on biopolymers, such as starch and chitosan, intercalated with nanoscale layers of clay, have produced biodegradable polymers with physical and chemical properties that rival those of engineering plastics. Green chemistry offers potential benefits in process development and manufacturing as well as product design. Since many preparation methods for the molecular building blocks of nanotechnology involve high energy requirements or hazardous chemicals, the development of greener processes for the manufacture of these materials is important. Several examples have been reported where the hazards of nanoparticle production have been significantly reduced by process redesign. For example, we developed a more efficient and less hazardous synthesis of phosphine-stabilized gold nanoparticles that produces greater amounts of particles, in less time, under milder conditions, while using less hazardous reagents from the traditional preparation. The advantages of synthesizing gold nanoparticles in supercritical CO 2, a greener solvent than is traditionally used, have also been reported. Monodisperse gold and silver nanoparticles have been synthesized through the use of living plants and in microorganisms. The use of microreactors to synthesize nanoparticles in rapid, continuous process results in reduced waste, improved energy efficiency, and increased control of product properties. In each of these processes, green chemical strategies have provided opportunities for the development of more efficient synthetic methods that reduce waste and have improved health and environmental impacts. 104 SCANNING: Make the right choice: 1. Why is it important to assess the potential toxicological and environmental effects of nanoscale materials before they are incorporated into technologies? a. It facilitates the technological process. b. It helps to minimize negative consequences. c. It helps to make the technology more cost-efficient. 2. The incorporation of nanostructures into typical polymeric materials a. makes the materials more lightweight. b. can reduce the cost of production. c. can dramatically increase the properties of these materials. 3. Why is the development of greener processes for the manufacture of nanoparticles so important? a. Because conventional methods of their production involve high energy requirements and hazardous chemicals. b. Because this makes the final products environmentally friendly. c. Because the use of greener processes increases productivity. 4. How have monodisperse gold and silver particles been synthesized? a. Through the use of improved catalysts. b. Through the use of living plants and in microorganisms. c. Through designing new equipment for the synthesis. TEXT 2 Read the text below and divide it into paragraphs according to the following plan: 1. The significance of nanostructured materials for green chemistry. 2. Nanoscience and the problems of environmental protection. 3. The application of nanoscience for increasing energy efficiency. 4. New manufacturing strategies offered by nanoscience. 5. New opportunities for reducing the waste stream. THE ROLE OF NANOSCIENCE IN GREEN CHEMISTRY Nanoscience offers new tools for green chemistry through new nanostructured materials and novel design strategies that are based on increased control of 105 chemical and physical structure. Materials and devices with components of nanometer size may be inherently lighter, use less power, and have enhanced performance. The new chemical, optical, and electronic properties of these materials and the expected high degree of control of these properties provide new prospects for greener materials and processes. Nanoscience provides many opportunities for improved environmental technology through new nanostructured materials with applications in sensing, remediation, and pollution prevention. Nanoscale sensors based on nanowires or nanoparticles offer faster response time, provide low detection limits and make on-site, real-time detection possible. Nanoscience applications can also improve environmental remediation processes. Self-assembled monolayers on mesoporous supports have been used as highly effective sorbent materials for removal of contaminants from ground water. A number of different types of inorganic nanoparticles have shown promise as catalysts for photodegradation of contaminants in air, water, and soil. These nanoscale materials further the aims of green chemistry through enhanced progress in assessment and removal of hazards. Another general theme of green chemistry that is addressed by nanoscience is increased efficiency. Many nanostructured materials with specific desired properties offer more efficient material and energy consumption. Nanocomposite materials, in which the introduction of nanoscale components increases strength without adding weight, provide increased energy efficiency. Nanostructured thermoelectric devices are capable of turning waste heat into electricity or providing energy-efficient cooling. Photovoltaics based on nanoscale components offer enhanced performance and materials efficiency and clean energy production because they allow for energy generation from a renewable source. Despite the benefits that nanoscale materials are already providing in remediation, pollution prevention, and efficient use of resources, perhaps the greatest contribution to green chemistry will be the new manufacturing strategies available through nanoscience. Bottom-up manufacturing, wherein materials are produced through direct growth or self-assembly, can result in the formation of complex architectures in fewer steps with high material integration and very little waste. Nanoscale bottom-up processes directed by complementary reactivity, geometries, or physical properties, can dramatically reduce energy requirements and waste generation. The use of self-assembly methods also enables materials 106 for disassembly, incorporating a potential design for end-of-life. For example, peptide-amphiphile nanoscale fibers have demonstrated reversible self-assembly through pH changes and reversible polymerization producing a versatile material. Another tool that nanoscience provides for green chemistry is dematerialization, a waste-reduction strategy wherein nanoscale materials are used to replace macroscale counterparts. Significant reductions in waste have been accomplished through the use of molecular monolayers instead of thick polymer films as masks for lithography and through nanoscale deposition of polymer electrolytes for non-lithographic patterning of metal oxide films. Improved miniaturization methods for the manufacture of nanoscale devices and products and their ultimate replacement of larger analogues can continue to reduce the waste stream and the demands on the resources. QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION The titles of the two texts you have just read suggest that there is a constant exchange going on between green chemistry and nanoscience. – Can you explain how green chemistry and nanoscience influence each other? – What are the main contributions of green chemistry to nanoscience and vice versa? – Which of these contributions do you consider the most promising? Why? Give your reasons. SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: DESCRIBING AN EXPERIMENT When you are describing an experiment, check that you have covered the following points. General: Write clearly and simply, but in a formal style, using the Passive Voice. (e.g. "An experiment was performed" rather than "We performed an experiment"). Title and Abstract: 107 1. Summarize relevant experimental findings and theories which relate to the aims of your experiment. Use this information to provide a justification for why your experiment is worth doing. 2. Outline your proposed experiment. 3. Make specific predictions Method: 1. Include sub-sections on: Design; Apparatus; Procedure. 2. Make sure there is enough relevant detail for the reader to be able to repeat the experiment purely by reading your Method section. 3. In the Design section, identify the independent and dependent variables. Results: 1. Make sure you have clearly described the results and explained whether the evidence supports the hypothesis under consideration. Describe them, but leave interpretation until the Discussion section. 2. If you have a fair amount of numerical data, put it in tables and graphs, whichever seems clearest. 3. Make sure each table or graph is clearly labelled and has a selfexplanatory title. Make sure tables and graphs are intelligible without reference to the text, and vice versa. Discussion: 1. Summarize your main results. 2. Provide some interpretation of what your results mean, in theoretical terms. 3. Indicate clearly whether or not your initial hypothesis has been confirmed. 4. Discuss your own data with reference to other experimental findings and theories in the area, particularly those summarized in the Introduction. 5. Identify potential problems with your study and make intelligent suggestions for future studies. ASSIGNMENT: Imagine that you have just carried out an experiment. Give an account of it from a personal point of view and in your own words, as though you were explaining it to an international symposium of chemists. 108 UNIT 7 TEXT: ENERGY AND CIVILIZATION Pre-Reading Task Before reading the text, decide whether the following statements are true or false: a) The rapid development of modern civilization is largely due to the discovery of new sources of energy. b) Man makes considerable use of radiant energy today. c) The amount of energy used in agriculture is decreasing. d) Food production cannot be doubled in the next 30 years. e) The fossil fuels reserves are virtually unlimited. g) The conversion of heat into mechanical energy is always inefficient because some heat is wasted in the process. h) A future increase in energy consumption will lead to detrimental environmental consequences. Now read the text to see whether you were right. Modern civilization owes its spectacular development in large measure to the discovery of vast sources of energy and to the development of new methods for storing and transforming it. Within less than 200 years man has learned to convert the chemical energy in explosives, to get electrical energy from moving water, and to use electrical energy for heating, lighting, mechanical work, and communication. In the development of nuclear reactors, a new energy source has been drawn on – the energy stored in the interior of atoms. Other possible sources still being explored are the energy of tides and radiant energy direct from the Sun. Man’s use of energy has grown rapidly in the last few decades. The chief reason is the increase in average energy use per person. A century ago, the rise of the Industrial Revolution led to the use of about 300 million J per person per day in the more advanced countries. Today the number of people who share the benefits of industrialization is much greater and they each tend to use more energy as well. 109 More and more energy is being used to produce the artificial fertilizers needed by modern agriculture. This brings us to the aptly named population explosion: the world’s population will double in the next 30 years or so. To double food production is certainly possible, but only by the heavy use of fertilizers which will require disproportionately large amounts of energy. What will happen if the population continues to increase past the doubling that is in sight is not reassuring to contemplate. Clearly, it is not possible to project present trends of energy