Пособие НГТУ Английский язык для магистров энерготехнических специальностей
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МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ «НИЖЕГОРОДСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТЕХНИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ИМ. Р.Е. АЛЕКСЕЕВА» Английский язык для магистров энерготехнических специальностей Рекомендовано Ученым советом Нижегородского государственного технического университета им. Р.Е.Алексеева в качестве учебного пособия для магистров всех форм обучения Нижний Новгород 2019 УДК 802.0(075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ А Авторы: Т.В. Захарченко, Л.С. Исмакова, Е.Н. Каракозова, Т .Г. Скребнева А Английский язык для магистров энерготехнических специальностей: учеб.пособие / Т.В. Захарченко и др.; Нижегород. гос. техн. ун-т им. Р.Е. Алексеева. – Н. Новгород, 2019. - 179 с. Рецензент кандидат филологических наук, доцент С.В. Симонова ISBN 978-5-502-01208-9 Предназначено для работы с магистрами всех форм обучения и всех направлений института электроэнергетики. Пособие включает 9 тематических разделов для развития и формирования навыков чтения и устной речи на основе аутентичных и методически аутентичных текстов. Приложение содержит дополнительные тексты энергетической направленности, правила подготовки и передачи краткого содержания (summary), грамматический справочник. Библиогр.: 51 назв. Рис.: 9 УДК 802.0(075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ ISBN 978-5-502-01208-9 © НГТУ им. Р.Е. Алексеева, 2019 CONTENTS b)ВВЕДЕНИЕ...................................................................................................... 17 c)UNIT 1. HYDROPOWER ................................................................................... 18 d)How was moving water used in the past? ..................................................... 20 e)Who and when built the first turbine?........................................................... 20 f)Why is hydropower a renewable energy source? ........................................... 20 g)Why has hydropower’s share of the global electricity production decreased? ........................................................................................................ 20 a)a good use of time and energy, without wasting any ............................... 21 b)stopping and starting again for short periods of time ................................... 21 c)the amount of something that someone uses ............................................... 21 d)a part of something that has been divided .................................................... 21 e)something that you do to help produce or develop something, or to help make something successful ........................................................................................ 21 a)Growing industries in the past were situated next to the rivers. ................... 21 b)The power delivered by the first turbines was huge...................................... 21 c)Different types of reservoirs are applied to store water................................. 21 d)Hydropower is the least important renewable energy source employed to produce electricity today. .................................................................................. 21 a)What factors influence the amount of energy created by a hydroelectric project? ............................................................................................................. 24 b)What is the principle of work of the hydroelectric dam? .............................. 24 c)How does the run-of-the-river system work? ................................................ 24 d)What are the functions of the water intake? ................................................. 24 e)What is the purpose of a power-generating unit? ......................................... 24 f)What are the peculiarities of a pumped storage system? .............................. 24 a)What are the main characteristics of hydropower? ....................................... 26 b)What is pumped hydro storage? .................................................................... 26 c)What countries depend on hydropower mostly? ........................................... 26 d)What do we understand by load balancing?.................................................. 26 e)What was the oldest application of hydropower? ......................................... 26 a)a service that is used by the public, such as an electricity or gas supply or a train service ....................................................................................................... 26 b)the process of removing something, especially by force: .............................. 26 c)not happening regularly or continuously; stopping and starting repeatedly or with periods in between ................................................................................... 27 d)to be part of a total number of something .................................................... 27 e)able to exist, live, or work successfully with something or someone else ..... 27 f)at the present time ......................................................................................... 27 a)What are the advantages of using hydro resources? ..................................... 31 b)What are the drawbacks of using hydro resources? ...................................... 31 c)How does construction of large dams influence people`s life? ...................... 31 to reduce the amount of something, especially a natural supply ..................... 31 things that cause problems or danger............................................................... 31 the result of an action or situation, especially a bad result ............................. 31 not damaging the environment ........................................................................ 31 causing a lot of disagreement or argument ...................................................... 31 especially ........................................................................................................... 31 a)There is no emission of greenhouse gases of hydroelectricity. ...................... 31 b)It is not necessary to possess a great amount of land to build a dam. .......... 31 c)Before constructing the reservoir, a lot of attention must be given to existing plants and animal life. ....................................................................................... 31 a)What large hydropower plants can you mention? ......................................... 34 b)Where are they located?................................................................................ 34 c)What is their capacity? ................................................................................... 34 d)How many generating units do they have?.................................................... 34 e)When were they constructed? ....................................................................... 34 a)What is geothermal energy? .......................................................................... 42 b)What is Earth’s internal heat? ........................................................................ 42 c) What are the sources of energy? .................................................................. 42 d) How do you understand the process of coproduction? ................................ 42 e) Why is geothermal energy important? ......................................................... 43 a)This heat found inside the earth is called geothermal energy. ...................... 43 b)Geothermal energy is the energy stored as heat underneath the surface of the earth. ................................................................................................................. 43 c)The only one that is widely in use is geopressured. ....................................... 43 d)There are three types of geothermal resources that can be harnessed in some way. ................................................................................................................... 43 e)Technology to use magma resources is well developed. ............................... 43 f)Nowadays geothermal energy is utilized in numerous applications. .............. 43 a)What are the types of geothermal power plants? ......................................... 48 b)What is the working principle of dry steam power plant? ............................. 48 c)How does binary cycle power plant work? .................................................... 48 d)Why do we call the third type “flash steam power plant”? ........................... 48 e)What are the main components of geothermal power plant? ...................... 48 a)There are two types of geothermal power plants.......................................... 49 b)Geothermal power plants utilize steam turbines to produce electricity. ...... 49 c)Flash steam plants pump hot water up from the geothermal reservoir and then transform it into steam that is used to move a turbine. ................................... 49 d)Dry steam plants do not require drilling because steam, often in the form of geysers, erupts naturally. .................................................................................. 49 e)Binary cycle power plants require hotter water to heat a separate fluid that has a higher boiling point. ................................................................................. 49 f)All these plants require fuel for working. ....................................................... 49 a)Binary plants work upon liquid dominated reservoirs found under the earth’s surface. .............................................................................................................. 49 b)Russia is accredited with setting up a successful binary cycle power project in 1967. ................................................................................................................. 49 a)a system for making a room or building warm .............................................. 53 b)to store food for a long time after treating it so that it will not decay .......... 53 c)water that comes from under the ground and contains a lot of minerals ..... 53 d)a tube through which a liquid or gas flows .................................................... 53 e)relating to or coming from the heat inside the Earth .................................... 53 f)a machine for forcing liquid or gas into or out of smth .................................. 53 g)a place where hot water comes up naturally from the ground geyser .......... 53 h)to send out gas, heat, light, sound etc. .......................................................... 53 i)the power that is carried by wires, cables and is used to provide light or heat ................................................................................................................... 53 a)Where can be found geothermal resources in India? .................................... 58 b)What is the result of the one of the projects? ............................................... 58 c)What do the pilot demonstration projects investigate?................................. 58 d)Why was this area chosen for the project? .................................................... 58 e)Where is geothermal energy explored in the country? ................................. 58 f)Why do these projects play a key role? .......................................................... 58 a)What kind of energy is tidal power? .............................................................. 67 b)How are the tides formed? ............................................................................ 67 c)Why are the tides predictable and regular? ................................................... 67 d)What is one more important advantage of tidal power?............................... 67 a)Tidal power plant uses ocean tides energy to generate electricity. ............... 67 b)Horizontal shifts of water are called tides...................................................... 67 c)Spring tides and neap tides produce the same amount of potential energy in the movement of the sea water. ....................................................................... 67 d)Oceanographers and meteorologists can accurately predict the ebb and flow of the tides around the oceans in advance. ...................................................... 67 e)The main big disadvantage of tidal power is that the tides are predictable and regular. .............................................................................................................. 67 a)These vertical shifts of water are called “tides”. ............................................ 67 b)These spring tides occur during the full or new moon phase. ....................... 68 c)Therefore tidal energy can be considered as a renewable energy source. .... 68 a)What type of power plant is tidal barrage? ................................................... 71 b)How does tidal barrage generate electricity? ................................................ 71 c)What is the disadvantage of tidal barrage? .................................................... 71 d)What is the difference of tidal stream from wind turbine? ........................... 71 a)current in the sea that is caused by regular and continuous ......................... 71 b)movement of large areas of water towards and away from the shore .......... 71 c)a small narrow river........................................................................................ 71 d)a lake that is used for storing water ............................................................... 72 e)a lot of liquid, oil, electricity move steadily in a current or stream................ 72 f)when the tide or the sea level gradually falls ................................................. 72 g)a wall built across a river in order to stop the water flowing ......................... 72 a)The generation of electricity from tides is similar to hydro – electric generation. ........................................................................................................ 72 b)A tidal barrage system doesn't produce environmental and ecological effects. ............................................................................................................... 72 c)The usage of generators beneath the surface of the water increases some environmental effects. ...................................................................................... 72 d)One disadvantage of tidal stream generation is that it can create hazards to shipping. ............................................................................................................ 72 e)Oscillating tidal turbine is installed on the sea bed. ...................................... 72 a)Tidal energy, just like hydro energy transforms water in motion into a clean energy. ............................................................................................................... 72 b)This motion is then used to generate electricity. ........................................... 72 a)What region was chosen for the project? ...................................................... 78 b)Why is this area suitable for the project? ...................................................... 78 c)What are the main aims of the project? ........................................................ 78 a)What are fossil fuels made from? .................................................................. 84 b)What is one main difference between the formation of oil and coal? .......... 84 c)How were fossil fuels used in the past? ......................................................... 84 a)What is the general principle of work of a typical natural gas power plant? . 87 b)What types of natural gas power plants can you mention? .......................... 87 c)How do the work? .......................................................................................... 87 d)Why is the thermal efficiency of the combined cycle plant high? ................. 87 e)What parts of a natural gas turbine can you name? ...................................... 87 f)What are they in charge of? ........................................................................... 87 g)What is the benefit of the pulverized coal combustion technology?............. 87 h)How does a coal - fired power plant work? ................................................... 87 a)The combined cycle gas plant is more productive than the simple cycle gas plant. ................................................................................................................. 87 b)The exhaust gases created in combined cycle plants are used to generate more electricity. .......................................................................................................... 87 c)The combustion of coal is a base principle of work of coal-fired power plants. ................................................................................................................ 87 a)What do we use petroleum products for? ..................................................... 91 b)What is the common application of natural gas? .......................................... 91 a)Why are fossil fuels considered to be a cheap source of fuel? ...................... 98 b)How can fossil fuels be transported? ............................................................. 98 c)Why are they easy to store? ........................................................................... 98 d)What is calorific value? .................................................................................. 98 e)Why are they reliable? ................................................................................... 98 f)Are fossil fuels environmentally friendly? ....................................................... 98 g)Can they ruin our health? .............................................................................. 98 a)What large coal-fired plants can you mention? ........................................... 101 b)Where are they located?.............................................................................. 101 c)What is their capacity? ................................................................................. 101 d)How many generating units do they have?.................................................. 101 e)When were they constructed? ..................................................................... 101 a)What energy will be utilized on a massive scale? ........................................ 108 b)What is atom? .............................................................................................. 108 c)Where can we find protons, neutrons and electrons? ................................. 108 d)What do you know about protons, neutrons and electrons? ...................... 108 e)How can be energy harnessed? ................................................................... 108 f)What is nuclear fission? ................................................................................ 108 g)What is nuclear fusion? ................................................................................ 108 h)Why is uranium used to produce nuclear energy? ...................................... 108 a)a substance such as coal, gas, or oil that can be burned to produce heat or energy ............................................................................................................. 108 b)one of the very small pieces of matter that an atom consists of ................. 108 c)a heavy white metal that is used to produce nuclear power ....................... 108 d)a nuclear reaction in which the nuclei of atoms join together, which produces power without producing any waste............................................................... 108 e)to be formed from a number of substances or parts .................. 109 f)the splitting of the nucleus of an atom which results in a lot of power being produced ......................................................................................................... 109 g)a part of an atom that has no electrical charge ........................................... 109 h)to divide or separate smth into different parts ............................................ 109 a)We use the nuclear energy to generate useful heat and electricity. ............ 109 b)Atoms are the simplest blocks that make up matter.................................... 109 c)Neutrons have an electrical charge. ............................................................. 109 d)In the process of nuclear fission, atoms are not split. ................................. 109 e)Nuclear fusion is the combining of two light atoms into a heavier one....... 109 f)The fuel most commonly used for fission is plutonium. ............................... 109 g)Uranium must be extracted from other minerals. ...................................... 109 a)How does a nuclear power plant look like? ................................................. 113 b)What is the common feature of all thermal power plants? ......................... 113 c)What are the main two buildings of a nuclear power plant? ....................... 113 d)Why is a nuclear reactor a heart of the power plant? ................................. 113 e)Where does feed water convert into steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor core? ................................................................................................... 