demand very far ahead. On the supply side, the fossil fuels that today provide about 98% of man’s energy will sooner or later be exhausted. Natural gas will be the first fossil fuel to run out, followed soon afterwards by oil. Coal reserves are much greater, and ought to last at least another century. Nuclear fuels, too, are sufficient for another century or more. And if practical methods for utilizing thermonuclear energy are devised, the energy reserves available to man will be virtually unlimited. Though fossil fuels must inevitably diminish in importance, there seems to be no basic reason why other sources of energy cannot take their place. However, despite the probable presence of adequate fuel of one kind or another, the current increase of energy consumption cannot continue for very much longer. What stands in the way is the intrinsic inefficiency of all methods of converting heat into mechanical energy; electrical energy is included here, since it is produced by using mechanical energy to power generators. The inefficiency is not due to poor machinery but to the laws of thermodynamics – some heat must be wasted in every heat engine. Even nuclear energy is inefficient, because it is turned into heat in a reactor and this heat is then used to operate a steam turbine which is connected to an electric generator. The conversion of heat into mechanical energy cannot be more than partly efficient, and some heat must be given off to the outside world. Even today the disposal of waste heat from power plants is a problem in the heavily industrialized parts of the world. Generating plants in the United States already use about 10% of the flow of all the rivers and streams of the country for cooling purposes. There are likely to be serious biological consequences if the scale of heating of inland waters rises much further, and if waste heat is instead discharged into the atmosphere with the help of cooling 110 towers, the weather and climate of the region involved may be changed in a perhaps harmful way. Although the oceans can safely absorb much waste heat, locating power plants exclusively on their shores poses the question of transmitting the energy they produce for thousands of miles inland. Nevertheless it seems clear that a considerable further increase in energy consumption is possible without undue environmental damage, provided care is used. It also seems clear that no increase is possible which can keep up for much longer with both the current rise in worldwide living standards and the current rise in world population. The laws of thermodynamics cannot be changed, and a future energy crisis will represent a social failure, not a technological one. WORDS 1. to owe to – быть обязанным кому-либо, чему-либо 2. spectacular – впечатляющий 3. tide - прилив 4. fertilizer – удобрение 5. aptly – уместно, удачно 6. to reassure – уверять, ободрять, успокаивать, обнадеживать 7. to contemplate – размышлять (о чем-либо), обдумывать 8. to project – планировать; проецировать 9. to run out – исчерпать, истощаться 10. intrinsic – внутренний, природный; свойственный 11. heat engine – тепловой двигатель 12. waste heat – отходящая (использованная) теплота 13. generating plant – электростанция 14. inland – внутренний, находящийся далеко от побережья; уходящий вглубь 15. cooling tower – градирня 16. undue – чрезмерный; несвоевременный, неподходящий 111 COMPREHENSION 1. What does modern civilization owe its spectacular development to? What achievements in the field of storing and transforming energy can mankind boast of? 2. What are the reasons for the rapid growth in the use of energy in the last few decades? Why is the so-called population explosion quickly becoming a cause for concern? 3. Do you agree with the author’s statement that it is not possible to project present trends of energy demand? Why/why not? When are the fossil fuels expected to run out? What can they be replaced with? 4. What can the intrinsic inefficiency of all methods of converting heat into mechanical energy be accounted for? 5. What makes the disposal of waste heat from power plants a serious problem? What happens if waste heat is discharged into the atmosphere? 6. What are the conditions under which a considerable further increase in energy consumption becomes possible? What are the potential consequences of a future energy crisis? WORD STUDY EXERCISE 1. Find in the text words corresponding to the following definitions: – coal, oil, and natural gas – all the people who live in a country or area – made by man, not natural – farming – very impressive – to think about something carefully and for a long time STUDY THE FOLLOWING GROUP OF WORDS: CONTAIN, INCLUDE, ENCLOSE, CONSIST OF, COMPRISE, BE COMPOSED OF, BE MADE UP OF Contain: The word is used (1) when you say what a box, bottle, bag etc. has inside it: The bag contained some old clothes. (2) when you mention one or 112 more of the things that something is made of or has in it: Water contains hydrogen and oxygen. The film contained a number of violent scenes. One of the bottles containing the virus had been stolen. Include: If something includes another thing, it has it as one of its parts. It should not be used to refer to all the parts of something: The proposals include increasing the tax on petrol. The price includes dinner, bed, and breakfast. Durable goods include such items as cars, computers and electrical appliances. Enclose: Use enclose when you tell someone what you are putting in the envelope or parcel that you sending them: I enclose my completed application form. The reaction takes place extremely rapidly within an enclosed space. Consist of, comprise (formal), be composed of, be made up of: These words are used when you are speaking of the entire contents or mention all the parts that something has in it: The book consists of six chapters and a brief introduction. The Earth's atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. The house comprises two bedrooms, a bathroom, a kitchen, and a living room. The USA government is made up of two legislative assemblies. EXERCISE 2. Which of the two words given in brackets can be used in the following sentences: 1. The book (contains; consists of) much useful information. 2. I have (enclosed; included) a cheque for 25 pounds with the order. 3. Milk also (includes; contains) vitamins. 4. The poem (consists of; includes) just two short verses. 5. Muscle (contains; is composed of) two different types of protein. 6. Our town's library (comprises; includes) 20,000 volumes. WORD-BUILDING PATTERNS: NEGATIVE PREFIXES EXERCISE 3. Make the following words negative by adding prefixes un-, in-, im-, il-, ir-: a) due, limited, necessary, reliable, expected, stable, usual 113 b) efficient, valid, accurate, capable, direct, essential, complete c) possible, polite, perfect, practicable, precise, probable d) logical, legal, legible, literate e) responsible, regular, rational, relevant, reversible EXERCISE 4. After each of the following sentences there is a choice of three words. Choose the word that is closest in meaning to the word in italics as used in the sentence. 1. The composition of the alloy is unknown. organization / element / make-up 2. The results confirmed the earlier findings. supported / promoted / helped 3. The use of computers has facilitated keeping accurate records. lessened / made easier / increased 4. The possibilities for improving plants expanded as a result of Gregor Mendel’s investigations. developed / calculated / grew 5. The bread dough contains nutrients that yeast cells digest. makes up /consists of / forms 6. Primitive farmers were ignorant of the natural principles at work. unaware / capable / doubtful STRUCTURE STUDY: THE PARTICIPLE There are two Participles: The Present Participle, ending in –ing (e.g. reading, speaking, running, sitting), and the Past Participle, which in the case of regular verbs ends in –ed (e.g. opened, appointed, played, accepted). Present and Past Participles can be put together to make ‘Perfect Participles’ (e.g. having arrived), ‘Passive participles’ (e.g. being employed), and ‘Perfect Passive Participles’ (e.g. having been invited). Participles are used: 1) as adjectives, to describe an object or a person. e.g. a burning house = a house which is on fire a broken window (describing the way the window looks) 2) to shorten a relative clause in the Active or in the Passive, e.g. 114 Anyone arriving (= anyone who arrives) late will not be admitted. She lives in a house built (= which was built) in the 19th century 3) Present Participles can also be used to replace clauses of reason and time beginning with because, since, as, when, after, before, as soon as, while. e.g. Knowing that he was asleep, she tried not to make a noise. Glancing at the clock, I saw that it was midnight. A Participle put before a noun usually expresses some more permanent characteristics: it is more like an adjective than a verb, e.g. an interesting book English-speaking Canadians When a Participle is used after a noun, the emphasis is more on the action: the Participle is like a verb as well as an adjective, e.g. the problems discussed at the meeting the results obtained To say how we feel about something, we can use the Past Participles interested, bored, excited, etc. I wasn’t very interested in the lecture To talk about the person or thing that makes us feel interested, bored, excited. etc., we use Present Participles interesting, boring, exciting, etc. I thought the lesson was quite interesting We found the party quite boring EXERCISE 1. Pick out sentences with participles from the text and translate them. The explanations given above will help you. Write out Participles used as adjectives with the nouns they refer to. Pay attention to the position of the Participle. EXERCISE 2. Choose the correct Participle. 1. I didn’t know you were (interesting/interested) in gardening. 2. I’m not. I think it’s really (boring/bored) but my Mum’s hurt her back and she was (concerning/concerned) that the garden would become a mess. 3. Oh, I understand now. I was really (surprising/surprised) to see you with a spade in your hand! 4. Don’t laugh! This is really (tiring/tired), I feel (exhausting/exhausted) already. 115 EXERCISE 3. Say what you think about the persons, things or notions (in brackets) using The Present or Past Participles. 1. If a compliment pleases a person… (the compliment, the person). 2. If a person has become tired of a long trip ...... (the person, the trip). 3. The boy’s questions puzzled his parents. (the questions, the parents). 4. Mr Smith bores us with his long stories. (Mr Smith, his listeners, his stories). The exercises given below show how Participles are used in Academic English, in particular in texts dealing with problems of chemistry. EXERCISE 4. Choose the sentences in which the verb forms ending '-ing' or 'ed' are participles. 1. The admixtures remaining in the end product were distilled off. 2. The isolated product was precipitated. 3. The styrene added retarded the polymerization. 4. Considering the hydrolysis as first order reaction it is possible to draw some conclusions. 5. Cellulose is the most abandoned of all natural occurring organic substances. 6. This suggests that the corresponding compounds obtained from the isomeric bromepoxides are not identical. 7. The data provided vary with the purpose and scope of each particular investigation. 8. Fine pores fill up with solvent leaving but a small surface for exchange. 9. This allows the reactions described here to occur at higher temperatures. 