113 f)What are reactor coolant pumps used for? .................................................. 114 g)Where does thermal energy extract from pressurized steam? .................... 114 h)What are the other parts of a nuclear power plant? ................................... 114 a)Steam turbine is a common feature of all thermal power plants. ............... 114 b)The containment building is the key building of nuclear island. .................. 114 c)The turbine building houses a turbine, generator, condenser and other equipment. ...................................................................................................... 114 d)Isotopes are atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons. ......................................................................................................................... 114 e)U-235 is fissile which means that it is easily split and gives off a lot of energy making it ideal for nuclear energy. ................................................................. 114 f)Steam generators produce high pressurized steam...................................... 114 a)Nuclear power plants actually work like most other electrical power plants. .............................................................................................................. 114 b)There are many different buildings at the site and many different systems. ........................................................................................................... 114 c)All nuclear power plants have no a “containment structure” that holds the reactor. ............................................................................................................ 114 d)All nuclear power plants make electricity from the steam created by the heat of splitting atoms............................................................................................. 114 e)Water from the reactor and the water that is turned into steam are in separate pipes and always mix....................................................................................... 115 f)Nuclear reactor is the heart of the nuclear power plant. ............................. 115 g)The reactor core’s heat is generated by controlled nuclear fusion. ............. 115 a)Nuclear fission reactors are generated in the nuclear reactors of the nuclear power plants. .................................................................................................. 118 b)A weapon is an instrument used to attack or defend itself. ........................ 118 a)What was signed in June? ............................................................................ 124 b)What does the agreement lay? .................................................................... 124 c)Why was it an important step? .................................................................... 124 d)What will be the two companies responsible for? ...................................... 124 e)Why may be the project delayed? ............................................................... 124 f)Why would be completion in Jaitapur a bigger accomplishment? ............... 125 a)What kinds of solar energy do exist? ........................................................... 131 b)What are solar technologies characterized by? ........................................... 131 c)What is the total number of solar energy absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere? ......................................................................................................................... 131 d)What are the perspectives of solar energy? ................................................ 131 a)Radiant light and heat from the sun has been used not so long ago. .......... 131 b)Solar technologies are characterized depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. ............................................................... 131 c)The latent heat of water condensation produces several atmospheric phenomenas.................................................................................................... 131 d)The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is not so great. ......................................................................................................................... 131 e)Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. ........................................................... 131 a)Radiant light and heat from the sun has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. ........................... 131 b)Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. ............................................................................................................. 131 c)The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere. .................................................................................................... 131 d)Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14°C .......................................................................... 131 e)Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. ........................................................... 132 a)In what way can electricity be generated using solar energy?..................... 134 b)What are the main types of solar power plant? .......................................... 134 c)What are the main types of thermal energy power plant? .......................... 135 d)What are the two main designs of solar concentrators? ............................. 135 e)What type of solar power plant is more often used? Why? ........................ 135 a)device which burns gas, oil or coal in order to produce hot water .............. 135 b)an appliance receiving or uniting smth. ....................................................... 135 c)the power from sources such as electricity and coal ................................... 135 d)a device collecting the product of some process ......................................... 135 e)a form of energy carried by wires and used for heating and lightning ........ 135 f)a source producing potential difference on electrodes ................................ 135 g)a device or machine used to do some job.................................................... 135 a)There are basically five main types of solar power plants. .......................... 135 b)Photovoltaic solar power plant makes use of photovoltaic cells for generating power............................................................................................................... 135 c)A photovoltaic cell is used to convert solar power into electricity. .............. 135 d)CSP technology consists of long, curved mirrors dissipating sunlight.......... 135 e)Parabolic dish focuses the sunlight on a single point. .................................. 135 a)Electricity can be generated in two ways with the help of solar energy or sun’s energy. ............................................................................................................. 136 b)A photovoltaic cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is a technology used to convert solar energy directly into electricity. .................................................. 136 c)That in turn builds steam that helps to feed a turbine and generator to produce electricity. ........................................................................................................ 136 d)The tower is positioned in the center of a field of special mirrors to focus the sunlight that reaches it onto the tower-mounted solar .................................. 136 e)Similar to trough concentrators, this system focuses the sunlight on a single point. ............................................................................................................... 136 a)What does energy output depend on? ........................................................ 147 b)How are the waves formed? ........................................................................ 147 c)What do the kinds of waves depend on? ..................................................... 147 d)Why are there so few generation plants around the world? ....................... 147 a)Waves are not powerful source of energy.................................................... 147 b)It is easy to harness power from wave generation plants............................ 147 c)Long steady waves are formed from storms and extreme water conditions. ....................................................................................................... 147 d)Tsunami cannot create powerful waves....................................................... 147 a)How are wave power devices categorized? ................................................. 149 b)What kind of device is Pelamis Wave Energy Converter? ............................ 149 c)What converter is being developed by Aquamarine Power? ....................... 150 d)What kind of generator is Lysekil Project based on? ................................... 150 a)a part that uses electricity or fuel to produce movement ...................... 150 b)an object that has been invented for a particular purpose (for example, for measuring smth.) ..................................................................................... 150 c)a device that changes smth. into a different form ....................................... 150 d)a set of devices powered by electricity ........................................................ 150 e)a machine which produces electricity .......................................................... 150 f)a machine or engine using a stream of air, gas or steam to turn a wheel or produce power ................................................................................................ 150 a)The capture systems use the rise and fall motion of water to capture energy. ............................................................................................................. 150 b)Wave power must carried to the point of use by transmission power lines. ................................................................................................................ 150 c)Oyster wave energy converter captures energy in near shore waves and converts it into electricity. ............................................................................... 150 d)The Lysekil project is based on the usage of a direct driven linear generator. ........................................................................................................ 150 e)The advantage of Lysekil generator is its mechanical simplicity and small need in maintenance................................................................................................ 150 a)Устройства классифицируются согласно методу, который используется для захвата волн. ........................................................................................... 151 b)Как только энергия вырабатывается, она должна быть передана потребителю или на энергосистему............................................................. 151 c)Вода возвращается в океан с помощью силы гравитации через гидроэлектрические генераторы. ................................................................ 151 d)Устройство сейчас тестируется в Западной Австралии. .......................... 151 e)Вода закачивается на берег, чтобы приводить в движение гидрогенератор.............................................................................................. 151 a)What are the main pros of their technology? ............................................. 155 b)What kind of device do they use in their project? ....................................... 155 c)What option won the contest? What is it based on? ................................... 155 d)Where have they started their pilot wave energy plant? ............................ 155 e)What countries have the chosen for their future projects? ......................... 155 f)Why are the two entrepreneurs so optimistic about their prospects?......... 156 1041, Vermount, US ........................................................................................ 169 The world's first megawatt wind turbine is built and connected to the power grid in Castleton, Vermont. The turbine has 75-foot blades and weighs 240 tons. 169 36.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemometerhttps://en.wikipedia ............. 257 39.https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/oct/17/wind-powerrenewable-energy ........................................................................................... 257 41.https://www.quora.com/Where-does-wind-come-from ........................... 257 43.https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/where-does-wind-come ..... 257 44.https://en.wikipedia.org/Wind_direction .................................................. 257 45.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_speed............................................... 257 48.https://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewableenergy/how-biomass-energy-works.html# ..................................................... 257 49.http://www.altenergy.org/renewables/biomass.html/http://www.altenergy. org/renewables/biomass.html/ ...................................................................... 258 50.https://www.nrel.gov/workingwithus/re-biomass .................................... 258 ВВЕДЕНИЕ Учебное пособие предназначено для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы магистров энерготехнических специальностей. В пособие включены девять наиболее значимых тем по основным направлениям подготовки магистров института электроэнергетики. Целями и задачами указанного пособия являются: а) формирование навыков чтения и понимания текстов по специальности, б) развитие устной речи, в) совершенствование лексических и грамматических навыков студентов. Данное пособие содержит аутентичные и методически целесообразные тексты для чтения (большая часть, которых посвящена профессиональной тематике); тексты снабжены заданиями, развивающими умения понимать и интерпретировать материал различной степени сложности. Предложенная в пособии лексика активизирует и расширяет словарный запас обучающихся. Информация предлагаемых учебно-методических материалов служат серьезной базой для развития навыков устной речи. Сопроводительные упражнения позволяют снять трудности при подготовке к чтению указанных текстов, а в дальнейшем служат для контроля понимания содержания и нацеливают на употребление специализированного лексического материала в устной речи. Большое внимание уделяется мультимедийным источникам иноязычного контента глобальных сетевых ресурсов, что необходимо для профессионального роста. Пособие создает прочную основу для успешного участия в межкультурных контактах в профессиональной сфере, используя потенциал иностранного языка для получения значимой информации из разнообразных источников, а также для ознакомления с тенденциями технологического развития и направлениями научных исследований. В приложении содержатся дополнительные тексты профессиональной направленности, ряд правил делового общения (например, подготовка и резюмированное изложение определенного содержания (summary), грамматический справочник с тренировочными упражнениями. UNIT 1. HYDROPOWER TEXT A Describe the picture. What do you think the people are doing? Wordlist: extraction – добыча timber –древесина precipitation – осадки to mill grain – дробить зерно metal ore – металлическая руда paddle wheel –гребное колесо completely submerged turbine – полностью погруженная турбина penstock – шлюз, напорный водовод evaporation – испарение hydropower facilities – гидроэнергетические сооружения hydropower capacity – мощность по производству гидроэлектроэнергии Read the text. Liquid water can be exploited and used for power generation. In a country where it is available, hydropower is one of the first resources developed to produce electricity. This chapter is devoted to means of extracting energy from water by either using hydropower generation. Moving water contains energy which can be used. It has been employed for centuries to do mechanical work, for example, milling grain. The Roman Empire used water to power equipment for the sawing of timber and stone. Water was used for a long time for hushing techniques in the extraction of metal ore. Water produced a large part of the mechanical energy used in the preindustrial era. For that reason, growing industries were located close to rivers. During the Middle Ages and until the nineteenth century, paddle wheel operated water mills were common. The power delivered by these water mills was small, below about 10 kW. The efficiency was also small, of the order of 20% or so. Nevertheless, these were very important installations. The turbine appeared in the nineteenth century. In 1827, a French engineer, Fourneyron, built the first completely submerged turbine. The system was installed in a waterfall of 1.4 m height at Pont -sur-l ’Ognon, France. The power delivered was small, 4.5 kW, but the efficiency was 83%, which is more than three times larger than that of paddle wheels. Later, in 1837, Fourneyron used an 108 - m head in the Black Forest and used penstocks to feed the turbines. After these first attempts, the technology of turbines was improved in France, England, and finally the United States by Pelton and Francis, who gave their names to turbines, which are still used today. Hydropower is a renewable energy source which is governed by the solar energy reaching the earth. About 22% of the solar power incident on the earth is used in the evaporation of water. Water evaporated mainly from the sea but also from rivers, lakes, vegetation, and so on, forms clouds which are blown by the wind and travel in the sky. Under appropriate conditions the water vapor contained in the clouds condenses into rain, snow, or hail. Although precipitation is an intermittent phenomenon and corresponds to a small amount of energy (36 liters of water falling from a height of 10 m carries only 1 Wh), a natural concentration of potential energy occurs as the water flows on the ground, reaching streams, rivers, and then the sea. This flow may be harnessed to do useful work and produce electricity. Natural or artificial reservoirs may be used to store large amounts of water which can then be used on demand to produce electricity. Hydropower is the major renewable energy source employed to produce electricity. Globally, hydropower production of electricity has increased dramatically over the last 60 years. For example, global hydropower electricity production in 1950 was 340 TWh. This met a little more than one third of the global electricity needs. It reached 680 TWh in 1960, 1150 TWh in 1960, 1500 TWh in 1975, and 2994 TWh in 2005. The latter may be compared to the global consumption of 15,000 TWh and global production of 18,306 TWh. The presently installed hydropower capacity in the world is about 780 GW. Although absolute production has increased, hydropower’s share of the global electricity production has actually decreased. For example, if we focus attention on the United States, the installed capacity increased from 56 GW in 1970 to 95 GW in 2008 (an almost 70% increase). Nevertheless, the contribution of hydroelectricity has fallen to 10% whereas this contribution was 14% twenty years ago. This is because the demand has increased faster than has hydropower capacity. In many developed countries most of the possible areas where hydropower facilities can be installed have already been used. Hydropower produces 20% of all the electricity in the world. Answer the questions. How was moving water used in the past? Who and when built the first turbine? Why is hydropower a renewable energy source? Why has hydropower’s share of the global electricity production decreased? Find synonyms from the text: increasing, usual, despite that, supply, to give a lot of attention to, increase sharply, while, unnatural, to be similar to. Match the words below with the definitions: efficiency consumption contribution share intermittent a) a good use of time and energy, without wasting any b) stopping and starting again for short periods of time c) the amount of something that someone uses d) a part of something that has been divided e) something that you do to help produce or develop something, or to help make something successful Are these sentences true (T) or false (F)? a) Growing industries in the past were situated next to the rivers. b) The power delivered by the first turbines was huge. c) Different types of reservoirs are applied to store water. d) Hydropower is the least important renewable energy source employed to produce electricity today. TEXT B 1. Identify how engineers are involved in designing and constructing hydropower systems? 2. Wordlist: a dam – дамба accumulate – накапливать water intake – водозабор turbine blade – лопасть турбины a run-of-the-river system – использование речного стока Read the text. Hydroelectric power is generated by flowing water driving a turbine connected to an electric generator. The two basic types of hydroelectric systems are those based on falling water and those based on natural river current, both of which rely on gravitational energy. The amount of energy created by a hydroelectric project depends upon two factors: the pressure of the water acting on the turbine and the volume of water available. Water that falls 1,000 feet generates about twice as much electric power as the same volume of water falling only 500 feet. In addition, if the amount of water available doubles, so does the amount of energy. Fig.1 The falling water hydrosystem is comprised of a dam, a reservoir, and a power generating unit. The dam is constructed so that a reservoir is created within which water accumulates and may be stored until it is needed. Water is released as required to meet electricity demands of customers. At the bottom of the dam wall is the water intake. The water intake controls when and how much water is moved into a steel called the “penstock.” Gravity causes the water to fall through the penstock. This pipe delivers the running water to a turbine - a propeller like machine with blades like a large fan. The water pushes against the turbine blades and the blades turn. Because the turbine is connected to an electric generator, as the turbine gains speed, it powers the generator and electricity is produced. The second type of hydroelectric plant is called a run-of-the-river system. In this case, the force of the river current applies pressure to the turbine blades to produce electricity. Run-of-the-river systems do not usually have reservoirs and cannot store substantial quantities of water. As a result, power production from this type of system depends on the river flow - the electricity supply is highly dependent upon seasonal fluctuations in output. Hydropower systems, as in all electricity - producing systems, require a generator to create the electricity. An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electric energy. The process is based on the relationship between magnetism and electricity. When a wire or any other electrically conductive material moves across a magnetic field, an electric current occurs in the wire. In a power plant, a strong electromagnet, called a rotor, is attached to the end of a shaft. The shaft is used to spin the rotor inside a cylindrical iron shell with slots - called a stator. Conducting wires are wound through the slots of the stator. When the rotor spins at a high rate of speed, an electric current flows through the conducting wires. In a hydroelectric system, flowing water is used to propel a turbine that spins the shaft connected to the generator and creates the electric current. The kinetic energy of the moving water is changed into rotational energy and thereby causes the turbine blades to rotate. The turbine is attached to an electric generator and the rotational energy of the turbine is then converted to electric energy. The electricity then leaves the generator and is carried to the transformers where the electricity can travel through electric power lines and is supplied to residential, commercial, and industrial consumers. After the water has fallen through the turbine, it continues to flow downriver and to the ocean where the water cycle begins all over again. Pumped storage hydroelectricity is an extended version of the falling water hydroelectric system. In a pumped storage system, two water sources are required - a reservoir located at the top of the dam structure and another water source at the bottom. Water released at one level is turned into kinetic energy by its discharge through high-pressure shafts that direct the downflow through the turbines connected to the generator. The water flows through the hydroelectric generating system and is collected in a lower reservoir. The water is pumped back to the upper reservoir once the initial generation process is complete. Generally this is done using reversible turbines - that is, turbines that can operate when the direction of spinning is reversed. The pump motors are powered by conventional electricity from the national grid. The pumping process usually occurs overnight when electricity demand is at its lowest. Although the pumped storage sites are not net energy producers pumped storage sites use more energy pumping the water up to the higher reservoir than is recovered when it is released - they are still a valuable addition to electricity supply systems. They offer a valuable reserve of electricity when consumer demand rises unexpectedly or under exceptional weather conditions. Pumped storage systems are normally used as “peaking” units. Answer the questions. a) What factors influence the amount of energy created by a hydroelectric project? b) What is the principle of work of the hydroelectric dam? c) How does the run-of-the-river system work? d) What are the functions of the water intake? e) What is the purpose of a power-generating unit? f) What are the peculiarities of a pumped storage system? Find synonyms to the following words: in addition, to meet electricity demands, to be comprised of, gain speed, volume, substantial quantities of water, seasonal fluctuations. Describe the energy transformations that occur in a hydroelectric power plant. TEXT C 1. Hydroelectric power sounds great. So why don't we use it to produce all of our power? 2. Wordlist: load balancing – распределение нагрузки accommodation – размещение timber – древесина hushing – (горное дело) размыв выхода жилы, снятие наносов с коренных пород россыпи roughly – приблизительно Read the text. Hydro Power is one of the largest sources of energy, accounting for roughly 20% of the worldwide demand of electricity and for well resourced countries it accounts for majority of the energy. Compared to other sources of Energy, Hydroelectric Power is one of the cheapest, non Carbon Emitting, non Polluting and Mature Energy Sources. Hydro Power plants have been developed to almost full potential in developed countries because of their superior characteristics and many more are being constructed by developing countries like China and India. Uses of Hydropower Energy Like Wind Energy, Hydropower Energy is mostly used for electricity generation and accounts for almost 20% of the total global electricity production. Another major but mostly unknown use of hydro power is for storing energy. Using the existing dam infrastructure, utilities use hydro power to store energy which is known as “pumped hydro storage”. This use is becoming more important as there are limited options for cheap energy storage. In olden times hydro power like wind power was used for agricultural use like processing grain wherein the kinetic energy of the moving water was converted into mechanical energy. However this use has almost disappeared. Some of the uses of Hydropower Energy are: 1. Electricity – Hydroelectricity is one of the most important sources of energy in the world. Hydroelectricity is one of the cheapest and non-polluting sources of power. Though it can cause ecological damage initially it has better climate compatibility than other major forms of energy like nuclear, coal, gas and others. Many countries in the Nordic region and South America are almost completely dependent on hydro power for their energy needs. For some countries like China and India with massive energy needs, Hydroelectricity is the only option currently amongst non-global warming energy choices to build in large capacities. 2. Energy Storage – There is 90 GW of Global Pumped Hydro Storage already existing in the world and with increasing Solar and Wind Energy this Capacity is only going to grow. The main use of Pumped Hydro Storage is for Grid Energy Storage. Electric Utilities are the main customers of this Technology using Pumped Hydro Storage for. a) Load Balancing – Storing Power during Low Usage Periods and Generating Power at High Usage Periods b) Accommodation of Intermittent Sources of Energy – Solar Energy and Wind Energy are growing at a scorching fast rate of 50% and 30% CAGR over the last several years. Larger share of these forms of renewable energy in the Electricity Mix is driving the growth Grid Storage. c) Reducing Capital Investments as Peak Power plants like Natural Gas Combined Cycle Plants are much more expensive to run than normal Thermal and Nuclear Energy Plants 3. Agriculture – Hydropower was used in ancient times for producing flour from grain and was also used for sawing timber and stone, raised water into irrigation canals. 4. Industry – Hydropower was used earlier for some industrial applications such as driving the bellows in small blast furnaces and for extraction of metal ores in a method known as hushing. Answer the questions. a) What are the main characteristics of hydropower? b) What is pumped hydro storage? c) What countries depend on hydropower mostly? d) What do we understand by load balancing? e) What was the oldest application of hydropower? Match the words below with the definitions: compatibility intermittent currently extraction utility account for a) a service that is used by the public, such as an electricity or gas supply or a train service b) the process of removing something, especially by force: c) not happening regularly or continuously; stopping and starting repeatedly or with periods in between d) to be part of a total number of something e) able to exist, live, or work successfully with something or someone else f) at the present time Discuss and find the following information: The hydroelectricity production for selected countries in 2012 is displayed. The 2012 data in the chart below is taken from the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), which provides independent national and international energy statistics. Compare and discuss what countries produce the most hydroelectric power? Useful phrases when describing charts The chart is divided into ...parts. It highlights ... ...has the largest (number of) ... ... has the second largest (number of) ... ... is as big as ... ... is twice as big as ... ... is bigger than ... more than ... per cent ... only one third ... less than half ... The number ... increases/goes up/grows by ... The number ... decreases/goes down/sinks by ... The number ... does not change/remains stable I was really surprised/shocked by the ... So we can say TEXT D 1. How can you rate hydropower plants on scale from 6 (good) to 1 (very bad) using the following criteria: Efficiency Reliability Effect on environment Public perception Cost of construction Availability of primary source Wordlist: indigenous – местный upstream land – земли в верхнем течении divert – направлять в другую сторону, отводить fertile land – плодородная земля rot – гнить mercury – ртуть leach – хим. выщелачивать sediments – осадок fish ladder — рыбопропускное рыбоход сооружение; ступенчатый estimated – предполагаемый а severe drought – сильная засуха Read the text. Hydroelectric energy plays an important role in supplying the world’s electricity. There are many benefits for using hydro resources to produce electricity. First, hydropower is a renewable resource; oil, natural gas, and coal reserves may be depleted over time. Second, hydro resources are indigenous. A country that has developed its hydroelectric resources does not have to depend on other nations for its electricity; hydroelectricity secures a country’s access to energy supplies. Third, hydroelectricity is environmentally friendly. It does not emit greenhouse gases, and hydroelectric dams can be used to control floods, divert water for irrigation purposes, and improve navigation on a river. There are, however, disadvantages to developing hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric dams typically require a great deal of land resources. In conventional hydroelectric projects, a dam typically is built to create a reservoir that will hold the large amounts of water needed to produce power. Further, constructing a hydroelectric dam may harm the ecosystem and affect the population surrounding a hydro project. Environmentalists often are concerned about the adverse impact of disrupting the flow of a river for fish populations and other animal and plant species. Furthermore, building a dam submerges upstream land. Often the land which is fertile land or had a rich wildlife habitat. If the reservoir is flooded without taking care of the existing plant and animal life, problems may occur. This happened in Brazil with the Tucurui Dam. The trees and plants were flooded and rotted in the water. The consequence was a decrease of the oxygen concentration in the water, which killed the fish and the plants living in it. During flooding metals naturally contained in the rocks may be leached and pollute the reservoir. This happened, for example, inCanada with mercury pollution. Problems may also occur because the flow ofthe river is slowed: Stratification of water temperatures or accumulation ofsediments may occur. Another negative effect of hydropower is that fish cannot travel the river if no accommodations for this are made. This is in particular a major issue for salmon. For this reason solutions such as the building of fish ladders or transporting fish in barges have been developed. Very large dams have an environmental impact during construction, as is the case of any large civil engineering work: emissions, dust, noise, accidents, and so on. People often must be relocated so that a dam’s reservoir may be created. Large-scale dams cause the greatest environmental changes and can be very controversial. China’s 18.2 gigawatt Three Gorges Dam project—the world’s largest hydroelectric—will require the relocation of an estimated 1.2 million people so that a 412- mile reservoir can be built to serve the dam. Another potential problem for hydroelectricity is the possibility of electricity supply disruptions. A severe drought can mean that there will not be enough water to operate a hydroelectric facility. Answer the questions. a) What are the advantages of using hydro resources? b) What are the drawbacks of using hydro resources? c) How does construction of large dams influence people`s life? Match the words below with the definitions: to deplete controversial environmentally friendly the adverse impact in particular consequence to reduce the amount of something, especially a natural supply things that cause problems or danger the result of an action or situation, especially a bad result not damaging the environment causing a lot of disagreement or argument especially Are these sentences true or false? a) There is no emission of greenhouse gases of hydroelectricity. b) It is not necessary to possess a great amount of land to build a dam. c) Before constructing the reservoir, a lot of attention must be given to existing plants and animal life. TEXT E 1. Read the text. The Guri Hydroelectric Power Plant Project, Venezuela The Guri hydroelectric power plant is situated 100km upstream of the Caroni River in Necuima Canyon in Orinoco, Venezuela. The power plant has an installed capacity of 10,200MW and is the third largest power plant in the world. Venezuelan power company CVG Electrification del Caroni CA (Edelca) operates and maintains the power plant. The plant provides around 12,900GW/h of energy to the country. Construction of the power plant was carried out after the government adopted a policy in the 1960s to minimise the amount of energy produced from fossil fuels. The plant contains three highvoltage switchyards running at 800kV, 400kV and 230kV. The switchyards are arranged in a breaker-and-half configuration. Edelca is currently carrying out a modernization programme to extend the plant’s life by 30 years. As part of the modernization programme, Andritz Hydro was awarded a €100m contract in 2007. The contract involves supplying five 770MW Francis turbines for powerhouse II of the power plant. The company supplied the first of the Francis turbines, weighing 200t, to the Guri power plant in the third quarter of 2009. In May 2009, Alstom Hydro received a second contract worth €31m from Edelca to refurbish five 630MW generators of powerhouse II of the power plant. The first contract worth €80m was awarded in 2007 for the refurbishment of four 400MW Francis turbines and generators of powerhouse I of the power plant. The feasibility studies for constructing the power plant started in 1961. Harza Engineering Co. International carried out both the technical and economic studies. In 1963, a consortium, consisting of Kaiser Engineering and Constructors, Macco International, Tecon International, Merritt Chapman & Scott Overseas, Christian Nielsen and Technical Building Construction, was awarded the contract for the construction of the plant. Towards the end of 1963, the initial construction work, earthworks and routes of the access roads commenced. In 1964, the Caroni River was diverted to the right side of the bank to enable construction of the plant. The civil works of the first stage of the power plant were completed in 1976, consisting of powerhouse I with ten generators and a capacity of 2,065MW. The final stage of the construction for the power plant started in 1978. In 1982, four main construction works were taken up, which included the concrete dam (Guri Dam) and powerhouse II, the excavation of the second channel and discharge operation plant of aggregates, earth and rockfill dams left and right. In 1984, the first unit of powerhouse II was commissioned with ten 630MW generators. The completed Guri power plant was inaugurated in 1986. HPC Venezuela (VHPC), an affiliate unit of Hitachi Plant Technologies, was awarded the contract for the construction of powerhouse II. Construction work carried out by VHPC included the installation of ten water turbines with a capacity of 730MW and ten auxiliary transformers. In addition, VHPC installed a water treatment system, six elevators and a complete carbon dioxide fire-fighting system among other works. Hydroelectric power plant technology Under the modernization programme of the power plant, a consortium consisting of ABB Venezuela, ABB Canada and ABB Switzerland was awarded a contract to conceive and install the unit control, protection and instrumentation systems for the power plant. ABB chose to install an industrial video and control (IVC) system and integrated it with a leak detection system to monitor the Guri dam. The IVC system helps in identifying a range of alarm protocols and responds to alarms by starting user-defined responses such as camera functions. Venezuela power market. Around 73% of the country’s energy needs are met by the Guri power plant. In January 2010, however, it became evident that Venezuela had become over-dependent on the power plant to supply its energy needs. Water levels in the Guri dam have fallen drastically and if they continue to fall, the country is expected to face a power crisis in the next six months. The government will have to suspend the generation of around 5,000MW of power, which will lead to widespread blackouts. Several measures such as the use of energy saving bulbs and an increase in tariffs for commercial users need to be adopted to prevent an energy crisis occurring in Venezuela. In addition, reducing power demand in shopping malls and government buildings may help. Answer the questions. a) What large hydropower plants can you mention? b) Where are they located? c) What is their capacity? d) How many generating units do they have? e) When were they constructed? Render into English: ГИДРОЭНЕРГЕТИКА, использование энергии естественного движения, т.е. течения, водных масс в русловых водотоках и приливных движениях. Чаще всего используется энергия падающей воды. До середины XIXв. для этого применялись водяные колеса, преобразующие энергию движущейся воды в механическую энергию вращающегося вала. Позднее появились более быстроходные и эффективные гидравлические турбины. До конца XIX в. энергия вращающегося вала использовалась непосредственно, например, для размола зерна или приведения в действие кузнечных мехов и молота. В наши дни практически вся механическая энергия, создаваемая гидравлическими турбинами, преобразуется в электроэнергию. Почти вся гидравлическая энергия представляет собой одну из форм солнечной энергии и поэтому относится к возобновляемым природным энергоресурсам. Под лучами солнца испаряется вода из озер, рек и морей. Образуются облака, идет дождь, и вода, в конце концов, возвращается в водные бассейны, т.