10. We obtained many aliphatic compounds including unsaturated ones. Normally the subject of a participle clause is the same as the subject of the main verb in a sentence. However, there are some very common expressions which break this rule. Generally speaking, men can run faster than women. Judging from his expression, he is in a bad mood. Considering everything, it wasn't a bad holiday. Supposing there was a storm, what would you do? 116 In other cases, a participle clause can be given its own subject. When a participle phrase does not refer to the subject of the main clause, it is called 'a dangling participle' or 'Absolute Participle Construction'. Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed. All the money having been spent, we started looking for work. EXERCISE 5. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Absolute Participle Construction at the beginning of the sentence. 1. The temperature being 100, water boiled quickly. 2. A new technique having been worked out, the yield rose. 3. The work (being) finished, we went home. 4. The experiment having been carried out, we started a new investigation. 5. Other things being equal, solid catalyst would attain the maximum activity if prepared adequately. 6. The frequency of the current being unchanged, the parametres of the system didn't change either. 7. This physical law have been explained, a student was asked to give an example illustrating this law. EXERCISE 6. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Absolute Participle Construction at the end of the sentence. 1. We found new routes of synthesis, the older ones being unsatisfactory. 2. Electrophilic reagents are those which seek electrons, the most common being positive ions. 3. The rates and molecular weights are affected by lowering the temperature, the former being decreased and the latter increased. 4. To provide as much cooling surface as possible annular tubes are used, the catalyst being in the annulus. 5. An experiment indicated that 90% of the reactions proceed according to reactions 1 and 2, with the former predominating. 6. From this viewpoint the constitution of the coloured salts is that of a free radical, there being one less electron than is needed for a compound of normal valency. 7. Water exists as ice at low temperatures, and as steam at higher temperatures, the temperature depending upon pressure. 117 READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1 SKIMMING: Read the text and choose the title that best suits it: The Sources of Energy Energy Conservation Energy-Saving Technologies Industrial Consumption of Energy At present all possible efforts are being made to reduce energy consumption. This can be achieved through increased efficient energy use, in conjunction with decreased energy consumption and/or reduced consumption from conventional energy sources. The attempts to reduce energy consumption, often referred to as energy conservation, can result in increased financial capital, environmental quality, national security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are direct consumers of energy choose to conserve energy to reduce energy costs and promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users can increase energy usage-efficiency to maximize profit. Efficient energy, sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is the goal of efforts to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing fluorescent lights or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination as with using traditional incandescent light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights use one-third the energy of incandescent lights and may last six to ten times longer. Improvements in energy efficiency are most often achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process. There are various motivations to improve energy efficiency. Reducing energy use reduces energy costs and may result in a financial cost saving to consumers if the energy savings offset any additional costs of implementing an energy efficient technology. Reducing energy use is also seen as a solution to the problem of reducing emissions. According to the International Energy 118 Agency, improved energy efficiency in buildings, industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world’s energy needs in 2050 by one third, and help control global emissions of greenhouse gases. Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy. In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted. QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION 1. Energy conservation is seen by many as one of the greatest challenges facing the humanity nowadays. Do you share this opinion? Why/Why not? Give your reasons. 2. What are the potential benefits that could be achieved through reducing energy consumption a) by individuals; b) by industrial organizations? In what way can you personally contribute to tackling the problem of energy conservation? 3. According to the text, “improvements in energy efficiency are most often achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process”. Can you give examples of such technologies and processes from your own field of study? 4. Why, do you think, are energy efficiency and renewable energy described as “the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy”? TEXT 2 SKIMMING: Look through the text quickly to find answers to the following questions: 1. How can the increase in the ratio of known reserves to production between 1970 and 2000 be accounted for? 2. What factors have an influence on the use of fossil fuels? 3. What can slow down growth in materials consumption? 119 4. What evidence is there showing that in the future unfavourable environmental changes may become a reality? NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES A prime example of nonrenewable resources is fossil fuels, whose limits should be obvious, although many people, including distinguishes economists, deny this elementary fact. More than 80 percent of year 2000 commercial use comes from nonrenewable fossil fuels – oil, natural gas, and coal. The underground stocks of fossil fuels are going continuously down. Between 1970 and 2000, even though billions of barrels of oil and trillions of cubic feet of natural gas were burned, the ratio of known reserves to production actually rose, due to the discovery of new reserves and reappraisal of old ones. Nonetheless, the stock of reserves is finite and nonrenewable. Moreover, fossil fuels use is limited by the planet’s capacity to absorb their by-products after burning, such as the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Peak gas production will certainly occur in the next 50 years; the peak for oil production will occur much sooner, probably within the next decade. Energy efficiency and renewables offer the best prospect for a sustainable future. Materials are another finite resource. If population rises, and if those people are to have housing, health services, education, cars, refrigerators, and televisions, they will need steel, concrete, copper, aluminum, plastic, and many other materials. But if an eventual 9 billion people on earth all consumed materials at the rate of the average American, world steel production would need to rise by a factor of five, copper by a factor of eight, and aluminum by a factor of nine. It should be borne in mind that the processing, fabricating, handling, and use of materials leaves a trail of pollution. Such materials flows are neither possible nor necessary. Fortunately, growth in materials consumption has slowed, and the prospects for further slowing are good. The possibilities of recycling, greater efficiency, increased product lifetime, and source reduction in the world of materials are exciting. On a global scale, however, they have not yet reduced the vast materials flow through the economy. At best, they have slowed its rate of growth. 120 Another fundamental limit to growth is the capacity of the planet to absorb the pollution and waste resulting from human activity. The most intractable wastes are nuclear wastes, hazardous wastes (like human synthesized chemicals), and green gases. They are chemically the hardest to detoxify, and economically and politically the most difficult to regulate. Current atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane are far higher than they have been in 160,000 years. It may take decades for the consequences of climate change to be revealed in melting ice, rising seas, changing currents, greater storms, shifting rainfall, and migrating insects, birds, or mammals. It is also plausible that climate may change rapidly. In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development put forward the idea of sustainability, defining it in the following way: “A sustainable society is one that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Some people think that a sustainable society would have to stop using nonrenewable resources. But that is an over-rigid interpretation of what it means to be sustainable. Certainly, a sustainable society would use nonrenewable gifts from the Earth’s crust more thoughtfully and efficiently. SCANNING: Look through the text again and say what can be described as renewable resources; specify what the use of fossil fuels is limited by; point out why materials, too, can be regarded as renewable resources; explain how the use of nonrenewable resources is connected with the idea of sustainability. SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Writing a Research Paper Making a Plan for the Article Before you start planning your article you should decide on the journal in which you are going to try to publish. Very often the choice of journal will influence the format and style of your article. Different journals have different styles and different rules of presentation for the material they publish. Most types of research articles follow the classic pattern of: Introduction. Answering the questions: 121 Why did I do the work and what were the objectives – what did I want to find you? Materials. What did I use and how did I use it? Results. What happened? Discussion. What does it all mean? Conclusions. What are the implications? Acknowledgements. Who helped me? References. Who have I cited in the text? The Parts of the Paper The questions you answer when planning a paper help you break the paper down into its elements, which can be explained as follows: 1. The reason for doing the work. 2. What was known and what was not known before the investigation was started and the logic leading to the experiments. 3. What the work was expected to show, or the objectives, and the hypothesis under test. 4. The setting and the conditions of the experiment that eliminate variation. 5. The experimental plan. 6. The methods used. 7. How the data were collected. 8. The methods of analyzing the data and the statistical techniques. 9. The results obtained. 