е. туда, откуда испарилась. С таким круговоротом воды в природе связано колоссальное количество энергии. Географическая область умеренного климата высотой над уровнем моря около 2500 м и количеством осадков порядка 1000 мм/год теоретически могла бы непрерывно давать более 750 кВт с каждого квадратного километра площади. На самом деле можно использовать лишь малую долю всего количества осадков и лишь ничтожную долю высоты, с которой они стекают. Кроме того, обычно КПД современных гидротурбин и генераторов не превышает 86%. Тем не менее, производительность гидроэлектростанций (ГЭС) в США составляет около 75 000 МВт, и, по крайней мере, еще 50 000 МВт можно получить дополнительно. ГИДРОЭНЕРГЕТИЧЕСКИЕ РЕСУРСЫ. Уровень развития гидроэнергетики в разных странах и на разных континентах неодинаков. Больше всего гидроэлектроэнергии производят Соединенные Штаты, за ними идут Россия, Украина, Канада, Япония, Бразилия, КНР и Норвегия. Неосвоенные гидроэнергетические ресурсы Африки, Азии и Южной Америки открывают широкие возможности строительства новых ГЭС. На Северную Америку, в распоряжении которой находится всего около 13% мировых ресурсов гидроэнергетики, приходится около 35% полной мощности действующих ГЭС. В то же время Африка (21% мировых гидроэнергетических ресурсов) и Азия (39%) вносят лишь 5 и 18% соответственно в мировую выработку гидроэлектроэнергии. Из остальных континентов Европа (21% ресурсов) дает 31% выработки, а Южная Америка и Австралия, вместе взятые, располагая примерно 15% ресурсов, дают только 11% производимой в мире гидроэлектроэнергии. ПЛОТИНЫ. Вода, вращающая гидравлические турбины, обычно берется из искусственных водохранилищ, созданных путем перекрытия реки плотиной. Плотина повышает напор воды, поступающей на турбины, и тем самым увеличивает мощность электростанции. Расход воды из водохранилища через турбины можно регулировать. Водохранилище, кроме того, служит отстойником для песка, ила и мусора, приносимых естественными водотоками. Построив плотину с водохранилищем, можно предотвратить паводковые затопления, а также создать надежный запас воды для водоснабжения населения и промышленности. ГИДРАВЛИЧЕСКИЕ ТУРБИНЫ. Гидравлическая турбина преобразует энергию воды, текущей под напором, в механическую энергию вращения вала. Существуют разные конструкции гидротурбин, соответствующие разным скоростям течения и разным напорам воды, но все они имеют только два лопастных венца. (Паровые и газовые турбины – со многими венцами лопаток.) К лопастям первого венца относятся профилированные колонны статора и лопатки направляющего аппарата, причем последние обычно позволяют регулировать расход воды через турбину. Второй венец образуют лопасти рабочего колеса турбины. Два последовательных лопастных венца (статора и колеса) составляют ступень турбины. Таким образом, в гидротурбинах имеется только одна ступень. ГИДРОГЕНЕРАТОРЫ. Гидрогенераторы для ГЭС специально проектируются соответственно частоте вращения и мощностью гидротурбин, для которых они предназначаются. Гидрогенераторы на большую единичную мощность обычно устанавливают вертикально на подпятниках с соответствующими направляющими подшипниками. Они, как правило, трехфазные и рассчитаны на стандартную частоту. Система воздушного охлаждения – замкнутая, с теплообменниками воздух – вода. Предусматривается возбудитель. ГИДРОАККУМУЛИРУЮЩИЕ ЭЛЕКТРОСТАНЦИИ (ГАЭС). В часы малых нагрузок гидроагрегаты ГАЭС перекачивают воду из низового водоема в верховой, а в часы повышенных – используют запасенную воду для выработки пиковой энергии. Работа в турбинном и насосном режимах обеспечивается обратимыми гидроагрегатами, состоящими из синхронной электрической машины и гидравлической насос-турбины. На перекачку воды в верхний водоем из нижнего затрачивается иногда в полтора раза больше электроэнергии, чем затем из нее вырабатывается. Но это оправдано с точки зрения экономики энергетической системы. Дело в том, что энергию, затрачиваемую на перекачку, вырабатывают ТЭС энергетической системы в часы пониженной нагрузки, когда ее стоимость понижается. Таким образом, дешевая «ночная» электроэнергия превращается в ценную «пиковую», что повышает экономическую эффективность системы в целом. Преимущества ГАЭС состоят в том, что у них может быть повышенный напор, для них проще выбрать место сооружения и они требуют меньше воды (поскольку вода циркулирует между верхним и нижним водоемами). Благодаря повышенному напору можно использовать более крупные и эффективные гидрогенераторы. Но существуют и ГЭС смешанного типа (ГЭС – ГАЭС), на которых часть гидроагрегатов работает как в турбинном, так и в насосном режиме, а остальные – только в турбинном (за счет приточности к верхнему водоему). Такие электростанции часто позволяют накапливать больше воды и, следовательно, вырабатывать больше электроэнергии в более длительные периоды пиковой нагрузки, обеспечивая повышенную гибкость в работе. ПРИЛИВНЫЕ ЭЛЕКТРОСТАНЦИИ (ПЭС). Для создания экономичной приливной электростанции необходимо сочетание необычайно большого перепада уровней при приливе и отливе (6 м и более) с особенностями береговой линии, позволяющими создать плотину и водный бассейн соответствующих размеров. На Земле не так много мест, где выполняются эти условия: побережья штата Мэн (США) и провинции Нью-Брансуик (Канада), некоторые заливы Желтого моря, Персидский залив, Аляска, некоторые места Аргентины, юг Англии, север Франции, север европейской России и ряд заливов Австралии. Но даже в таких подходящих местах, как залив Пассамакуодди на границе штата Мэн и провинции Нью-Брансуик, ПЭС в настоящее время вряд ли могли бы по стоимости вырабатываемой электроэнергии конкурировать с современными ТЭС. В проектах ПЭС обычно предусматривается создание двух бассейнов – верхового и низового – с водопропускными отверстиями и затворами. Верховой бассейн наполняется во время прилива, а затем опорожняется в низовой, опорожнившийся при отливе. Speak about hydropower in general hydropower in the world hydropower in Russia types of hydroelectric systems uses of hydropower energy advantages and disadvantages of hydropower energy a new project. UNIT 2. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY TEXT A 1. Do you know when we come across geothermal energy? 2. Wordlist: radioactive decay – радиоактивный распад reservoir – источник brine – соляной раствор to extract from – извлекать to harness – использовать molten rock – расплавленная порода Read the text. Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials. The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. Earth’s internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F). 41 Geothermal energy is heat within the Earth. The Earth, after all, has three layers, along with the core. This specific type of renewable energy can be harvested from any of these layers, with the right means to do so. The slow decay of radioactive particles in the Earth’s core, which is a process that happens in all rocks, is what produces geothermal energy. The different layers of the Earth include the crust, mantle, and outer core. The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, what every living thing walks, slithers, or crawls, on every day. The crust forms the continents and ocean floors. It can be 3-5 miles thick under the oceans, and 15-35 miles thick on the continents. Next is the mantle. This surrounds the core and is about 1,800 miles thick. It is made up of magma and solid rock. Lastly, we have the cores. The inner core is solid iron while the outer core is made up of insanely hot magma. Possibly even hotter than the sun. However, there are a few different sources of geothermal energy. These include hydrothermal, geopressurized, hot dry rock, and magma. Hydrothermal reservoirs have been the most common source of geothermal energy production worldwide. They contain hot water and/or steam trapped in fractured or porous rock formations by a layer of impermeable rock on top. Hydrothermal fluids can be used directly to heat buildings, greenhouses, and swimming pools, or they can be used to produce steam for electrical power generation. These power plants typically operate with fluid temperatures greater than 130° C. Geopressurized resources are from formations where moderately high temperature brines are trapped in a permeable layer of rock under high pressures. These brines are found deeper underground than hydrothermal fluids and have high concentrations of salt, minerals, and dissolved methane gas. In addition to producing steam for electrical power generation, minerals can be extracted from brines and used as supplementary revenue for a power plant. This process is known as coproduction. 42 Hot dry rock reservoirs are generally hot impermeable rocks at depths shallow enough to be accessible (<3,000m). Although hot dry rock resources are virtually unlimited in magnitude around the world, only those at shallow depths are currently economical. To extract heat from such formations, the rock must be fractured and a fluid circulation system developed. This is known as an enhanced geothermal system (EGS). The water is then heated by way of conduction as it passes through the fractures in the rock, thus becoming a hydrothermal fluid. The final source of geothermal energy is magma, which is molten rock. Molten rock is the largest global geothermal resource and is found at depths below 3-10km. Its great depth and high temperature (between 700°C and 1200°C) make the resource difficult to access and harness. Thus, technology to use magma resources is not well developed. Geothermal power is already an important energy resource for our nation and the world. The future of geothermal energy depends on three factors: it’s demand, supply and it’s competitiveness among other renewable resources in terms of cost, availability, reliability etc. Demand for geothermal energy is going to increase with the increase in the population and extinction of other non-renewable sources. Moreover, today government also support the resources which are cleaner and do not spoil the environment. Supply of geothermal energy is limited and confined to certain areas only. The entire resource of geothermal energy is fairly bigger than of coal, oil and gas. Geothermal energy can be made more widely available if the methods and technologies used to extract it are improved. Geothermal energy is still not explored fully. Several miles below the earth surface is hot, dry rock being heated by the molten magma directly below it. Answer the questions. a) What is geothermal energy? b) What is Earth’s internal heat? 43 c) What are the sources of energy? d) How do you understand the process of coproduction? e) Why is geothermal energy important? Find the English equivalents to the following words and word combinations: постоянная тепловая потеря, источник геотермальной энергии, могут быть использованы напрямую, проницаемый слой, совместное производство, эти соляные растворы находятся глубже под землёй, высокая концентрация соли, минералов, растворенный газ метана, усовершенствованная геотермальная система, гидротермальные жидкости; дополнительный доход. Find the synonyms to the following words from the text: source, to produce, to work, to utilize, to occur, to cause, general. Read the sentences and mark them as true (T) or false (F). a) This heat found inside the earth is called geothermal energy. b) Geothermal energy is the energy stored as heat underneath the surface of the earth. c) The only one that is widely in use is geopressured. d) There are three types of geothermal resources that can be harnessed in some way. e) Technology to use magma resources is well developed. f) Nowadays geothermal energy is utilized in numerous applications. Find the sentences with the Passive Voice and define the tenses. Describe the sources of geothermal energy. TEXT B 44 1. Is it possible to build a small geothermal power plant capable of providing electricity to a house or a small village and where? What are the main parts of a geothermal power plant and their functions? Word list: to come from – происходить из reservoir – источник extract – выделять power grid – электрическая сеть to pump – накачивать to expand – расширять fluid – жидкость due to – благодаря чему-либо, из-за to harness – использовать Read the text. There are three different types of geothermal power plants: dry steam plants, flash steam plants and binary cycle plants. Geothermal power plants use water that is naturally heated by the earth in order to create electricity. This is called geothermal water. The plants use this geothermal water to turn the blades of the plant’s turbine. Each type of power plant accomplishes this feat in a slightly different way. 45 Fig.2 When a geothermal power plant uses steam in the same form as it comes from the ground, the plant is called a dry steam plant. In dry steam geothermal power plants, two separate wells are drilled into the rock until it reaches the reservoir under the earth’s surface; the production well and injection well. The production well extracts steam with a temperature of 150° C (300° F) from the hot water reservoir below and directs it to the turbine. The steam turns the turbine, which turns a shaft connected to a generator. With the turning, the generator converts the energy into electricity, which goes through power lines to a power grid and supplied to homes, industries and institutions. The used steam finds its way to the condenser, where it’s converted into water and sent back down to the hot water reservoir through the injection well and the cycle continues. Dry steam power plant is the old kind of geothermal power plant. The first dry steam power plant was set up in 1904 in Larderello, 46 Italy. In the USA this type of geothermal power generation is only utilized in high volcanic mountain areas in California. Fig.3 In flash steam geothermal power plants, water is pumped from the reservoir under high pressure. The pressure keeps the water in a liquid state even though the water’s temperature is well above the boiling point. It reaches the surface, the pressure is relieved and water greater than 182° C (360° F) flashes into steam. Flash steaming is the process whereby extremely highpressure hot water is flashed or vaporized into steam in a flash tank by reducing the pressure. The steam is then directed to turn turbines, which turns a shaft connected to a generator leading to production of electricity. The water that does not turn to steam, as well as the water that condenses after turning to steam, is pumped back into the reservoir. 47 Fig.4 Flash steam power plants are the most common types of geothermal power plants in the modern world. The Wairakei Power Station, built in 1958 in New Zealand, was the first geothermal power plant that utilized flash steam. A binary cycle power plant is used when the water in a reservoir is not hot enough to transform into steam. This lower temperature water is instead used to heat a liquid that expands when heated. At the heat exchanger, the binary fluid is vaporized and directed to turn a turbine, which turns a shaft connected to a generator and electricity is generated. The vapor used to turn the turbine is then converted to water by cold air radiators and allowed to go back to the reservoir below through the injection well. The fluid is recycled and used again to form a reusable energy source. Binary plants work upon liquid dominated reservoirs found under the earth’s surface. Binary plants work with water of low temperatures, between 107.2182.2°C (225-360° F). Due to the low temperatures of this water, the water must be pumped up to the earth’s surface and boiled into a 48 working fluid. Due to the abundance of cold water reservoirs in the earth’s surface, binary cycle power plants make up the majority of geothermal plants in the United States. Binary cycle power plants also create minimal air emissions due to the constant separation between the water from the earth’s surface and the working fluids used during the operation. Russia is accredited with setting up a successful binary cycle power project in 1967. Geothermal power plants have existed since the early 1900s and can be built in any area that has access to a geothermal reservoir. Most of these are found along the boundaries of the tectonic plates. Answer the questions. a) What are the types of geothermal power plants? b) What is the working principle of dry steam power plant? c) How does binary cycle power plant work? d) Why do we call the third type “flash steam power plant”? e) What are the main components of geothermal power plant? Find the Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations: to accomplish, to turn the turbine blades, the production well and injection well, power line, to turn a shaft, liquid state, abundance, constant separation, to create air emissions, a reusable energy source, to utilize flash steam. Match items in column (a) with items in column (b). 1. power a) b) c) d) e) f) g) 2. geothermal 3. dry 4. separating 49 point water state generator lines steam water 5. connect 6. liquid 7. boiling Read the sentences and mark them as true (T) or false (F). a) There are two types of geothermal power plants. b) Geothermal power plants utilize steam turbines to produce electricity. c) Flash steam plants pump hot water up from the geothermal reservoir and then transform it into steam that is used to move a turbine. d) Dry steam plants do not require drilling because steam, often in the form of geysers, erupts naturally. e) Binary cycle power plants require hotter water to heat a separate fluid that has a higher boiling point. f) All these plants require fuel for working. Make up all types of questions. a) Binary plants work upon liquid dominated reservoirs found under the earth’s surface. b) Russia is accredited with setting up a successful binary cycle power project in 1967. Speak about main components of geothermal power plants and their functions. TEXT C 1. What areas can you think of where geothermal energy can be used? Wordlist: 50 to extract from – извлекать timber – древесина to take into consideration – принимать во внимание to carry out – выполнять electricity generation – производство электричества horticulture – садоводство, растениеводство, овощеводство heat pump – тепловой насос dissolved minerals – растворенные (растворяемые) минералы Read the text. Geothermal energy is a renewable source of energy because heat and steam are continuously produced underground, which is available to us at any time. There are two uses of geothermal energy, one is the direct use or application of the energy and other is electricity generation. The main types of direct applications of geothermal energy are space/district heating 52% ( using heat pumps), bathing and swimming (including balneology) 30%, horticulture (greenhouses and soil heating) 8%, industry 4%, and aquaculture (mainly fish farming) 4% (Lund et al., 2005). Space heating, of which more than 80% are district heating, is among the most important direct uses of geothermal energy. Preferred water delivery temperature for space heating is in the range 60-90°C and commonly the return water temperature is 2540°C. Conventional radiators or floor heating systems are typically used, but air heating systems are also possible. If the temperature of the resource is too low for direct application, geothermal heat pumps can be used. Space cooling can also be provided by geothermal systems; geothermal heat pumps can heat and cool with 51 the same equipment. District systems circulate hydrothermal water from geothermal wells to individual houses and buildings via a series of pipes. Geothermal district heating system has the potential to save 30% to 50% of the cost of natural gas heating. Bathing and swimming can be found in every country as practically every country has spas and resorts that have swimming pools heated with geothermal water (including balneology – the treatment of diseases with water). People have used geothermal water and mineral waters for bathing and their health for many thousands of years. Many hot springs have been used in connection with religious rites in Egypt and by the Jews of the Middle East. In Europe, the Greeks, Turks and Romans were famous for their spa development and use from Persia to England. The same is with Indians in America, Maoris in New Zealand and in Japan. Nowadays, thermal water is used not only for medical treatments but also for recreation, sports (water centers)plus the use of contained energy for heating the spa facilities. Horticulture, heating of greenhouses by geothermal energy has been practiced in many countries for commercial production of vegetables, flowers and fruits. The purpose of protected crop cultivation is to keep the climate inside the greenhouse as close to the optimum growth conditions for the plants as possible. The photosynthesis process uses sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into building material for the plants such as sugar. Each type of plant needs a specific quantity of energy in the form of heat. The optimum growing conditions are usually available naturally only a part of the year but geothermal heating and artificial lighting make it possible to keep the conditions in the greenhouses throughout the year, independent of the outdoor climate conditions. The soil heating system uses the floor of the greenhouse as a radiator for the heat. Warm water is circulated through a tube buried in the floor of the greenhouse. Then the heat is transferred from the warm water 52 to the soil through the tube that eventually will heat the air in the greenhouse. In industries, paper mills use geothermal energy for all paper processing stages. The heat generated from it is used for drying wood. In a typical timber mill, after the tree has been cut and shaped into its desired form, it must go through a drying process to prevent warping later on and to set the sap. It is also used to extract precious metals like gold, silver, etc., from mines. For preserving fruits and vegetables for longer time, they are dried up, i.e., the water contained in them is removed slowly. With geothermal drying, color, flavor and freshness of the food stay unaffected. Even the nutritional value of the processed food is retained. In aquaculture, geothermal energy helps in raising marine life. The aquatic animals that are typically raised are carp, catfish, frogs, mussels, crabs, scallops, crayfish and oysters. Normally, marine organisms depend on heat coming from the sun to feed and perform metabolic activities. When water temperature goes below a required level, it becomes difficult for aquatic animals to carry out these activities. To overcome this difficulty, a geothermal water supply can be used. The temperature of this water is constant and creates a natural climate suitable for aquatic animals. Sometimes aquacultural ponds are constructed to grow marine organisms. While constructing these ponds water quality and disease possibilities must be taken into consideration. Generating electricity is the major use of geothermal energy. It is a very energy-efficient method to generate a source of renewable energy. It does not emit harmful gases while generating power. It is used to generate geothermal power to produce a very large amount of electricity. 53 Electricity is produced from geothermal energy in 24 countries (USA, Philippines, Mexico, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Iceland, Costa Rica and so on). Find the English equivalents of the following words and word combinations in the text: бальнеолечение (курортология), охлаждение, оздоровление, преобразовать углекислый газ в, искусственное освещение, для предотвращения деформации, для хранения, требуемый уровень, преодолеть трудность, выделять вредные газы. Match these words to their definitions: geothermal heating pump electricity hot spring to emit mineral water pipe to preserve a) a system for making a room or building warm b) to store food for a long time after treating it so that it will not decay c) water that comes from under the ground and contains a lot of minerals d) a tube through which a liquid or gas flows e) relating to or coming from the heat inside the Earth f) a machine for forcing liquid or gas into or out of smth g) a place where hot water comes up naturally from the ground geyser h) to send out gas, heat, light, sound etc. i) the power that is carried by wires, cables and is used to provide light or heat Find the Participles in the text and define the functions of them. 54 Find some additional information about the applications of geothermal energy and share your idea with the group. TEXT D 1. What are the pros and cons of geothermal energy? Wordlist: reliability – надежность hence – следовательно, поэтому to ramp up – наращивать, увеличивать to harvest – добывать fossil fuel – полезные ископаемые Read the text. Geothermal energy is heat energy that is generated and stored in the earth and can be harnessed for various purposes through different methods. Geothermal energy is really beneficial, offering people the ability to tap into the Earth for a renewable source of power. It became a revolutionary energy solution that quickly spread from one corner of the globe to the other. But we might want to take a look at the upsides and downsides of the geothermal energy. Advantages of geothermal energy. It’s eco-friendly. This form of energy is environmentally friendly. This is due to the fact that it is produced by the earth undergrounds and no burned fossil fuels present. No harmful gases and emissions are guaranteed by this form of energy. Renewable power source. Geothermal power generation injects a sense of reliability to the national power system. Geothermal energy can be generated as a 55 base-load renewable energy resource, which means production occurs 24/7 despite changing weather patterns, thereby offering an exceptionally reliable and constant source of green energy. As a base-load source of power, geothermal energy is primed to take the place of coal in the traditional utility system. Since geothermal energy production can be easily increased or decreased depending on current demand, it can be utilized to maintain the integrity of the national power grid, hence, ramping up the overall efficiency of the whole electricity generation system, while at the same time offering reliable and clean energy. Widely available. The earth’s internal heat is available around the world. The only limitation is the capability to extract the energy. However, with advances in technology (geothermal heat pumps), individuals have been able to harvest this hot water from the reservoir below the earth to heat homes and businesses. Even so, advance resources are needed for converting this heat into electricity at individual level. With the rapid growth of technology, economic systems will be developed to convert this abundant heat into electricity by individuals in the near future. No sound pollution. A geothermal system uses exactly the same principles as a freezer or refrigerator. It operates quietly. It’s a good system to maintain a good relationship with the neighbors. High efficiency. Geothermal heat pumps are characterized by high efficiency. Averagely, they use 25% to 50% electric power for cooling and heating. And the fact that they come with flexible designs, means they can be tailor-made for various situations, needing a much lesser space compared to the traditional systems. Also, because geothermal systems are designed with fewer mobile parts, and these parts are housed in a building, makes their life expectancy significantly high. 56 However, let’s have a look at the disadvantages of the geothermal energy. Disadvantages of geothermal energy. The specific location. The biggest disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it’s location specific. In many regions, the heat radiating towards the surface is insufficient to generate enough power or to be worth the investment into building a geothermal infrastructure. Where the Earth’s crust is thick, the geothermal gradient is only 16 degrees Celsius (60 F ) per square kilometer, but in places where the crust is thin, this number rises up to (90) degrees Celsius (194 F). The only sites worth considering for the construction of geothermal power plants are the ones with easily accessible geothermal reserves. Low efficiency of geothermal power plants. Geothermal power plants have lower efficiency than fossil fuel or nuclear power plants. Efficiency expresses the amount of generated electricity from the excavated heat. Because of the unique character of geothermal heat, which is not emanating with the same intensity in different locations, each geothermal plant has its specific efficiency. For example, a geothermal plant in Darajat Indonesia, achieves 21 percent efficiency while a place like Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, reaches, only one percent conversion efficiency. Energy loss during transportation. Significant energy losses occur when hot water is used to transport the geothermal –generated energy long distances from geothermal plants. This is also another reason why building a power plant is not economically-viable in arears where geothermal reservoir is located too far from communities. The longer the distance geothermally heated water has to travel through the pipes, the higher amount of energy is getting lost during the process. 57 High initial cost. Another disadvantage of geothermal energy is the high level of costs and the fact that the whole process is extremely expensive. The drilling beneath the earth’s surface requires a very expensive technology. Beside the expensive equipment the installation of the power plant also is very a big investment. To sum all together: hiring a certified installer to work on the plant, the installation of the plant, the drilling technology equipment, all these components build the price of the geothermal energy which is very high and not every family can afford its usage. Geothermal plants can cause earthquakes. Drilling into the earth is increasing the risk of earthquakes. The extracting of the geothermal energy means to drill beneath the earth and that can cause a big impact and alter the paradigm of the earth. People that live near power plants report that the number of earthquakes is increased. Despite the fact that the level of this earthquake is low, no higher than magnitude 4, the earthquakes are causing a lot of damage to the families that live on sites with geothermal energy plants. Anyhow, the constant drilling in the deep within of earth can have a huge impact on its stability and can trigger more earthquakes. Geothermal energy does have a lotof potential for the future, but we need to come up with ways to reduce installation costs and technological advances to reduce the negative effects on the earth’s surface. Find some additional information about the pluses and minuses of geothermal energy and share your idea with the group. TEXT E 1. Read the text. Geothermal resources are present in 7 provinces in India, however there is no geothermal power plant yet, but only a number of projects. One of the projects is the result of a recent collaboration between India and Norway in the northwestern Himalayas. Two pilot demonstration projects investigating the utilization of low and medium temperature geothermal resources for heating purposes, 58 successfully improved the livelihood of the local population. The area has a very short supply of electricity of about 3 hours per day, and temperatures drop in the winter season to below 20ºC. In addition, natural resources such as wood are in short supply and people rely on fossil fuels like coal for heating their homes. The researchers assessed the resource potential and heat load for heating up a hotel and restaurant, and successfully managed to install heating systems that keep the indoor temperature at about 20ºC. Due to the shortage of electricity available, solar panels have been installed to make possible the continuous operation of the heat pumps. These kinds of projects play a key role in improving the life expectancy and overall standard of living of people living in areas characterized by fuel-poverty, relative isolation and geothermal resource potential. At the country level, India announced plans to develop 10,000 MW of geothermal energy by 2030 in partnership with countries that are top producers of geothermal power generation: USA, Philippines, Mexico and New Zealand. There are already some sites in the country where geothermal energy is explored, namely Cambay Graben in Gujarat, Puga and Chhumathang in Jammu and Kashmir, Tattapani in Chhattisgarh, Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra and Rajgir in Bihar. The plan is part of the government’s pledge to increase the share of renewable power to 350 GW by 2030. Answer the questions. a) Where can be found geothermal resources in India? b) What is the result of the one of the projects? c) What do the pilot demonstration projects investigate? d) Why was this area chosen for the project? e) Where is geothermal energy explored in the country? f) Why do these projects play a key role? Render into English: 59 Геотермальная электростанция – это вид электростанций, которые вырабатывают электрическую энергию из тепловой энергии подземных источников. Исходные данные: в глубине земной коры есть тепло. Его нужно преобразовать в энергию, например, электрическую. Как это сделать? Схема работы геотермальной электростанции достаточна проста. Вода, через специально пробуренные отверстия, закачивается глубоко под землю, в те слои земной коры, которые естественным образом довольно сильны нагреты. Просачиваясь в трещины и полости горячего гранита, вода нагревается, вплоть до образования водяного пара, и по другой, параллельной скважине поднимается обратно. После этого горячая вода поступает непосредственно на электростанцию, в теплообменник, и ее энергия преобразуется в электрическую. Это происходит посредствам турбины и генератора, как и во многих других типах электростанций. В другом варианте геотермальной электростанции, используются природные геотермальные ресурсы, т.е. вода, нагретая до высокой температуры в результате естественных природных процессов. Однако область использования подобных ресурсов значительно ограничена наличием особых геологических районов. В этом случае в теплообменник поступает уже нагретая вода, выкаченная из земных недр. В другом случае – вода в результате высокого геологического давления, поднимается самостоятельно через специально пробуренные отверстия. Это общий принцип работы геотермальной электростанции, который подходит для всех типов. В настоящее время существует три схемы производства электроэнергии с использованием геотермальных ресурсов: прямая с использованием сухого пара; непрямая с использованием водяного пара; 60 смешанная схема производства (бинарный цикл). Тип преобразования зависит от состояния среды (пар или вода) и ее температуры. Геотермальная энергия может быть использована двумя способами - для выработки электроэнергии и для обогрева домов, учреждений и промышленных предприятий. Для какой из этих целей она будет использоваться зависит от формы, в которой она поступает в наше распоряжение. Иногда вода вырывается из-под земли в виде чистого "сухого пара", т. е. пара без примеси водяных капелек. Этот сухой пар может быть непосредственно использован для вращения турбины и выработки электроэнергии. Конденсационную воду можно возвращать в землю и при ее достаточно хорошем качестве сбрасывать в ближний водоем. В других местах, где имеется смесь воды с паром (влажный пар), этот пар отделяют и затем используют для вращения турбин; капли воды повредили бы турбину. Наконец, в большинстве месторождений есть только горячая вода, и энергию здесь можно вырабатывать, пользуясь этой водой для перевода изобутана в парообразное состояние, с тем, чтобы этот изобутановый «пар» вращал турбины. Такой процесс называют системой с бинарным циклом. Горячей водой можно непосредственно обогревать жилища, общественные здания и предприятия (централизованное теплоснабжение). Превращение тепловой энергии в электричество - это и есть сущность геотермальной энергетики. В некоторых странах, где затруднено использование других отраслей, она используется довольно широко. Например, на Филиппинах 27 % всего электричества приходится именно на геотермальные станции, а в Исландии этот показатель составляет около 30 %. Сущность этого способа добычи энергии довольно проста, механизм схож с простой паровой машиной. До предполагаемого "озера" магмы необходимо пробурить скважину, через которую подается вода. При контакте с раскаленной магмой вода мгновенно превращается в пар. Он поднимается, где крутит механическую турбину, тем самым вырабатывая электричество. 61 Будущее геотермальной энергетики состоит в том, чтобы найти большие "хранилища" магмы. Например, в упомянутой Исландии это удалось: раскаленная магма за долю секунды превратила всю закачанную воду в пар температурой около 450°С, что является абсолютным рекордом. Подобный пар высокого давления способен повысить эффективность геотермальной станции в несколько раз, это может стать толчком к развитию геотермальной энергетики во всем мире, особенно в областях, насыщенных вулканами и термальными источниками. Достоинства и недостатки геотермальной энергетики. Геотермальная энергия всегда привлекала людей возможностями полезного применения. Главными достоинствами геотермальной энергии являются ее практическая неиссякаемость и полная независимость от условий окружающей среды, времени суток и года. Геотермальная энергия своим “проектированием” обязана раскаленному центральному ядру Земли, с громадным запасом тепловой энергии. Только в верхнем трехкилометровом слое Земли запасено количество тепловой энергии, эквивалентное энергии примерно 300 млрд. тонн угля. Тепло центрального ядра Земли имеет прямой выход на поверхность Земли через жерла вулканов и в виде горячей воды и пара. Кроме того, магма передает свое тепло горным породам, причем с ростом глубины их температура повышается в среднем на 1°С на каждые 33 м глубины (геотермическая ступень). Это означает, что на глубине 3-4 км вода закипает; а на глубине 10-15 км температура пород может достигать 1000- 1200°С. Но иногда геотермическая ступень имеет другое значение, например, в районе расположения вулканов температура пород повышается на 1° С на каждые 2-3 м. В районе Северного Кавказа геотермическая ступень составляет 15-20 м. Из этих примеров можно сделать заключение о том, что имеется значительное 62 разнообразие температурных условий геотермальных источников энергии, которые будут определять технические средства для ее использования, и что температура является основным параметром, характеризующим геотермальное тепло. Существуют следующие принципиальные возможности использования тепла земных глубин. Воду или смесь воды и пара в зависимости от их температуры можно направлять для горячего водоснабжения и теплоснабжения, для выработки электроэнергии либо одновременно для всех трех целей. Высокотемпературное тепло около вулканического района и сухих горных пород предпочтительно использовать для выработки электроэнергии и теплоснабжения. От того, какой источник геотермальной энергии используется, зависит устройство станции. Если в данном регионе имеются источники подземных термальных вод, то целесообразно их использовать для теплоснабжения и горячего водоснабжения. Например, по имеющимся данным, в Западной Сибири имеется подземное море площадью 3 млн м2 с температурой воды 70-90° С. Большие запасы подземных термальных вод находятся в Дагестане, Северной Осетии, Чечено-Ингушетии, КабардиноБалкарии, на Камчатке и в ряде других районов России. В Дагестане уже длительное время термальные воды используются для теплоснабжения. За 15 лет откачено более 97 млн.м3 термальной воды для теплоснабжения, что позволило сэкономить 638 тыс. т. условного топлива. В Махачкале термальной водой отапливаются жилые здания общей площадью 24 тыс.м2, в Кизляре – 185 тыс.м2. Перспективны запасы термальных вод в Грузии, которые допускают расход в сутки 300-350 тыс.м2 с температурой до 80° 63 С. Столица Грузии находится над месторождением термальных вод с метановоазотным и сероводородным составом и температурой до 100° С. Какие проблемы возникают при использовании подземных термальных вод? Главная из них заключается в необходимости обратной закачки отработанной воды в подземный водоносный горизонт. В термальных водах содержится большое количество солей различных токсичных металлов (например, бора, свинца, цинка, кадмия, мышьяка) и химических соединений (аммиака, фенолов), что исключает сброс этих вод в природные водные системы, расположенные на поверхности. Наибольший интерес представляют высокотемпературные термальные воды или выходы пара, которые можно использовать для производства электроэнергии и теплоснабжения. У нас в стране эксплуатируется экспериментальная Паужетская геотермальная электростанция установленной электрической мощностью 11 МВт, построенная в 1967 году на Камчатке. Достоинствами геотермальной энергии можно считать практическую неисчерпаемость ресурсов, независимость от внешних условий, возможность комплексного использования термальных вод для нужд тепло электроэнергетики и медицины. Также геотермальная энергия не загрязняет окружающую среду и не способствует парниковому эффекту, электростанции не занимают много места, после того как они построены, энергия почти бесплатна. Недостатками геотермальной энергии являются высокая минерализация термальных вод большинства месторождений и наличие токсичных соединений и металлов, что исключает в большинстве случаев сброс термальных вод в природные водоемы. Большая проблема состоит еще и в том, что существует не так много мест, где можно строить геотермальные электростанции. 64 Speak about geothermal energy in general geothermal energy in the world geothermal energy in Russia types of geothermal energy systems use of geothermal energy advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy a new project. 