10. The validity and meaning of the results and the conclusions to be drawn from them. 11. Directions for future work. 12. References to other work in the field. Making Up the Figures and Tables It is usually best to draw your results in graph and table form before or while you are writing. Usually you will have a lot of data, and you must select parts to support the arguments in your paper. While you are doing this you will also be deciding exactly what you want to show, and the best ways to illustrate your findings. Remember that the figures and tables are two of the most effective parts of the paper in giving information so you should put a lot of thought into them. 122 ASSIGNMENT: Choose a topic for an article you would like to publish in a journal. Make a plan of the article and get ready to discuss it in class. STRUCTURING YOUR IDEAS: putting points in order In formal writing and speech, people often want to say what stage they have reached in writing or speaking. It is a good idea to organize them carefully as a sequence or in a list. Here are some words and expressions that you can use: First, firstly, first of all, at first, in/at the beginning You can use first or firstly to introduce the first point in a discussion, the first of a series of questions or instructions, or the first item in a list. If you want to emphasize that an item is the first one you are going to mention, you can say first of all. First, I want to talk about the history of the problem; then I'll outline the situation today; and then we'll discuss possible solution. There are two reasons. Firstly I have no evidence that the original document has been destroyed. These new computers have several advantages. First of all, they are faster than the older machines. Secondly, they are far easier to use. And thirdly, they are more reliable. When you are contrasting feelings or actions at the beginning of an event with ones that came later, you say at first. At first I didn’t like the climate, but after two years I got used to it. Like at first, in the beginning introduce a situation which is in contrast with a later situation. However, in the beginning is less common and suggests that the speaker is looking a long way back into the past to the period of time immediately after something began. In the beginning I found it hard to concentrate, but now it is much easier. At the beginning refers to the point of time when something begins. Unlike in the beginning, at the beginning is usually followed by of. At the beginning of each lesson there is usually a revision exercise. 123 In the second/third place, second/secondly, third/thirdly, next, in addition All these words and expressions introduce the second or next item in the list. People gain valuable work experience and, in addition, employers can afford to employ them. Finally, at last, lastly, in the end, eventually These word and expressions introduce the last item in the list. These expressions are not used in quite a same way. Finally can be used to introduce the last element in a series. We need to increase productivity. We need to reduce an unemployment. And finally, we need to make our exports competitive on world markets. At last is also used to suggest – very strongly – the idea of a long way or delay. When at last they found him he was almost dead. Lastly is used when you want to make one more statement, or mention one more thing in a list before you finish. And lastly, I should remind you that essays are due tomorrow. In the end is used when we want to suggest that something happens after a lot of changes, problems, or uncertainty. The taxman always gets you in the end. Eventually is used at the end of a process or period of time in which many things happen. It seems more and more likely will eventually destroy itself. 124 UNIT 8 TEXT: MATERIALS SCIENCE Materials science is an interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. With significant media attention focused on nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many universities. It is also an important part of failure analysis. Materials science also deals with fundamental properties and characteristics of materials. The basis of materials science involves relating the desired properties and relative performance of a material in a certain application to the structure of the atoms and phases in that material through characterization. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final form. These characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics, govern a material’s microstructure and thus its properties. The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is currently physically impossible. Instead materials scientists manipulate the defects in crystalline materials such as precipitates, grain boundaries, interstitial atoms, vacancies, or substitutional atoms, to create materials with the desired properties. Not all materials have a regular crystal structure. Polymers display varying degrees of crystallinity and many are completely non-crystalline. Glasses, some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous, not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics, as well as mechanical, descriptions of physical properties. Radical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make improvements in currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production 125 of materials, processing techniques (casting, rolling, welding, ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, etc.), and analytical techniques (e.g. electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, calorimetry, Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS), neutron diffraction, etc.). Besides material characterization, the material scientist/engineer also deals with the extraction of materials and their conversion into useful forms. Often the presence, absence or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will have a great impact on the final properties of the materials produced. For example, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extraction and purification techniques employed in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace will have an impact on the quality of steel that may be produced. WORDS 1. materials science – материаловедение 2. science and engineering – наука и техника, наука и производство 3. to incorporate - включать (в состав), содержать в себе 4. failure analysis – анализ разрушений 5. the media – средства массовой информации 6. to propel to the forefront – выдвигать на первый план 7. characterization – определение характеристик или параметров 8. precipitate – осадок, выпавшая (выделившаяся) фаза 9. interstitial – внедренный, междоузельный 10. long-range order – дальний порядок (структуры) 11. cost-benefit tradeoff – разумное соотношение затрат и прибыли 12. processing technique – способ, метод обработки 13. casting – литье, отливка 14. rolling – прокатка 15. welding – сварка 16. ion implantation – ионная имплантация 17. thin film deposition – напыление тонкопленочных покрытий 18. sintering – аггломерация, спекание; обжиг (руды) 126 19. Rutherford backscattering – резерфордовское обратное рассеяние 20. bulk material –вещество в массе или в объеме; вещество или материал основы, основной материал 21. weight percentage – процентное содержание по массе 22. alloying element – легирующий элемент 23. blast furnace – доменная печь COMPREHENSION 1. Why is materials science described as in the text an interdisciplinary field? What does materials science study? What applied sciences is it connected with? 2. What forms the basis of materials science? What are the structure and properties of a material determined by? 3. How can materials scientists create materials with the desired properties? 4. What are the differences between materials from the point of view of their structure? Can you give examples of materials with a regular crystal structure and those which are completely non-crystalline? 5. What are the possible industrial applications of materials science? Is materials science only used to create new materials or can it be employed when working with currently used materials as well? 6. What does the material scientist deal with, besides material characterization? Why are the extraction and purification techniques so important for the quality of the final product? WORD STUDY The properties of metals. Every metal possesses certain properties, or characteristics, or qualities which we can find by experiment. These properties will make the metal suitable of unsuitable for any particular purpose. The metal is fluid It has fluidity It flow easily when it melts plastic plasticity It pulls out of shape without breaking 127 elastic elasticity ductile ductility malleable malleability It always returns to its original shape It can be stretched without breaking It can be hammered out of shape without breaking. Metals can also possess the following properties: They are strong under tension and compression. That means they can withstand stretching and crushing without breaking. They are sonorous: they make a ringing noise when you strike them. They are shiny when polished. They are good conductors of electricity and heat. They have high melting and boiling points. They have high densities. They react with oxygen to form oxides. For example, magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide. Metal oxides are bases, which means they react with acids to form salts. When metals form ions, the ions are positive. For example, in the reaction between magnesium and oxygen, magnesium ions and oxide ions are formed. The last two properties above are called chemical properties, because they are about chemical changes in the metals. The other properties are physical properties. Comparing metals with nonmetals Only 21 of the elements are nonmetals. Nonmetals are quite different from metals. The usually have these properties: 1. They are not strong, or malleable, or ductile, or sonorous. In fact, when solid nonmetals are hammered, they break up – they are brittle. 2. They have lower melting and boiling points than metals. (One of them is a liquid and eleven are gases, at room temperature.) 3. They are poor conductors of electricity. Graphite (carbon) is the only exception. They are also poor conductors of heat. 4. They have low densities. 128 5. Like metals, most of them react with oxygen to form oxides: sulphur + oxygen → sulphur dioxide But unlike metal oxides, these oxides are not bases. Many of them dissolve in water to give acidic solutions. 6. When they form ions, the ions are negative. Hydrogen is an exception – it forms the ion H+. EXERCISE. Match the words on the left with the phrases on the right. 1. Fusibility resistance to decay 2. Conductivity compactness and closeness 3. Density capability of being hammered into sheets 4. Durability capability of being melted 5. Hardness capability of being pulled long and thin 6. Malleability transmission of heat and electricity 7. Ductility resistance to breaking QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION 1. Make two lists, showing twenty metals and fifteen nonmetals. Give their symbols too. 2. Try to think of a metal that is not malleable at room temperature. 3. Suggest reasons why: a. Silver is used for jewellery; b. Copper is used for electrical wiring. 4. For some uses, a highly sonorous metal is needed. Try to think of two examples. 5. Try to think of two reasons why: a. Mercury is used in thermometers; b. Aluminium is used for beer cans. 129 Word-Building EXERCISE 1. Following the examples given in the first line of the table given below, supply the correct words in place of the question marks. Use an EnglishEnglish dictionary, if necessary. Noun Verb Adjective production produce productive analysis ? ? ? apply ? ? ? crystalline determination ? ? industry ? ? ? ? creative ? characterize ? ? relate ? purification ? ? EXERCISE 2. A person who specializes in chemistry is called a chemist. He tends to look at every problem from a chemical point of view Repeat these two sentences, replacing chemistry first by technology, then by science, physics, mathematics, engineering, biology, philosophy, and making the other changes necessary. EXERCISE 3. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following Russian words and word-combinations: - материаловедение; - основополагающие свойства материалов; - соотношение между структурой и свойствами материалов; - сосредоточить внимание на чем-либо; - анализ разрушений; - составляющие химические элементы; - законы термодинамики; - природные материалы; совершенный/идеальный кристалл; - различные степени кристалличности; 130 - создавать материалы с нужными свойствами; - расположение атомов; - виды применения; - промышленное производство; - дифракция рентгеновских лучей; - незначительное количество чего-либо. STRUCTURE STUDY: THE FUNCTIONS OF THE –ED FORM 1. The –ed suffix is used to form the Past Simple Tense of all regular verbs, e.g. Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy. The Past Simple Tense has only one form in all persons. 2. The –ed suffix is also used to form the Past Participle of all regular verbs, e.g. The substance begins to melt if heated to a sufficient temperature. The Past Participle can be used either before the noun it modifies (e.g. an adopted child) or, more often, after that noun, e.g. (the results obtained, the problem discussed, the data analyzed, etc.). NOTE: If in a sentence there are two verb forms in –ed, one immediately following the other, the first of these forms is the Past Participle, e.g. The results obtained resulted in new investigations. (Полученные результаты привели к новым исследованиям). The materials produced differed in quality. (Произведенные материалы различались по качеству). The Past Participle is used: a) with a form of the auxiliary verb to have to form the Perfect Tense, e.g. They have never used this method before. b) with a form of the auxiliary verb to be to form the Passive Voice, e.g. The atmosphere is composed mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. c) to form –ed participle clauses, e.g. The substance affected by a magnetic field must be a metal. 3. The –ed suffix is used to form adjectives, e.g. 131 Materials science incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. Such adjectives can be formed by adding –ed to verbs (e.g. to advance – advanced, to accumulate – accumulated, to retire – retired, to fade – faded, to mix – mixed, etc.) or to noun (e.g. a detail – detailed, a point – pointed, a principle – principled, a skill – skilled, etc.). The –ed suffix is also used in compound adjectives consisting of more than one word, e.g. a cone-shaped structure a high-powered engine a rocket-propelled missile a neutron-produced nuclear reaction, etc. EXERCISE 1. Find in the text –ed forms and explain their functions. EXERCISE 2. Complete the following sentences with the correct –ed adjective or participle, using the verbs in the list: 1. Materials scientists manipulate the defects in crystalline materials to create materials with the ...... properties. 2. The extraction and purification techniques ...... in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace will have an impact on the quality of steel ...... . 3. With significant media attention …… on nanotechnology, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many universities. 4. The instructions in the exam were very complicated and left the students feeling totally ...... . 5. What began as a friendly discussion, soon became a ...... argument. 6. The army, navy, and air force are known as ...... forces. 7. It’s important to stay cool, calm and ...... during a job interview. EXERCISE 3. Translate the Russian words given in brackets into English, using –ed forms. 1. The particles in many substances consist of two or more atoms (соединенных) together. 2. (При нагревании) the particles of a liquid get more energy and move faster. 3. In the 19th century it was realized that all the (так называемые) natural organic compounds contain carbon as a constituent element. 4. Decomposition (вызываемый) by electricity is called electrolysis. 132 5. The oxygen (растворенный) in the still, warm water is quickly depleted. 6. (Расплавленный) plastic is injected into a mould at high speed, then allowed to cool 7. A monomer for addition polymerization is made by cracking a hydrocarbon (получаемый) from oil. READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1 SKIMMING: Look through the text and choose the most appropriate title. Give reasons for your choice. 1) The Significance of Materials Science 2) Materials Science: the History of Development 3) Materials Science in the Changing World Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science. Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from mining as well as ceramics and the use of fire. A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century when the American scientist Josiah Williard Gibbs demonstrated that the thermodynamic properties related to atomic structure in various phases are related to the physical properties of a material. Important elements of modern materials science are a product of the space race: the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in the construction of space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven, by the development of revolutionary technologies such as plastics, semiconductors, and biomaterials. Before the 1960s (and in some decades after) many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, from a 19th and early 20th century emphasis on metals. The field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics, polymers, semiconductors, magnetic 133 materials. medical implant materials, and biological materials. Each of these classes may constitute a separate field. There are several ways to classify materials, for example, by the type of bonding between the atoms. The traditional groups are ceramics, metals and polymers based on atomic structure and chemical composition. New materials have resulted in more classes. One way of classifying materials is: biomaterials; carbon; ceramics; composite materials; glass; metals; nanomaterials; polymers; refractory; semiconductors; thin films; functionally graded materials. SCANNING: Now read the text and: outline the main stages in the development of materials science; explain why the name of Josiah Willard Gibbs is associated with a breakthrough in the understanding of materials; find examples of materials enabling the exploration of space; specify what changes have taken place in materials science since the 1960s; point out what various classification of materials can be based on. TEXT 2 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE One of the applications of materials science is the making and study of materials widely used in industry. These fall into various groups. Ceramics and Glasses Ceramics and glasses are typically associated with the most brittle materials. Bonding in ceramics and glasses uses covalent and ionic-covalent types with SiO2 (silica or sand) as a fundamental building block. Ceramics are as soft as clay and as hard as stone and concrete. Usually, they are crystalline in form. Most glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica. At high temperatures used to make glass, the material is a viscous liquid. The structure of glass forms into an amorphous state upon cooling. Where metals conduct heat and electricity, ceramics do not, or not to the same degree. This property has made them particularly important to the electrical industry where ceramics insulators are used to interrupt the flow of 134 current. Special ceramics with crystalline structures are known as semiconductors because they conduct electricity only under selective conditions; these ceramics are the basis for the modern electronic industry. Composite Materials Composite materials are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic phases. Applications range from structural elements such as steelreinforced concrete, to the thermally insulative tiles which play a key and integral role in NASA’s Space Shuttle thermal protection system which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. One example is reinforced Carbon-Carbon (КСС), the light grey material which withstands re-entry temperatures up to 15100 C (27500 F). RCC is a laminated composite material made from graphite rayon cloth and impregnated with a phenolic resin. After curing at high temperature in an autoclave, the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon. In order to provide oxidation resistance for reuse capability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to silicon carbide. Other examples are seen in the “plastic” casings of television sets, cellphones, and so on. These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibers of carbon fibers have been added for added strength, bulk, or electrostatic dispersion. These additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose. Polymers Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what we commonly call plastics. Plastics are really the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form. The term “additives” in polymer science refers to the chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material properties. Polymers which have been around, and which are in current widespread use, include polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and polycarbonates. Plastics are generally classified as “commodity”, “specialty” and “engineering” plastics. Engineering plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material 135 properties. They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity plastics. Specialty plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultrahigh strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, etc. The dividing lines between the various types of plastics is not based on material, but rather on their properties and applications. For instance, polyethylene (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable shopping bags, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip joints. Most plastics are unreactive, so they do not rot away. That means plastic cartons and wrappers pollute beaches and other places where people throw litter. Biodegradable plastics help to solve this problem. They are designed to break down in water and rubbish dumps. Some can disappear in weeks. Metal Alloys Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with lowest proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels. For the steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steels is related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness. Heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering can significantly change these properties, however. Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper, and magnesium. Copper alloys have been known for a long time (since the Bronze Age), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently developed. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are known and valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, the ability to provide electromagnetic shielding. These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratios are more important than 136 bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering applications. QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION 1. Choose one group of materials presented in the text and get ready to describe their properties. Explain your choice. 2. What other industrial applications of materials science can you suggest? Discuss with your partner. 