65 UNIT 3. TIDAL ENERGY TEXT A 1. Is tidal energy widely used in Russia? Wordlist: shift – перемещение, сдвиг likewise – так же, подобным образом ebbing – ослабление, спад superimpose – налагать, накладывать alignment – выравнивание neap – убывающий consecutive – последующий, последовательный replenish – наполнять, пополнять Read the article. Using the Energy of Tides to Generate Electricity Tidal power is another form of hydropower that utilizes large amounts of ocean tides energy to generate electricity. Tidal energy is an alternative energy that can also be classed as a renewable energy source, as the Earth uses the gravitational forces of both the moon and the sun every day to move vast quantities of water around the oceans and seas producing tides. As the Earth, its Moon and the Sun rotate around each other in space, the gravitational movement of the moon and the sun with respect to the earth, causes millions of gallons of water to flow around the Earth’s oceans creating periodic shifts in these moving bodies of water. These vertical shifts of water are called “tides”. When the earth and the moons gravity lines up with each other, the influences of these two gravitational forces becomes very strong and causes millions of gallons of water to move or flow towards the shore creating a “high tide” condition. Likewise when the earth and 66 the moons gravity are at 90 to each other, the influences of these two gravitational forces is weaker and the water flows away from the shore as the mass of water moves to another location on the earth, creating a “low tide” condition. This ebbing and flowing of the tides happens twice during each period of rotation of the earth with stronger weekly and annual lunar cycles superimposed onto these tides. When the moon is in perfect alignment with the earth and the sun, the gravitational pull of the moon and sun together becomes much stronger than normal with the high tides becoming very high and the low tides becoming very low during each tidal cycle. Such tides are known as spring tides. These spring tides occur during the full or new moon phase. The other tidal situation arises during neap tides when the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun are against each other, thus cancelling their affects. The net result is a smaller pulling action on the sea water creating much smaller differences between the high and low tides thereby producing very weak tides. Neap tides occur during the quarter moon phase. Then spring tides and neap tides produce different amounts of potential energy in the movement of the sea water as their effects are differ from the regular high and low sea levels and we can use these tidal changes to produce renewable energy. So we can say that the tides are turning for alternative energy. So we now know that the constant rotational movement of the earth and the moon with regards to each other causes huge amounts of water to move around the earth as the tides go in and out. These tides are predictable and regular resulting in two high tides and two low tides each day with the level of the oceans constantly moving between a high tide and a low tide, and then back to a high tide again. The time taken for a tidal cycle to happen is about 12 hours and 24 minutes between two consecutive high tides allowing oceanographers and meteorologists to predict accurately the ebb and flow of the tides around the oceans many years in advance. The main big advantage of this is that the tides are therefore perfectly predictable and regular unlike wind energy or solar energy, 67 allowing miles of coastline to be used for tidal energy exploitation and the larger the tidal influence, the greater the movement of the tidal water and therefore the more potential energy that can be harvested for power generation. Therefore tidal energy can be considered as a renewable energy source as the oceans energy is replenished by the sun as well as through tidal influences of the moon and suns gravitational forces. Answer the questions. a) What kind of energy is tidal power? b) How are the tides formed? c) Why are the tides predictable and regular? d) What is one more important advantage of tidal power? Give Russian equivalents: ocean tides, renewable energy source, gravitational force, vast quantities of water, vertical shift, annual lunar cycle, neap tides, in advance, energy exploitation. Find in the article synonyms for the following words: energy, area, unsteady, exhaustible, to appear, to lead. Say if the sentences are true or false: a) Tidal power plant uses ocean tides energy to generate electricity. b) Horizontal shifts of water are called tides. c) Spring tides and neap tides produce the same amount of potential energy in the movement of the sea water. d) Oceanographers and meteorologists can accurately predict the ebb and flow of the tides around the oceans in advance. e) The main big disadvantage of tidal power is that the tides are predictable and regular. Ask all types of questions to the given sentences: 68 a) These vertical shifts of water are called “tides”. b) These spring tides occur during the full or new moon phase. c) Therefore tidal energy can be considered as a renewable energy source. TEXT B 1. How is it possible to generate electricity from tides? Wordlist: barrage – дамба. плотина width – ширина sluice gates – шлюзовые ворота, водоспуск spin – поворачивать, крутить ebb – отлив, спад tidal stream – приливное течение flipper – плавник, ласт Read the article. Tidal Energy Generation Since the position of the earth and the moon with respect to the sun changes throughout the year, we can utilize the potential energy of the water contained in the daily movement of the rising and falling sea levels to generate electricity. The generation of electricity from tides is similar in many ways to hydro-electric generation. The difference this time is that the water flows in and out of the turbines in both directions instead of in just one forward direction. Tidal energy, just like hydro energy transforms water in motion into a clean energy. The motion of the tidal water, driven by the pull of gravity, contains large amounts of kinetic energy in the form of strong tidal currents called tidal streams. The daily ebbing and flowing, back and forth of the oceans tides along a coastline and into and out of small inlets, bays or coastal basins, is little different to the 69 water flowing down a river or stream. The movement of the sea water is harnessed in a similar way using waterwheels and turbines to that used to generate hydro electricity. But because the sea water can flow in both directions in a tidal energy system, it can generate power when the water is flowing in and also when it is ebbing out. Different types of tidal energy systems Tidal Barrage A tidal barrage is a type of tidal power generation that involves the construction of a fairly low dam wall, known as a “barrage” and hence its name, across the entrance of a tidal inlet or basin creating a tidal reservoir. This dam has a number of underwater tunnels cut into its width allowing sea water to flow through them in a controllable way using “sluice gates”. Fixed within the tunnels are huge water turbine generators that spin as the water rushes past them generating tidal electricity. Fig.5 Tidal barrages generate electricity using the difference in the vertical height between the incoming high tides and the outgoing low tides. As the tide ebbs and flows, sea water is allowed to flow in or out of the reservoir through a one way underwater tunnel system. This flow of tidal water back and forth 70 causes the water turbine generators located within the tunnels to rotate producing tidal energy with special generators used to produce electricity on both the incoming and the outgoing tides. The one disadvantage of tidal barrage generation is that it can only generate electricity when the tide is actually flowing either “in” or “out” as during high and low tide times the tidal water is stationary. However, because tides are totally predictable, other power stations can compensate for this stationary period when there is no tidal energy being produced. Another disadvantage of a tidal barrage system, is the environmental and ecological effects that a long concrete dam may have on the estuaries they span. Tidal Stream A tidal stream generation system reduces some of the environmental effects of tidal barrages by using turbine generators beneath the surface of the water. Major tidal flows and ocean currents, like the Gulf Stream, can be exploited to extract its tidal energy using underwater rotors and turbines. Tidal stream generation is very similar in principal to wind power generation, except this time water currents flow across a turbines rotor blades which rotates the turbine, much like how wind currents turn the blades for wind power turbines. In fact, tidal stream generation areas on the sea bed can look just like underwater wind farms. Unlike off-shore wind power which can suffer from storms or heavy sea damage, tidal stream turbines operate just below the sea surface or are fixed to the sea bed. Tidal streams are formed by the horizontal fast flowing volumes of water caused by the ebb and flow of the tide as the profile of the sea bed causes the water to speed up as it approaches the shoreline. As water is much more denser than air and has a much slower flow rate, tidal stream turbines have much smaller diameters and higher tip speed rates compared to an equivalent wind turbine. Tidal stream turbines generate tidal power on both the ebb and flow of the tide. One of the disadvantages of tidal stream generation is that as the turbines are submerged under the surface of the water they can create hazards to navigation and shipping. 71 Other forms of tidal energy include tidal fences which use individual vertical-axis turbines that are mounted within a fence structure, known as the caisson, which completely blocks a channel and force water through them. Another alternative way of harnessing tidal power is by using an “oscillating tidal turbine”. This is basically a fixed wing called a hydroplane positioned on the sea bed. The hydroplane uses the energy of the tidal stream flowing past it to oscillate its giant wing, similar to a whales flipper, up and down with the movement of the tidal currents. This motion is then used to generate electricity. Tidal energy is another form of low-head hydro power that is completely carbon neutral like wind and hydro energy. Tidal power has many advantages compared to other forms of renewable energy with its main advantage being that it is predictable. However, like many other forms of renewable energy, tidal energy also has its disadvantages such as its inflexible generation times dependent upon the tides and the fact that it operates in the hostile conditions of the oceans and seas. So here are some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with tidal energy. Answer the questions. a) What type of power plant is tidal barrage? b) How does tidal barrage generate electricity? c) What is the disadvantage of tidal barrage? d) What is the difference of tidal stream from wind turbine? Match the words and their definitions: stream reservoirtide ebb dam flow a) current in the sea that is caused by regular and continuous 72 b) movement of large areas of water towards and away from the shore c) a small narrow river d) a lake that is used for storing water e) a lot of liquid, oil, electricity move steadily in a current or stream f) when the tide or the sea level gradually falls g) a wall built across a river in order to stop the water flowing Say if the sentences are true or false: a) The generation of electricity from tides is similar to hydro – electric generation. b) A tidal barrage system doesn't produce environmental and ecological effects. c) The usage of generators beneath the surface of the water increases some environmental effects. d) One disadvantage of tidal stream generation is that it can create hazards to shipping. e) Oscillating tidal turbine is installed on the sea bed. Ask all types of questions to the following sentences: a) Tidal energy, just like hydro energy transforms water in motion into a clean energy. b) This motion is then used to generate electricity. TEXT C 1. Read the article. Advantages and Disadvantages of Tidal Energy Currently, tidal energy is still in the early development stages, not being able to compete with fossil fuels. However, the focus on renewable energy sources and the demand for clean energy are 73 contributing to a rapid development of methodologies to harness this type of energy sources. Tidal energy is already offering many advantages, but put in mind that it is also linked to some disadvantages. Main advantages It is renewable Tidal energy source is a result of the effects of the sun and moon gravitational fields, combined with our planet rotation around its axis, which results in low and high fields. With this in mind, the power source of tidal energy is potentially renewable, whether we are talking about tidal barrages, stem generators or the more recent technology. Compared to nuclear reserves and fossil fuels, the sun and moon gravitational fields will not cease to exist any time soon. It is green Aside from being renewable, tidal energy is also environmentally friendly energy source because it does not take up a lot of space and does not emit any greenhouse gases. It is predictable Sea currents are highly predictable, developing with well-known cycles, which makes it easier to construct tidal energy systems with the correct dimensions, since the kind of power equipment will be exposed to is already well known. This is why both the equipment installed capacity and physical size have entirely other limitations, though tidal turbines and stream generators that are being used are very similar to wind turbines. It is effective at low speeds Water is a thousand more dense than air, which makes it possible to produce electricity at low speeds. Based on calculations, power can be generated even at 1 minute per second, which is equivalent to a little over 3 feet per second. It has a long lifespan 74 So far, there is no reason to believe that tidal energy plants are not long lived. This means an ultimate reduction of the money spent on selling the electricity, making this energy source a very costcompetitive one. As an example, the La Ranace tidal barrage power plant was constructed in 1966 and is still generating large amounts electricity up to this day. High energy density The energy density of tidal energy is much higher than that of other forms of renewable energy like wind power. High load factor The load factor for solar and wind power ranges from 15-40% which is quite low compared to fossil fuel energy. Tidal power has a load factor of almost 80% which is equal to that of thermal power. Main disadvantages It is expensive We should know that the method of tidal energy generation is relatively a new technology. It is projected that it will be commercially profitable by 2020 in large scales with better technology. Also, the plants that harness this type of energy are linked to higher upfront costs that are required for construction. Thus, tidal energy displays a lack of cost-effectiveness and efficiency on the world energy market. It is not cost- effective The tidal energy technology is not cost-effective, as more technological advancements and innovations are still needed to make power commercially viable. It requires long gestation time 75 The time and cost overruns can be huge for tidal power plants, which led to some of them being cancelled, such as UK's Severn power plant. In fact, some tidal plants, like the one being planned in Russia, will never be realized because of very long gestation time. Effect on marine life The operation of commercial tidal power plants has known to moderately affect the marine life around the power plant. It leads to disruption in movement and growth of fish and other marine life. It can also lead to increase in silt. Turbines can also kill fish passing through it. Limited locations The US DOE estimates that there are only about 40 locations in the world capable of supporting tidal barrages. This because this tidal energy technology requires sizable tides for the power plant to be built. The limited number of locations is a big hurdle. Difficulty in transmission of tidal electricity Some forms of tidal power generate power quite far away from the consumption of electricity. Transportation of tidal energy can be quite cumbersome and expensive. Weather effects Severe weather like storms and typhoons can be quite devastating on the tidal power equipment especially those placed on the sea floor. Speak about main advantages and disadvantages. If you can, add your own facts. TEXT D 1. Read and learn about tidal power in Russia: Russian Power Plants Soon to Utilize Tidal Energy 76 Two unique power plants using tidal energy will soon be built in Russia. In general Russia possesses tidal energy resources, which one can compare with total amount of energy produced and consumed in the country nowadays. Kola Bay and Okhotskoye Sea coast are able to give about 100 GW by means of tidal power stations. 2 MW is enough to bring light and to warm an average village situated beyond the article circle. First Russian TiPS was launched in 1968 in the Ura-guba village on the Barents Sea coast. It was a reinforced concrete construction, which was built in docks near Murmansk and then towed off to KislayaGuba, 100 km away from the city. This construction technique was named “Russian” and it is now used to build sea platforms for oil extraction. The TiPS was awarded a gold medal during World Expo in Japan. In the middle of last century nineties Kislogubskaya tidal power plant was abandoned due to financial difficulties and only ten years later it was modernized and started to be exploited. The renewed station is equipped with a unique orthogonal turbine. Turbine rotor rotates only in waterpower engineering anywhere else in the world. Turbine rotor rotates only in one direction despite of power path current, which allows about 30% lowering expenses on power station operation. Such devices are used in wind power generation for a long time, but it is the first time the turbine is suited for water environment. The pilot tidal power plant in KislayaGuba, where tidal rise reaches 5 m, has a capacity of 400 kW. New power plants for industrial use are expected to be built on Okhotskoye and Beloe Seas. Mezenskaya tidal power plant on the Beloe Sea will host first Russian semiindustrial energy 10 MW unit and TiPS, completely put into operation, can produce up to 20000 MW. In PenzhinskayaGuba in Okhotskoe Sea the tidal rises reach up o 17m, so TiPS can produce 20-90 thousand MW. Russian power engineers contribute to global ecological problem solution. Kaliningrad region is going to be the ground for the first Russian wind farm, for example, Kamchatka is the centre for geothermal power engineering and Yaroslavl Region builds a pilot ground for minor water-power engineering. Give the summary of the article. 77 TEXT E 1. Read the article. Grid Powered by Tidal Energy for Papua New Guinea Town Sydney-based Mako Tidal Turbines and business consultancy Kleinhardt this week signed a co-operation agreement with the government of the Autonomus Region of Dougainville for the development of a demonstration tidal power site in conjunction with a grid serving local businesses. The installation is planned to be sited within the Buka Passage, a narrow body of water in the Autonomous Region between Buka Island and Bougainville Island, I n eastern Papua New Guinea. Mako said, the natureal flow of the tides and currents in the Buka Passage, which is 4 km long and average 400 metres wide and 20-30 metres deep, is ideal for tidal energy. The firm said it will initially undertake detailed resource mapping of the Buka Passage using its proprietary systems, and will separately install a tidal turbine demonstration site to provide electricity to a local shoreline business. In addition, Mako and Kleinhardt aim to identify partners to formulate a business case for a renewable -based electricity grid to meet the needs of the 50,000 people living in and near Buka Town. Sources of funding will be investigated to ensure the grid can be upgraded to meet the needs of a growing population in the region, the companies added. Douglas Hunt, Mako's managing director, said his firm was “pleased that the Autonomous Bougainville Government has granted us a two-year exclusive mandate to bring together a group of leading renewable energy and storage technology providers to plan the region's first city-scale renewable-based electricity grid, with tidal energy from the Buka Passage as a key component”. The two-year project “will become a regional showcase of how tidal energy can benefit coastal populations by reducing energy costs for local 78 businesses, which are the engine of economic growth and prosperity,” he added. Answer questions. the a) What region was chosen for the project? b) Why is this area suitable for the project? c) What are the main aims of the project? Render into English: Ля-Ранс - первая приливная электростанция. Отчетной точкой распространения приливных электростанций стал 1966 год, когда была введена в эксплуатацию Эля-РансЭ- первая ПЭС, расположенная во Франции, в исторической области Бретань. Использования энергии приливов и отливов было обусловлено 79 значительными приливами, достигающими 13,5 метров при обычной высоте 8 метров. Мощность «Ля-Ранс»- 240 МВт, а себестоимость одной единицы энергии в полтора раза ниже обычной электростанции во Франции. Плотина электростанции выполняет не только функцию по обеспечению бесперебойной работы энергетического объекта, но и является мостом, по которому проходит дорога, соединяющая города Динар и Св. Мало. Кроме того, "Ля-Ранс" является популярным туристическим объектом, который привлекает во Францию до 200 тысяч путешественников. ПЭС в Южной Корее: самая мощная электростанция Сихвинская ПЭС - еще один выдающийся объект альтернативной энергетики, который расположен на северо-западном побережье в Южной Корее в искусственном заливе. Электростанция была введена в эксплуатацию в 2011 году и быстро оттеснила на вторую позицию по мощности первую ПЭС в мире. Непосредственно строительству электростанции предшествовала необходимость создания резервуара пресной воды. Позже качество воды стало ухудшаться, и в 1997 году 80 (после подтверждения догадок и разработки решений морским научно-исследовательским институтом) было принято решение сделать отверстие в дамбе. Это дало возможность использовать энергию приливов и отливов. Строительство ПЭС было начато в 2003 году, а запуск планировался в 2009. Вследствие задержек в ходе строительных работ электростанция была запущена в 2011. Приливные электростанции в других странах мира. Страны, использующие энергию приливов и отливов, не ограничиваются прогрессивной Францией и технологичной Южной Кореей. Приливные электростанции эксплуатируются в Великобритании; Норвегии; Канаде; Китае; Индии; Соединенных Штатах Америки. Еще некоторые государства планируют строительство таких сооружений. Энергия приливов признана мировым сообществом перспективным источником, так что в настоящее время активно ведется разработка проектов нескольких ПЭС в разных странах мира. Так, в ближайшее время планируется строительство приливных электростанций в Южной Корее, Шотландии, Индийском штате Гуджарат, Нью-Йорке и городе Суонси в Великобритании. Рациональное использование такого ресурса позволит значительно сократить долю энергии, получаемой традиционным путем, в сторону более экологичного, надежного и безопасного решения. Speak about tidal energy in general tidal energy in the world tidal energy in Russia types of tidal energy systems use of tidal energy advantages and disadvantages of tidal energy a new project. 