3. Explain why a glass jug will shatter if you drop it but a polyethylene one won’t. 4. Plastic may burn, but glass doesn’t. Suggest a reason. SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Academic Style and English Style is very important, although few papers are actually rejected because of bad English. As an author writing English as a foreign language, you should not be expected to produce perfect English. English is a difficult language to write well; native English speakers have problems themselves. Do not worry or waste time on the finer points of English grammar. The journal editor or publisher will usually correct your language, The most important thing is that your message is clear. Try to be as definite and specific as possible when you are writing. Avoid all vague statements. Be sure of what you want to say. Consider the following points in academic style in English: Simple language and direct expression Always choose the simplest way of saying something. Choose a simple word rather than a difficult one. Good scientific writing communicates in simple terms, even though the subject may be complicated. Active and Passive Voices Most academic articles are written in "passive" and 'impersonal" style. In this type of writing the Passive Voice is often essential. In the phrase: "We measured the variation" (active), it is clear that the subject (we) did something (measured) to an object (variation). In the Passive Voice the object comes first, 137 and the subject can be left out altogether: "The variation was measured". That is why the passive should be used in academic style, because most of the time the subject is you, the writer. The subject is not important. Readers do not need to be told "I measured the variation": they already know that, because your name is on the title page of the paper. Long sentences Avoid long sentences where you can, Use short sentences instead, However, in scientific papers it is sometimes hard not to use a long sentence, In that case you should go ahead and use one and not worry. Remember that a mixture of short and long sentences gives variety and interest to your writing. Use if abbreviations You use abbreviations only if they are in common use (e.g. ISO = International Standards Organization) or if using them saves a lot of space e.g. SIMS = secondary-ion mass spectrometry). Abbreviations in a figure must be explained in its caption or legend; abbreviations in a table must be explained in the table's title or in a note to the table. ASSIGNMENT: Choose a passage from an article dealing with the field of your scientific interest. Analyze the passage from the point of view of its language and style. Try to answer the following questions: – Is the message of the passage easy to understand? – Is the language the author uses simple enough? – Does the author prefer Active or Passive constructions? Why? – How long are the sentences in the passage? Which of the two types prevails: the long ones or the short ones? If you were the editor, what would you do about the sentences that are too long? – Are there any abbreviations in the passage? What is their function? – Sum up by making a critical evaluation of the author's style. 138 UNIT 9 TEXT: MATERIALS SCIENCE AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering into materials science and materials engineering. Strictly speaking, materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials engineering is, on the basis of these structure-property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties. From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for processing materials. Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both materials scientists and materials engineers. Structure is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The next largest structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed microscopic, meaning that which is subject to direct observation using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed macroscopic. The notion of property deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material shape and size. Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to an 139 applied load or force: examples include elastic modulus (stiffness), strength and toughness. For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties. Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials. In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the science and engineering of materials – namely, processing and performance. With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material’s performance will be a function of its properties. Thus, the interrelationship between processing, structure, properties, and performance is as depicted in the schematic illustration in Figure 1. Fig. 1. Processing → Structure → Properties → Performance WORDS 1. materials engineering – технология материалов 2. to engineer – разрабатывать, проектировать, конструировать 3. materials scientist – материаловед 4. materials engineer – материаловед-технолог 5. to call on/upon – вызывать; призывать кого-либо сделать что-либо 6. nebulous – неясный; туманный; смутный 7. to encompass – охватывать, заключать в себе 8. realm – сфера, область (деятельности, интересов) 9. to agglomerate – агломерировать; собирать(ся), скапливаться 10. subject (to) adj. – подверженный, подлежащий (чему-либо) 11. with the naked eye – невооруженным глазом 12. to evoke – вызывать (чувства и т.п.) 13. to subject (to) – подвергать (чему-либо) 14. trait – характерная черта, особенность 140 15. in terms of (something) – в смысле (чего-либо); с (какой-либо) точки зрения; в (каких-либо) выражениях; (каким-либо) языком 16. virtually – фактически; в сущности 17. elastic modulus – модуль упругости, модуль Юнга 18. stiffness – жесткость 19. strength – прочность 20. toughness – ударная вязкость 21. heat capacity – теплоемкость 22. performance – 1. (рабочие) характеристики, эксплуатационные показатели; 2. работа, функционирование; 3. производительность, эффективность COMPREHENSION 1. Why is the discipline of materials science and engineering subdivided into two parts? What are they? What is the difference between them? From a functional perspective, what are the respective roles of a materials scientist and a materials engineer? 2. Why does the author of the text describe “structure” as a “nebulous” term? What does the structure of a material usually relate to? What do subatomic and atomic structures involve? What is the difference between the microscopic and macroscopic structures? 3. How can a property of a material be defined? Do definitions of properties depend on material shape and size? Give examples of various kinds of responses from materials exposed to external stimuli. 4. How many categories can important properties of solid materials be grouped into? What are they? Give examples of representative properties for each group. Name characteristic types of stimuli for each of these categories which are capable of provoking different responses. 5. What other two important components, besides structure and properties, do the science and engineering of materials involve? What is the relationship between all four components? 141 WORD STUDY Many two-syllable words in English have stress on the first syllable when they are used as a noun or an adjective and stress on the second syllable when they are used as a verb. E.g. The word “record” is pronounced ‘record when used as a noun or an adjective and re’cord when used as a verb. There are about 50 words like these in English. The most important are: Noun Verb Noun Verb ‘compound com’pound ‘discharge dis’charge ‘construct con’struct ‘extract ex’tract ‘contrast con’trast ‘ferment fer’ment ‘increase in’crease ‘present pre’sent ‘progress pro’gress ‘produce pro’duce ‘subject sub’ject ‘protest pro’test ‘transfer trans’fer ‘transport trans’port EXERCISE 1. Find in the text words of this kind and say what part of speech they belong to. Pronounce these words with the right stress. EXERCISE 2. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following Russian words and word-combinations: подразделять что-либо на что-либо; строго говоря; заранее определенная группа свойств; разрабатывать методы обработки материалов; термин, который нуждается в объяснении; подлежащий непосредственному наблюдению; невооруженным глазом; подвергаться воздействию внешних стимулов; вызывать какую-либо реакцию; отражать свет; стимул, способный вызывать разные реакции; приложенная нагрузка; удельная теплопроводность; коэффициент преломления. 142 Linking Adverbials Linking Adverbials are words and phrases which indicate a connection between one clause or a sentence and another. They are usually put at the beginning of the clause, or after the subject or the first auxiliary. Some linking adverbials are used to indicate that you are adding an extra point or piece of information. They are: also furthermore as well moreover at the same time too besides in addition Other linking adverbials are used to indicate that you are giving another example of the same point, or are using the same argument in two different cases: again equally in the same way likewise similarly Another group of linking adverbials are used to show that you are making a contrast or giving an alternative: all the same nevertheless alternatively nonetheless by/in contrast on the contrary conversely on the other hand however still instead though Some linking adverbials are used to indicate that the situation you are about to mention exists because of the fact you have just mentioned: accordingly so as a result thereby consequently therefore hence thus 143 Adverbials of time are often used to link two sentences by showing that one event took place after another. These linking adverbials include: afterwards later (on) at last next eventually presently finally subsequently immediately suddenly last then Some adverbials of time are used to indicate that one vent took place or will take place before another. These include: beforehand in the meantime earlier meanwhile first previously A few adverbials are used to show that an event took place at the same time as another event: at the same time simultaneously meanwhile throughout EXERCISE 3. Find the text linking adverbials and say what category they belong to. EXERCISE 4. Read the following text. At certain points there are numbers in the text. Choose one or two of the linking adverbials given below which you could put into the text at these points. To save refugees faced with the sub-zero winter, Oxfam (Britain’s largest charity organization that helps people all over the world) is building them shelters made from material considered in Britain to be extremely dangerous – polyurethane foam. The foam ignites easily, burns quickly, and gives off lethal cyanide fumes. (1) Residents are being warned not to have open fires near the huts, and not to pick up scraps for their fires. (2) Whether the warnings will prove adequate is yet to be tested. Oxfam is being forced to use the material because of limited resources and the inadequacies of conventional solutions. Tents, it points out, are just as flammable, although not poisonous. And they certainly do not keep out a -200 C winter. (3) Tents have other problems: they are not tough enough, and transport 144 costs are high. (4) In 1971 the world ran out of tents and millions of Bengali refugees were force to crouch under plastic sheets to keep off monsoon rains. Oxfam’s system is simple. Polyurethane foam is sprayed from a gun on to the inside of a female aluminium mold (inside because it avoids wind, rain, and dust hazards). (5) As soon as spraying is complete the mold is lifted away leaving the shelter ready for use. 1 (a) consequently 4 (a) for example (b) moreover (b) for instance (c) alternatively (c) moreover 2 (a) immediately 5 (a) still (b) but (b) then (c) however (c) later 3 (a) however (b) in addition (c) instead Word-Building EXERCISE 1. Complete the following table where possible. to behave to release to compare behaviour release behavioural comparative comparable depletion to radiate result hypothetical to report Use your dictionary to check the words you have written. EXERCISE 2. Complete the following sentences using the words from the table. 