81 UNIT 4. FOSSIL FUEL TEXT A 1. Can you name some fossil fuels? How are fossil fuels created in the first place? Wordlist: carbonaceous – богатый углеродом peat – торф kerogen – сланцев) кероген (органическое вещество битуминозных crudeoil – сырая /неочищенная/ нефть abundance – изобилие, избыток sedimentary rock – осадочная горная порода pottery – керамика, глиняная посуда 82 liniment – жидкая мазь, линимент coal distillation полукоксование – сухая перегонка каменного угля; tree trunks – стволы деревьев charcoal – древесный уголь reluctance – неохота, нежелание odor – запах Read the text. Fossil fuel is a general term for any hydrocarbon or carbonaceous rock that may be used for fuel: chiefly petroleum, natural gas, and coal. These energy sources are considered to be the lifeblood of the world economy. Nearly all fossil fuels are derived from organic matter, commonly buried plant or animal fossil remains, although a small amount of natural gas is inorganic in origin. Organic matter that has long been deeply buried is converted by increasing heat and pressure from peat into coal or from kerogen to petroleum (oil) or natural gas or liquids associated with natural gas (called natural gas liquids). Petroleum, or crude oil, and natural gas are organic hydrocarbons formed from atoms of carbon and hydrogen. Produced during a process that lasted millions of years, they are derived primarily from ocean biomass (plankton) that grew due to an abundance of solar energy reaching the earth’s surface. Coal is a stratified sedimentary rock composed of more than 50% carbon. Most coal ( ≈ 90% of the world reserves) has been formed from peat which decomposed in an oxygen - poor environment after being buried in swamps or peat bogs. Oil and natural gas have been known and used since ancient times. For example, 5000 years ago bitumen was used to join together bricks made of clay or baked clay, to fire potteries or bricks, and in 83 waterproofing of buildings, ships, canals, and so on. Burning oil was employed as a weapon by the Persians against the Greeks in the fifth century b. c. Before it became extensively used as an energy source, the main use of petroleum in ancient times was as a medicine or a liniment. In China natural gas has been used for cooking since the tenth century when it was transported inside bamboo pipes. In Europe natural gas was originally considered to be a scientific curiosity. Some scientists produced it by distillation of coal and used it for lighting and for inflating hot - air balloons. In 1885, Robert Bunsen developed a burner that easily mixed air and natural gas to produce heat. This provided an efficient and controlled means for burning gas to produce heat for warming buildings and cooking food. The natural gas industry was really born in the United States during the nineteenth century when the gas was used mostly as a fuel for lamps. The first gas pipeline was built in 1870. It was 40 km long and the pipes were made from hollowed trunks of pine trees. Two years later metal pipelines were used to transport natural gas. Today, the length of the natural gas pipeline network in the United States is more than four times the distance from the earth to the moon. The use of coal as an energy source has a long history too. The Chinese have mined and exploited coal as a fuel since 10,000 b .c . They also used it for smelting of ores. In the eleventh century, coal became heavily used in China because significant deforestation caused by the extensive use of charcoal which is obtained from wood had resulted in fuel shortages. From then until the eighteenth century, China remained the world’s largest producer and consumer of coal. Although archaeologists recently discovered that coal was already being used as a fuel by German hunters 120,000 years ago, the extensive use of coal came much later in Europe than in China. It was probably around the twelfth century that poor people started to use coal, which could be easily found near the surface in several 84 countries in Europe. At that time wood was becoming more and more expensive because it was being extensively used as a fuel and for building houses and ships. At the beginning, coal was used with some reluctance because people found this energy source to be dirty and to smell bad. Because the coals often contained high sulfur content, their burning produced the odors of sulfur compounds. The French Academy of Science recommended that coal not be used. In London burning coal was even forbidden. However, by the eighteenth century, because of increasing shortages of wood, Europeans made the choice to use coal rather than to let the economy decline. Thus coal played a major role in the steel industry during the first part of the eighteenth century and became the fossil fuel which allowed the industrial revolution at the end of the eighteenth century. It became the leading primary energy source in the late nineteenth century, progressively replacing renewable energies, and remained in the lead until the 1950s, when oil took first place. In 2005, coal still provided 25% of the world’s primary energy supply, ranking it behind oil (35%) but ahead of natural gas (21%). Because reserves of coal are large compared to those of oil and natural gas, coal is an important energy source for the future. Answer the questions. a) What are fossil fuels made from? b) What is one main difference between the formation of oil and coal? c) How were fossil fuels used in the past? Say using other words from the text. These energy sources are considered to be important and essential things of the world economy. These fossil fuels come from organic matter. 85 This process continued millions of years. Burning oil was used as a weapon. First of all, natural gas was considered to be a scientific curiosity. Deforestation has led to the lack of fuel. Storage of coal is large compared to those of oil and natural gas. Divide the text into some logical parts and entitle them. Find in the article sentences with Passive Voice. TEXT B 1. What types of natural gas power plants are you familiar with? Wordlist: combusted – сжигаемый dispel – исчезать thermal efficiency – тепловой кпд pulverized coal combustion – cжигание пылевидного угля bituminous coal – каменный уголь residues – остатки Read the text. Natural gas power plants are a type of power plant that use natural gas as their fuel in order to generate electricity. This process is done using a large gas turbine, where the natural gas is input along with a stream of air which is combusted, and then expands through a turbine causing a generator to spin. There are two types of natural gas power plants: Simple cycle gas plants and combined cycle gas plants. The former consists of a gas turbine connected to a generator, and the latter consists of a simple cycle plant in combination with another external combustion engine operating on the Rankine cycle, hence its name "combined cycle". 86 The simple cycle is fairly straight forward yet less efficient than the combined cycle, and is only used for meeting the fluctuating electricity needs of society, known as peaking power. Combined cycle plants make up for the efficiency of simple cycle plants, because it makes use of the hot exhaust gases that are created that would otherwise be dispelled from the system. These exhaust gases are used to boil water into steam, which can then spin another turbine and generate more electricity. The thermal efficiency of the combined cycle can get up to 60%. These plants produce one third of the waste heat of a plant with a 33% efficiency (like a typical nuclear plant or an older coal power plant). Fig. 6 The cost of combined cycle plants are generally higher, since they cost more to build and run. The EIA estimated that for a simple cycle plant the cost is about US$389/kW, whereas combined cycle plants are US$500 – 550/kW. Natural gas turbines are theoretically simple, and have three main parts. 1. Compressor- Takes in air from outside of the turbine and increases its pressure. 2. Combustor- Burns the fuel and produces high pressure and high velocity gas. 3. Turbine- Extracts the energy from the gas coming from the combustor. 87 Coal fired power plants are a type of power plant that make use of the combustion of coal in order to generate electricity. Pulverized coal combustion is the major technology used to produce electricity. The advantage of this technology is the ready availability of a wide range of coals that can be used as fuel. Coal powder is burned at temperatures of 1500 – 1700 ° C if bituminous coal is used and 1300 – 1600 ° C with low - rank coals. Fig.7 Several configurations of burners (furnaces) in the combustion chamber can be used. The heat generated in the burner is transferred through a heat exchanger to produce superheated steam. This high - temperature and high - pressure steam is expanded in a steam turbine coupled to a power generator. The solid residues of the combustion consist of 80 – 90% fine flyashes. Most of them flow with the flue gases as particulate matter which can be captured.The steam then travels through a turbine, causing it to rotate extremely fast which in turn spins a generator, producing electricity. The electricity can then be input to the electrical grid for use by society. More than 90% of coal - fired power plants use pulverized coal combustion technology. It has been used for more than 60 years. The average investment cost is about $1500/kW but this varies by country. In China, for example, the investment cost is $800 – $1000/kW. The most sophisticated coal - fired power plants, including sophisticated depolluting systems, can reach costs of $1800/ kW. Answer the questions. 88 a) What is the general principle of work of a typical natural gas power plant? b) What types of natural gas power plants can you mention? c) How do the work? d) Why is the thermal efficiency of the combined cycle plant high? e) What parts of a natural gas turbine can you name? f) What are they in charge of? g) What is the benefit of the pulverized coal combustion technology? h) How does a coal - fired power plant work? Give Russian equivalents to the words and word combinations: simple cycle gas plant, combined cycle gas plant, external, the former, the latter, fluctuating, otherwise, combustor, high velocity gas, сoal powder, electrical grid, sophisticated. Say if the statements are true or false. a) The combined cycle gas plant is more productive than the simple cycle gas plant. b) The exhaust gases created in combined cycle plants are used to generate more electricity. c) The combustion of coal is a base principle of work of coal-fired power plants. Find in the article sentences with Passive Voice and translate them. TEXT C 1. Where are fossil fuels located worldwide and what are they used for? COAL: PETROLEUM: NATURAL GAS: 89 Wordlist: crude oil – сырая нефть ethanol – этиловый спирт biodiesel – дизельное биотопливо feedstock – промышленное сырье distillate fuel oil – дистиллятное нефтяное топливо hydrocarbon gas liquid – сжиженный углеводородный газ oil refineries – нефтеперерабатывающие заводы fertilizer – удобрение Read the text. Among all the resources of energy that are found on the earth, fossil fuels are the most popular. It is considered as a reliable source of energy and it is in great demand to fulfill the energy requirements all across the globe. The main advantages of fossil fuels are that they are readily available and can be carried from one place to another. Fossil fuels are used for various purposes. Some of them are discussed below. Use of Oil Crude oil and other liquids produced from fossil fuels are refined into petroleum products that people use for many different purposes. Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are also used as petroleum products, mainly in mixtures with gasoline and diesel fuel. We use petroleum products to propel vehicles, to heat buildings, and to produce electricity. The petrochemical industry uses petroleum as a raw material (a feedstock) to make products such as plastics, polyurethane, solvents, and hundreds of other intermediate and end-user goods. What are the petroleum products people consume most? 90 Gasoline is the most consumed petroleum product in the United States. In 2016, motor gasoline consumption averaged about 9.3 million b/d (391 million gallons per day), the largest amount recorded and equal to about 47% of total U.S. petroleum consumption. Distillate fuel oil is the second most-consumed petroleum product in the United States. Distillate fuel oil includes diesel fuel and heating oil. Diesel fuel is used in the diesel engines of heavy construction equipment, trucks, buses, tractors, boats, trains, some automobiles, and electricity generators. Heating oil, also called fuel oil, is used in boilers and furnaces for heating homes and buildings, for industrial heating, and for producing electricity in power plants. Hydrocarbon gas liquids (HGL), the third most-used category of petroleum in the United States, include propane, ethane, butane, and other hydrocarbon gas liquids that are produced at natural gas processing plants and oil refineries. HGL consumption in 2016 was about 2.5 million b/d. The petrochemical industry uses HGL as feedstock for making many products. Propane, a heavily consumed HGL, is also used in homes for space heating and water heating, for clothes drying, for cooking, for heating greenhouses and livestock housing, for drying crops, and as a transportation fuel. Use of Natural Gas Most U.S. natural gas use is for heating buildings and generating electricity, but some consuming sectors have other uses for natural gas. The electric power sector uses natural gas to generate electricity. The industrial sector uses natural gas as a fuel for process heating and for combined heat and power systems and as a raw material (feedstock) to produce chemicals, fertilizer, and hydrogen. In 2016, the industrial sector accounted for about 34% of U.S. natural gas consumption, and natural gas was the source of about 31% of the U.S. industrial sector's energy consumption. The residential sector uses natural gas to heat buildings and water, to cook, and to dry clothes. About half of the homes in the United States use natural gas for these purposes. In 2016, the residential 91 sector accounted for about 16% of U.S. natural gas consumption, and natural gas was the source of about 22% of the U.S. residential sector's energy consumption. The commercial sector uses natural gas to heat buildings and water, to operate refrigeration and cooling equipment, to cook, to dry clothes, and to provide outdoor lighting. Some consumers in the commercial sector also use natural gas as a fuel in combined heat and power systems. In 2016, the commercial sector accounted for about 11% of U.S. natural gas consumption, and natural gas was the source of about 18% of the U.S. commercial sector's energy consumption. The transportation sector uses natural gas as a fuel to operate compressors that move natural gas through pipelines. A relatively small amount of natural gas is used as vehicle fuel in the form of compressed natural gas and liquefied natural gas. Nearly all vehicles that use natural gas as a fuel are in government and private vehicle fleets. In 2016, the transportation sector accounted for about 3% of total U.S. natural gas consumption. Natural gas was the source of about 3% of the U.S. transportation sector's energy consumption in 2016, of which 97% was for natural gas pipeline and distribution operations. Use of Coal In 2017, about 717 million short tons of coal were consumed in the United States, equal to about 14% of total U.S. energy consumption. The electric power sector accounts for most of U.S. coal consumption. U.S. coal consumption peaked in 2007 and has declined in most years since then, mainly because of the use of other energy sources for electricity generation. Electric power Coal was the source of about 30% of U.S. total electricity generation in 2017. Power plants make steam by burning coal, and the steam turns turbines (machines for generating rotary mechanical power) to generate electricity. 92 Many industries and businesses have their own power plants, and some use coal to generate electricity, mostly in combined heat and power plants. Industry Many industries use coal and coal byproducts. The concrete and paper industries burn large amounts of coal to produce heat. The steel industry uses coal indirectly to make steel. Coal coke is made by baking coal in furnaces. The steel industry uses coal coke to smelt iron ore into iron to make steel. The high temperatures created by burning coal coke give steel the strength and flexibility needed for bridges, buildings, and automobiles. Converting coal into gas and liquids Coal can be turned into gases and liquids that can be used as fuels or processed into chemicals to make other products. These gases or liquids are sometimes called synthetic fuels or synfuels. Synthetic fuels are made by heating coal in large vessels. These fuels produce fewer air pollutants when burned than burning coal directly. Answer the questions. a) What do we use petroleum products for? b) What is the common application of natural gas? Give the Russian equivalents to the following words: to fulfill the energy requirements, in great demand, to be refined into, to propel vehicles, intermediate and end-user goods, concrete and paper industries, to account for, vessel, coal coke. Complete the tables below. Use of Oil A type of petroleum products Uses of products 93 petroleum Use of Natural Gas Sector The electric sector Application power The industrial sector The residential sector The commercial sector The transportation sector Discuss and find the following information: Total world consumption of petroleum in 2015 was about 93 million b/d. The five largest petroleum-consuming countries in 2015, and their shares of total world petroleum consumption: United States -20.5% China—12.6% Japan—4.3% India—4.3% Russia—3.7% How much coal and natural gas does the world consume? TEXT D 1. Work in pairs. Discuss the following questions: Will we ever run out of fossil fuels? Explain why. 94 Why are fossil fuels bad? What do we mean when we say “green energy”? Wordlist: substantially – существенно prosperity – процветание permeate – пронизывать calorific value – теплота сгорания deplete – исчерпывать at breakneck speed – с головокружительной скоростью the fossilization process – фоссилизация, окаменение Read the text. The advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels show us that the choices we face in the future for fuel consumption are going to be difficult. Here are the key points to consider. What Are the Advantages of Fossil Fuels? Cheap source of energy Statistically, fossil fuels are some of the cheapest sources of fuel on the planet. Although the process of extraction and refinement is relatively expensive, the return on investment is pretty remarkable. Today, innovative technologies are available that can extract fossil fuels with high degree of efficiency, substantially reducing the overall cost. In fact, in the modern day, extraction of fossil fuels is cheaper than installing wind and solar technologies. Safe to transport Because fossil fuels are safe and stable, they can be transported easily and efficiently over long distances. They can be transported 95 on large trucks or pumped through large pipes below and above the ground. We all know that these transportation methods are not costly. However, the same cannot be said about the nerve-racking nuclear energy. Every stage of its development is risky, making it the most unsafe form of energy to handle or transport. Massive economic benefits It’s clear that fossil fuels mightily contribute to a country’s prosperity. If you look at the economies of oil and gas producing countries, you will see a common trend; economic prosperity. Government subsidies to oil firms range in billions of dollars, and the contribution to the growth of a country are more than convincing. If you start considering how many countries across the world greatly rely on fossil fuels, the number of industries powered by them and the number of products that would not be available right now without them, you begin to understand just how fossil fuels have permeated our day-to-day life. Completely stable Fossils fuels contain carbon and hydrogen molecules, making them highly stable. The constant state of their molecular composition also makes them easy to store. They don’t form other compounds when stored in cans for longer periods. This is also the reason why transporting them is a lot easier and safer than other kinds of fuel. High calorific value Calorific value is the amount of energy contained in any fuel. Calorific value is ascertained by measuring the amount of heat produced by the total combustion of a given quantity of it. Calorific value is typically expressed in joules per kilogram. All energy produced on earth has a particular calorific value. The higher the value, the more effective the fuel is. Fossil fuels have the highest calorific value of any fuel. This explains why they are still dominant to renewable and other alternative energy sources. Abundant The fact that fossil fuels are able to satisfy the needs of the world population means they are bountiful in supply. Fossil fuels are found 96 in almost every country in the world. This aspect gives governments a piece of mind knowing that they will not deplete in the near future. With technology traveling at breakneck speeds, extraction and refinery procedures have also scaled up, making the availability of fossil fuels even greater. Useful by product Typically, the byproducts of fossil fuels do not stir enthusiasm. What most people do not comprehend is that plastics are handy byproducts of fossil fuels. They might not be good for the environment, but they are useful and cheap. Plastics are also used in medical equipment and computers. Reliable Fossil fuels have been relied upon since the industrial revolution. Other renewable energy sources such as solar and wind rely on the current climatic conditions to produce electricity. If the sun is not shining, production of electricity stops. Also, the velocity of wind affects production of electricity. Fossil fuels guarantee reliable supply of electricity. Creates jobs There is no doubt that fossil fuels have created numerous jobs in the fields of finance, administration, and construction. According to a report by the U.S. Department of Energy, traditional energy sector employs about 6.4 million Americans today. This demonstrates that fossil fuel energy sector is a solid source of employment. Easy Set Up Since they are widely available, the construction of fossil fuel power plant can take anywhere in the world as long as they get large quantities of fossil fuels to feed them. They are easier to extract and process and are capable to produce large amount of energy at a single location. What Are the Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels? Fossil fuels are a finite resource. 