1. As more oil and coal is burned each year, the world’s stocks are being steadily ...... . 2. Heat can be transmitted by convection or by …… . 145 3. Many experiments in biology and psychology are carried out by observing the ....... of animals. 4. One of the dangers associated with nuclear power stations is that of the accidental …… of radioactivity. 5. The use of modern fertilizers may …… in a great increase in production for many farmers. 6. The first step in carrying out research is to formulate a …… Experiments can then be carried out to see if it is valid. STRUCTURE STUDY: MODAL VERBS There are 10 modal verbs in English: can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should, ought to. Certain verbs or expressions have virtually the same meaning as some modals. These are: need, have to/have got to/be to = must, be able to = can. Functions of Modal Verbs and Synonymous Expressions USE PRESENT/FUTURE PAST ability He can read Arabic. He could/was able to read Arabic when he was four. (repeated action – ability in the past). She is able to run a marathon. He was able to escape. (single action). possibility He can win the race (90% – certain). She could have been killed in They could still be at school the car crash (Luckily, she (50% certain; it’s possible they wasn’t killed). are still at school). He may have spoken to Jenny Tom may be studying in his yesterday. (Perhaps he spoke room. (50% certain; it’s to Jenny). possible that he is studying). He might have forgotten. He might want some more food. (Perhaps he has forgotten). (40% certain; perhaps he wants 146 some more food). probability They will be home soon. (100% certain; prediction). Greg should win easily. (90% certain; future only; he will win easily). They ought to be home now. (90% certain; they will probably be home). logical She must be working. (90% assumptions certain – positive. I am sure she is working). She can’t be over 40. (negative; I am sure she isn’t over 40). He couldn’t be at work. (negative; I don’t think he’s at work). permission – He should have received his prize by now. (He has probably received it by now). They ought to have arrived an hour ago. (They have probably arrived). She must have been working. (positive; I am sure she was working). She can’t have stolen the money. (negative; I am sure she didn’t steal the money). He couldn’t have been at work yesterday. (negative; I don’t think he was at work yesterday). You can/can’t borrow my car. He wasn’t allowed (giving or refusing permission; to/couldn’t cross the border. informal). He was allowed to enter the country. (not: “could”). – Could I use your phone? (more polite; asking for permission). – You may use the phone. (formal; giving permission). – Might I speak to Mr Jones, please? (more formal; asking – permission). I am afraid you can’t/mustn’t – see the patient. (informal; 147 necessity advice criticism refusing permission). Children may not be left unaccompanied. (formal; refusing permission – written notice). I must buy a new jacket. (I say I had to buy a new jacket. (I so). was obliged to). Since his car was being She has to put some petrol in repaired, he had to go to York the car. (necessity coming from by train. outside the speaker). I’ve got to go to the bank now. I had to go to the bank (informal). yesterday. They don’t have to/ don’t need She didn’t have to go. (it to/needn’t come if they don’t wasn’t necessary – absence of want to. (it isn’t necessary – necessity). absence of necessity). He needn’t have worn such heavy clothes. (it wasn’t necessary for him to wear such I ought to get my hair cut. (it’s heavy clothes, but he did). necessary). You should drink more water. You should have gone to bed (general advice; I advise you). earlier last night. (but you You ought to respect the didn’t). elderly. (I advise you; most He ought to have seen the people believe this). doctor earlier. (but he didn’t). Shall I buy that car? (asking for – advice). You could at least help me. You could have at least helped (moral reproach). me last night. (moral – reproach). They should have tried harder. – (but they didn’t). 148 obligation Requests offers suggestions You ought to have behaved yourself yesterday. (it was the right thing to do, but you didn’t do it). I must go on a diet. (I am I had to go on a diet a month obliged to; I say so). ago. I have to go on a diet. (I am obliged to; the doctor says so). I had to go on a diet a month We ought to help the poor. (it’s ago. the right thing to do. but people don’t always do it). – Can I borrow your book? (informal) Could I borrow your book? (more polite). May I have a cup of coffee, please? (formal). Might I use your phone? (very formal). Will you phone Jane tonight? (very friendly). Would you mind sending this fax? (polite). Can I/we do anything for you? (informal) Shall I/we do it for you? (informal) Would you like me to help you? Shall we dance? I/We can go now if you like. We could leave if you want. 149 – – – – – – – – – – – He could lawyer. have consulted prohibition duty You can’t smoke there. (you aren’t allowed to). You mustn’t smoke there. (it’s forbidden). You may not smoke there. (formal) Everyone must obey the law. People ought to be more tolerant. (it’s the right thing to do, but they do not always do it). They couldn’t smoke there. (they weren’t allowed) – – All the villagers had to obey the law. He ought to have been more tolerant. (it was the right thing to do, but he didn’t do it). EXERCISE 1. Choose the correct modal verb in these sentences: 1. She can/can’t be Italian with a name like Smith! 2. I may/can’t be able to come. 3. A: Someone’s at the door. B: That can/will be John. 4. You could have been/must have been crazy to do something as dangerous as that! 5. I might/can not be able to come so don’t wait for me. 6. It may/must be cold tomorrow. 7. Who could have/should have done such a terrible thing? 8. Hurry up, we’re late! We might/should have been ready hours ago. 9. When we were at school, we had to/ought to wear a uniform. 10. I don’t need to/shouldn’t wear glasses because my eyesight is still quite good. 11. Did you have to/must you to have your hair cut before the interview last week? EXERCISE 2. Decide on the meaning of these statements, and add will, can or may. Where there is more than one possibility, show whether there is a difference of meaning or not. 1. This type of disease (...... cause) death. 2. A number of metals (...... carry) electric current. 150 3. The bridge (...... take) about eighteen months to complete. 4. Severe storms (...... occur) in the Atlantic during winter. 5. Heat-treated steel (...... give) strengths as high as 120 tons per square inch. 6. An error of judgment on the part of the pilot (...... be) disastrous. 7. Iron and steel at a high temperature (...... oxidize) in the air. 8. A bright surface (...... reflect) sunlight, but a dull surface (...... absorb) it. 9. This metal (...... resist) temperatures of 6000 Centigrade. 10. Above a certain critical temperature, the structure of steel (...... change). EXERCISE 3. Match a first sentence (1-8 ) with a second sentence (a-h) to make short exchanges. 1. Shall we go to a Chinese restaurant a. I’d rather stay at home. this evening? b. Actually, it would be difficult to do 2. May I borrow your calculator for a without you right now. moment? c. Could you give me another week 3. Would you help me to get the dinner then? ready? d. It’s up to you really; it depends on 4. You shouldn’t get upset so easily. how strongly you feel. 5. Do you think I should go and e. I’m sorry but I’m using it. complain to the manager? f. I’ve apologized; what else can I do? 6. I’m sorry but you can’t hand in the g. Do I have to? I’ve got to do my assignment a month late. homework. 7. Could I have some time off to visit h. I can’t help it; he really makes me my friend in hospital? furious. 8. You shouldn’t have spoken like that to your mother. EXERCISE 4. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. This must have given rise to the molecule changing its configuration. 2. The reaction may have been accompanied by tar formation. 3. They point out that the ester must have undergone acyl oxygen fission. 4. This must have taken place as a result of the molecule having changed its conformation. 151 5. The third hydroxyl group originally present must have combined with the aldehyde group to form a lactol ring. 6. It is possible that some of the products isolated may have resulted from the alkylation of others. EXERCISE 5. Complete the passage given below, putting the appropriate modal verbs in the spaces in accordance with the ideas given in brackets. In planning a series of experiments, the scientific worker ...... (moral obligation) be aware of the general nature of the problem under investigation as well as of data from other areas of research which ...... (possibility) be related to it. Although in a few cases it ...... (possibility) be possible to begin with a completely-organized theory, it ...... (moral obligation) be kept in mind that even an imperfect theory ...... (physical ability) be very useful, since it ...... (possibility) provide a framework which ...... (physical ability) later be adjusted to fit the results of the experiments. These preliminary hypotheses ...... (moral obligation) be in accordance with the known facts, and this implies that the researcher ...... (compulsion) also have a full knowledge of the theoretical background of the problem. After he has analyzed the problem he ...... (compulsion) present it in as simple a form as possible, since most pieces of work ...... (physical ability) be broken up into component parts which ...... (physical ability) then be dealt with separately. This procedure ...... (possibility) often help to solve the problem more efficiently. READING AND DISCUSSION TEXT 1: WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING SKIMMING: Look through the text quickly to find answers to the following questions: 1. Why is studying materials indispensable for applied scientists and engineers? 2. What determines the properties required of the material to be chosen for a particular purpose? 3. What are other possible criteria for selecting a material? 152 4. What kinds of compromises may prove necessary while selecting the right material? 5. What must an engineer or scientist be well familiar with to be able to make judicious materials choices? Why do we study materials? Many applied scientists or engineers, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving materials. Examples might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Of course, materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and design of materials. Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the thousands that are available. The final decision is normally based on several criteria. First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties. Thus, it may be necessary to trade one characteristic for another. The classic example involves strength and ductility: normally, a material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary. A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur during service operation. For example, significant reductions in mechanical strength may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments. Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: what will the finished product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but is prohibitively expensive. Here again some compromise is inevitable. The cost of a finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape. The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and structure-property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and confident he or she will be in making judicious materials choices based on these criteria. 153 QUESTIONS FOR FREE CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION 1. Is materials science one of the subjects that are on your curriculum? Do you agree that a profound knowledge of this subject is vitally important for any engineer or applied scientist? Give your grounds. 2. Have you ever faced a “materials problem” while doing your research? What criteria were you guided by in trying to find a solution? Do you find the list of criteria given on the text exhaustive or can you add other criteria to it? 3. Can you give any examples of materials possessing an ideal combination of properties for a particular situation? If you have to find a compromise between two or more properties, what will your final decision depend on? 4. Do you agree that the overriding consideration in materials selection is that of economics? As a chemist, would you be able to calculate the cost of the material and the associated expenses (including those incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape)? TEXT 2. MATERIALS: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Before reading the text, decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1. Materials play a very important role in modern life, but historically they have not strongly influenced the development of human society. 2. Early civilizations have been designated by the levels of their materials development. 3. Discovering techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural ones marked an important new step in the development of materials science. 4. It was in ancient times that scientists first understood the relationships between the structural elements of materials and their properties. Now read the text to see whether you were right. Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize. Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production – virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials. Historically, the development and advancement 154 of societies have been intimately tied to the members’ abilities to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs. In fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age. (The approximate dates for the beginnings of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages were 2.5 million BC, 3500 BC, and 1000 BC, respectively). The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With time, they discovered techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new materials included pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that the properties of materials could be altered by heat treatments and by the addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set of materials the one best suited for an application by virtue of its characteristics. It was not until relatively recent times that scientists came to understand the relationships between the structural elements of materials and their properties. This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100 years, has empowered them to fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of materials. Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with rather specialized characteristics that meet the needs of our modern and complex society: these include metals, plastics, glasses, and fibers. The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has been intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. An advancement in the understanding of a material type is often the forerunner to the stepwise progression of a technology. For example, automobiles would not have been possible without the availability of inexpensive steel or some other comparable substitute. In our contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components that are made from what are called semiconducting materials. SCANNING: Look through the text again and - explain why materials are more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize; - say what kinds of materials the early humans had access to; - describe the historical steps in the process of materials development; 155 - characterize the modern state of materials development; - give examples of the stepwise progression of technologies based on advancements in the understanding of material types. SELF-STUDY ASSIGNMENTS: Making a Presentation Making a presentation in a foreign language is a complex task and represents a challenge that can be a stressful experience, especially if you have never given a presentation before. The guidelines below contain advice about all aspects of presenting, and include appropriate language to use in order to signpost your talk clearly so that your audience can follow the transitions between the different sections. Planning Planning is a key factor for a successful presentation. When making a presentation it is essential to know precisely what you are going to achieve and what results you are expecting. The plan should explain why you are going to give a presentation; who you will be talking to; where, when and for how long you want to give the presentation; and last but not least, the subject-matter and the format of the presentation. Writing the script When thinking over the content of the future presentation it is very helpful to make a list of general ideas, jotting them down as they come. This step will help then to write the presentation in full and arrange it. Presentation structure Presentations are commonly divided into three main sections: Introduction, Main Body, and Conclusion. The Introduction is a very important stage of a presentation. The speaker should begin with greeting the audience and introducing himself/herself. Then the speaker proceeds with stating the target of the presentation: (My aim today is…; Today I'm going to be talking to you about…). The rules of presentation should also be stated at the beginning. This includes stating the time ("My talk will last…") and inviting to ask questions ("Please feel free to ask questions any time" or "to save time, could we leave questions until the end?") 156 When it comes to the main body of the presentation, it may be divided into four sections: background information, problem, possibilities, and proposals or solutions. Before the speaker gets down to the problem itself, he/she has to give background information, i.e. describe briefly the history of the problem, relevant previous research, and the present state of things in a particular area. While presenting the problem under consideration it is essential to identify the main points, laying special emphasis on the root of the problem. It is also very important to get arguments and figures into the best way possible. The next step is presenting the possibilities open for solving the problem. After considering all the alternatives, you should try to urge the audience to go for the options of your choice. Then the speaker should state a proposal, or outline possible solution of the problem giving the reasons why he/she thinks the recommended solution is true or correct. Rehearsing the script After the planning and the script stages there comes the rehearsal stage. Here the future speaker practises and times his\her script, trying to stick to the time limit, that is, timing the presentation to fit the available time. What must be remembered at this stage is that a presentation should never be learnt by heart. This may overload the speaker's brain and he/she may easily lose the track if unexpectedly interrupted. The only part of the presentation which actually should be written and learnt by heart is the Introduction. Useful words and expressions Using appropriate words and expressions, especially at key moments of the presentation, makes it easier for your audience to follow what you are saying and to anticipate what you will be saying next. The list below will help you to highlight the key stages and to indicate the transitions between the different sections of your talk. Introducing the talk: Today I'm going to talk to you about… I'd like to start by giving you … The subject of my presentation is … Indicating the structure and sequences of your talk: 157 My presentation consists of … sections. In the first section I'm going to describe ...... Then/After that I will go on to … Finally I am going to look at … Moving from one section of your talk to another I would now like to go on to the next point which is … Now I'd like to move on to … Now to the main problem … This leads me to my next point … Presenting arguments: I'd like to draw your attention to … On the one hand… On the other hand … It should be pointed out that … In addition/Furthermore/Moreover … Consequently/Therefore … Giving examples: For example/For instance … A case in point is … Language for using visuals: This graph shows you … If you look at this, you will see … This chart illustrates the figures … I would like you to look at this … Let's have a look at this diagram … Summarizing and closing your talk: That brings me to the end of my presentation. I've talked about … I would like to finish by sating … To summarize/In conclusion, I … That concludes my talk. Thank you all for attention. ASSIGNMENT: Imagine that you are to address an audience of professionals/laymen in the field you specialize in. Using the guidelines given above, make a 5-minute presentation of the problem you are working on at the moment. 158 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК Кузнецова Т.И.,Воловикова Е.В., Кузнецов И.А. Английский язык для химиков-технологов:учеб.пособие Ч. 1.Практикум / под ред.Кузнецовой Т.И..- М.: РХТУ им. Д.И. Менделеева,2017.-272 с. Кузнецова Т.И.,Воловикова Е.В., Кузнецов И.А. Английский язык для химиков-технологов:учеб.пособие Ч. 2.Грамматический минимум. Справочные материалы.Глоссарий / под ред.Кузнецовой Т.И..- М.: РХТУ им. Д.И. Менделеева,2017.-148 с. Кузнецова Т.И.,Воловикова Е.В., Кузнецов И.А. Английский язык для химиков-технологов:учеб.пособие Ч. 3.Методические указания для преподавателей / под ред.Кузнецовой Т.И..- М.: РХТУ им. Д.И. Менделеева,2017.-148 с. Миньяр-Белоручева А.П..Англо-русские обороты научной речи:метод.пособие/А.П. Миньяр-Белоручева.-8-е изд.,М.:Флинта:Наука,2016.-144 с. Рубцова М.Г. Чтение и переводанглийской научно-технической литературы: Лексико-грамматический справочник/М.Г. Рубцова.М.:ООО»Издательство АСТ»:ООО»Издательство Астрель»,2015.384 с. Read E books on line / www.universalum.academic.ru Сhemical engineering. Academic Dictionaries / www.universalum.academic.ru 159 Кузнецова Татьяна Игоревна Кузнецов Игорь Александрович ПОСОБИЕ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ ДЛЯ МАГИСТРАНТОВ ХИМИКО-ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ВУЗОВ Подписано в печать Формат Усл.печ.л. Тираж Российский химико-технологический университет имени Д.И. Менделеева Издательский центр Адрес университета и издательского текста 125047 Москва,Миусская пл., 9. 160