97 It takes a certain amount of time for the fossilization process to occur on our planet. This means fossil fuels are a finite resource. Once they are harvested, they cannot be replaced in the lifetime of anyone living right now according to our current knowledge. It takes millions of years and specific conditions to replace a fossil fuel. That’s a very different effort compared to the energy released in a daily sunrise. Fossil fuels are often cheap because of subsidies. Many governments tend to subsidize the price of fossil fuels instead of letting the free market govern what they tend to be. Businesses that operate within the fossil fuel industry also receive subsidies so that they can continue providing energy products to consumers at reasonable costs. Fossil fuels combust to create an acidic environment. Many of the outcomes which come out of the combustion of fossil fuels without condensing technologies lead to an environment that is more acidic. This acidity can change ocean environments, alter how crops can grow, and may even lead to a higher risk of drought and famine. Many ecosystems on Earth are very sensitive to changing conditions, which means continued fossil fuel use could lead to unpredictable and extremely negative consequences. Fossil fuels can damage the environment through human error. Fossil fuels can also spill during transport, creating environmental damage as the product spills out. This is particularly problematic for petroleum products. From oil pipeline spills to disasters such as the Exxon Valdez spill, human error can cause a lot of unintended environmental damage. Even regular wear and tear, if not properly maintained, can lead to a higher risk of a leak occurring. Fossil fuels aren’t a technology. 98 Although we can make it cheaper to find and access fossil fuels, the fuel itself is not a technology. This means there will always be a baseline price for this product, especially since many of them are traded as commodities. Renewable energy resources, such as wind and solar, are based on technology. The prices for these energy resources has been in a continual decline since the 1970s. In some communities, solar and wind energy is virtually the same price as the energy created through fossil fuel combustion. Fossil fuels may contribute to public health issues. Outside of the risks that pollution causes for premature fatalities, there are ongoing health issues that can be caused by the combustion of fossil fuels. Air pollution that comes from fossil fuel consumption can trigger symptoms that are similar to asthma. It can also create irritation with a person’s air passageways that can trigger chronic coughing, allergy development, lethargy, and other quality of life concerns. Fossil fuels can be dangerous to harvest. Coal miners can develop a condition known as Black Lung Disease, which in severe cases is almost always eventually fatal. Natural gas drillers can be exposed to concentrated chemicals and silica, which can lead to adverse health issues. Oil workers are exposed to toxic chemicals frequently, which can increase their risks of cancer development. This shows that harvesting fossil fuels can be dangerous to personal health. The advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels show that life would be very different without them. Life might be very different, however, if we keep using them. That is why these key points deserve careful and frequent attention. 99 Answer the questions. a) Why are fossil fuels considered to be a cheap source of fuel? b) How can fossil fuels be transported? c) Why are they easy to store? d) What is calorific value? e) Why are they reliable? f) Are fossil fuels environmentally friendly? g) Can they ruin our health? Give the Russian equivalents to the following words: return on investment, ascertain, dominant, by-product, subsidize, draught. Find synonyms to the words: costly, nerve-racking,substantially, to satisfy the needs, abundant, comprehend, stir, contribute to, combust. Discuss: What advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels do you agree with? Can you add some more pros and cons? TEXT E 1. Read the text. Datteln 4 Coal-fired Power Plant Datteln 4, a 1.1GW power plant in Germany, stands among the world’s most modern coal-fired power plants under development. 100 The project will be a monoblock unit with a net efficiency of more than 45%. It will produce district heating in addition to generating power generation. Foundation stone for the Datteln 4 thermal power plant was laid in November 2007. The Datteln City Council passed the project in May 2014 and all the necessary emission-control permits are anticipated to be obtained in 2015. E.ON is the developer of the new hard coal fired plant, which is estimated to require an investment of more than €1bn (more than $1.09bn). Upon completion, the project will replace the aging Datteln 1-3, and Shamrock (Herne) power plants. Approximately 6,300 people participated in the construction of the project, which is expected to create 500 operational jobs, including 200 direct jobs at the power plant. Datteln 4 coal-fired power plant details The Datteln 4 coal-fired power plant will be equipped with an advanced multi-step flue gas purification system, which will eliminate nitrogen oxides, dust and sulphur from the flue gas. Out of the total electricity produced, 413MW of traction current will be delivered to Deutsche Bahn’s grid for its railway system. The remaining 642MW will be transmitted to the region’s public electricity grid. The 50Hz power generated by the plant will be converted into 16.7Hz, which is ideal for the train system, by a traction current converter facility to be constructed along the power station. The converted energy will be fed to Deutsche Bahn’s 110kV high-voltage grid. Using combined heat and power technology, the Datteln 4 power plant will also produce approximately 1,000GWh of district heating, sufficient to supply for approximately 100,000 houses. It will provide 101 district heating to Castrop-Rauxel and Dortmund-Bodelschwingh areas. A portion of the water vapour will be extracted in the two parts of the low-pressure turbine and a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger will transfer the heat energy in the flow line of the district heating network to the district heating water transferring the heat through the district heating system to the customer. The flue gas is cleaned in a complex three-stage process in the power plant. Nitrogen oxide is washed first followed by dust and finally sulphur. Power generation at Datteln 4 coal-fired power plant Hard coal for the power station will be delivered by barges through the Dortmund-Ems canal. Closed conveyor belts will either transport the fuel to the coal storage facility or directly to the coal bunker. The hard coal will be grinded initially to a fine dust by using five coal pulverisers. The fine dust will be dried using hot air and blown into the combustion chamber of the boiler, which will also house the steam generator and a complex system of pipes. At the combustion chamber, the fine coal dust will be burned at more than 1,300°C and the resulting heat will bring the water in the lines to boil. The water will be transformed into steam, which will be passed into the turbines at high pressure. The steam output from the turbines will be condensed into water in the condenser and transferred back to the boiler. The steam turbine will rotate at 3,000 revolutions per minute and consist of a high-pressure, one medium-pressure, and two lowpressure sections. The turbine blades will transfer the steam’s energy onto the shaft. The turbine will be linked to a generator, which will convert the mechanical energy into electrical energy. 102 The electricity generated at Datteln 4 will be supplied to the power grid through a transformer. Contractors involved "The electricity generated at Datteln 4 will be supplied to the power grid through a transformer." Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems is the supplier of utility steam generator for the Datteln 4 coal-fired power plant. Its scope of work includes supply of the components, engineering, installation, and commissioning. Rheinmetall was contracted in February 2008 for the supply of an engineering simulator for the Datteln 4 power plant. ABB is the supplier of process control system consisting of boiler protection, instrumentation and actuators, and complete engineering, installation and commissioning. Bilfinger was awarded the contract for providing high pressure piping system for the Datteln 4 project. Draheim steel prepared the detail engineering and workshop planning for the construction of the boiler house, which is estimated to use 5,150tn of steel. Answer the questions. a) What large coal-fired plants can you mention? b) Where are they located? c) What is their capacity? d) How many generating units do they have? e) When were they constructed? Render into English: 103 Ископаемые виды топлива являются движущей силой технологического прогресса. Однако слой пластов ископаемого топлива, а также катастрофические последствия их чрезмерного потребления заставили человечество переосмыслить использование ископаемого топлива в качестве энергоресурсов. Открытие окаменелостей для энергетических целей повернула колесо революции в истории человечества. Ископаемые виды топлива имеют потенциал для удовлетворения энергетических потребностей всего мира в течение нескольких сотен лет. Они дали большой толчок к промышленной революции, которая произошла в XX веке. Современный мир в значительной степени обязан своим технологическим и механическим прогрессом ископаемому топливу. Однако нерациональное потребление ископаемого топлива привело к ряду проблем во всем мире. Ископаемые виды топлива являются остатками растений и животных из доисторической эры, которые теперь сводятся лишь к углеводородной цепи. Эти углеводороды находятся в виде твердых веществ или жидкостей. Ископаемые виды топлива имеют очень высокую скорость горения и высвобождают огромное количество энергии. Большинство наших топливно-энергетических потребностей удовлетворяются за счет ископаемых видов топлива. Интересно, что мировой спрос на ископаемое топливо удваивался каждые 20 лет, пока что пластов ископаемого топлива достаточно, чтобы удовлетворить этот спрос. Однако чрезмерное потребление ископаемого топлива в ХХ веке во имя прогресса привело к истощению этих месторождений. Кроме того, ископаемые виды топлива повышают уровень загрязнения окружающей среды так сильно, что это стало серьезной экологической проблемой. Ископаемые виды топлива имеют ряд преимуществ перед другими источниками энергии. Это главная причина, почему они до сих пор являются основным поставщиком энергии в мире. Преимущества ископаемого топлива состоят в следующем: 104 Ископаемые виды топлива имеют очень высокую калорийность. Таким образом, сжигание 1 г ископаемого топлива освобождает огромное количество энергии. Таким образом, энергия, вырабатываемая за счет ископаемого топлива больше, чем эквивалентное количество других энергетических ресурсов. Пласты ископаемого топлива довольно легко найти с помощью передового оборудования и технологий. Уголь является ископаемым топливом, которое находится в избытке. Он используется в большинстве электростанций, потому что это снижает стоимость производства в значительной степени. Транспортировка углеводородов в жидкой или газообразной форме очень простая. Они просто транспортируются по трубам. Строительство электростанций, которые работают на ископаемом топливе, также довольно просто. Нефть является наиболее преимущественно используемым видом ископаемого топлива для всех видов транспортных средств. Ископаемые виды топлива легче добывать и перерабатывать, следовательно, они дешевле, чем нетрадиционные виды энергии. Хотя ископаемые виды топлива являются предпочтительным источником энергии, до недавнего времени их потребление и некоторые нежелательные свойства привели к нескольким вопросам огромной важности. Недостатки органического топлива состоят в следующем: Хотя нефть, природный газ и уголь можно найти в изобилии, скорость, с которой они потребляются, привела к значительному истощению их месторождений. Кроме того, невозможно пополнить эти ресурсы, так этот процесс занимает миллионы лет, чтобы сформироваться из органических остатков. 105 Углеводороды, присутствующие в ископаемом топливе, выбрасывают парниковые газы, такие как метан, двуокись углерода и т. д., которые способны разрушать озоновый слой. Кроме того, другие вредные газы, такие как окись углерода и двуокись серы, ответственны за кислотные дожди, которые равноценны катастрофе для экологии. Добыча ископаемого топлива ставит под угрозу экологическое равновесие в некоторых областях. Кроме того, добыча угля ставит под угрозу жизни шахтеров. Истощение залежей ископаемых видов топлива может повлиять на цены на топливо в ближайшем будущем. Изготовление вертикальных цилиндрических нефтепродуктов требует больших затрат. резервуаров Утечка некоторых ископаемых видов топлива, таких как природный газ, сырая нефть, может привести к серьезной опасности. Следовательно, транспортировка этих видов топлива также является очень рискованным. Ископаемое топливо оказывает влияние на глобальное потепление, проблему, с которой борются во всем мире. Хотя ископаемые виды топлива эффективно удовлетворяют наши растущие энергетические потребности все эти годы, пора начать искать альтернативные источники энергии. Растущий спрос на топливо и постоянно растущие цены на него сделали использование альтернативных форм энергии неизбежным. Speak about fossil fuels in general fossil fuels in the world fossil fuels in Russia 106 types of fossil fuels power plants use of fossil fuels advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels a new project. 107 UNIT 5. NUCLEAR ENERGY TEXT A 1. What do you know about nuclear energy? Wordlist: nuclear fission – атомный распад nuclear fusion – ядерный синтез to carry – нести to release – выпускать, освобождать to split – расщеплять treaty – договор Read the text. Since the start of the industrial revolution, the demand for energy has accelerated each passing year. Today, most of this energy demand is satisfied by the use of fossil fuels. Due to the skyrocketing costs and negative effects on the environment instigated by fossil fuels, expects are working around the clock to minimize overdependence upon them. While renewable sources of energy such as wind, solar and hydropower have demonstrated to be ideal alternatives, they are still far from satisfying human needs. Nuclear, on the flip side, has every technology needed to be utilized on a massive scale. Despite this, there is still a great degree of fear and misconception revolving around nuclear energy. By definition, nuclear energy is energy held at the nucleus of an atom. Atoms are the tiny particles in the molecules that constitute gases, liquids, and solids. Atoms themselves are composed of three particles known asprotons, neutrons, and electrons. An atom consists of a nucleus (or core) containing protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by electrons. Protons carry a positive electrical charge and electrons carry a negative electrical charge. Neutrons do not have an electrical charge. Enormous energy is present in the bonds that hold the nucleus together. This nuclear energy can be 108 released when those bonds are broken. The bonds can be broken through nuclear fission, and this energy can be used to produce electricity. The energy can be harnessed using two kinds of reactions: fission and fusion. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart, which releases energy. All nuclear power plants use nuclear fission, and most nuclear power plants use uranium atoms. During nuclear fission, a neutron collides with a uranium atom and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released when a uranium atom splits. These neutrons continue to collide other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over again. This process is called a nuclear chain reaction. This reaction is controlled in nuclear power plant reactors to produce a desired amount of heat. Nuclear energy can also be released in nuclear fusion, where atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. Nuclear fusion is the subject of ongoing research as a source of energy for heat and electricity generation, but whether or not it will be a commercially viable technology is not yet clear because of the difficulty in controlling a fusion reaction. Both ways make big amounts of energy. They sometimes take place in nature. Fusion is the source of heat in the sun. Fission is also used in nuclear power plants to make electricity. Both fusion and fission can be used in nuclear weapons. Uranium is the fuel most widely used to produce nuclear energy. That’s because uranium atoms split apart relatively easily. It’s also a very common element, found in rocks all over the world. However, the specific type of uranium used to produce nuclear energy, called U-235, is rare. U-235 makes up less than one percent of the uranium in the world. Although some of the uranium the United States uses is mined in this country, most is imported. The U.S. gets uranium from Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Uzbekistan. Once uranium is mined, it must be extracted from other minerals. It must also be processed before it can be used. Because nuclear fuel can be used to create nuclear weapons as well 109 as nuclear reactors, only nations that are part of the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty (NPT) are allowed to import uranium or plutonium, another nuclear fuel. The treaty promotes the peaceful use of nuclear fuel, as well as limiting the spread of nuclear weapons. Answer the questions. a) What energy will be utilized on a massive scale? b) What is atom? c) Where can we find protons, neutrons and electrons? d) What do you know about protons, neutrons and electrons? e) How can be energy harnessed? f) What is nuclear fission? g) What is nuclear fusion? h) Why is uranium used to produce nuclear energy? Find the Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations: to constitute gases, liquids and solids; to compose, electrical charge, to collide with smth., a nuclear chain reaction, to fuse together to form, a commercially viable technology, widely used, the peaceful use of nuclear fuel. Match these words to their definitions. nuclear fusion to split nuclear fission uranium neutron to compose particle fuel a) a substance such as coal, gas, or oil that can be burned to produce heat or energy b) one of the very small pieces of matter that an atom consists of c) a heavy white metal that is used to produce nuclear power 110 d) a nuclear reaction in which the nuclei of atoms join together, which produces power without producing any waste e) to be formed from a number of substances or parts f) the splitting of the nucleus of an atom which results in a lot of power being produced g) a part of an atom that has no electrical charge h) to divide or separate smth into different parts Read the sentences and mark them as true (T) or false (F). a) We use the nuclear energy to generate useful heat and electricity. b) Atoms are the simplest blocks that make up matter. c) Neutrons have an electrical charge. d) In the process of nuclear fission, atoms are not split. e) Nuclear fusion is the combining of two light atoms into a heavier one. f) The fuel most commonly used for fission is plutonium. g) Uranium must be extracted from other minerals. Find the Infinitives in the text and translate them. Practice back translation. Speak about nuclear fusion and fission. TEXT B 1. Would you like to live near the nuclear power plant and why? What are the main parts of the plant and their functions? Wordlist: feature – особенность, черта containment building – защитная оболочка pressurizer – компенсатор давления 111 coolant loop – охлаждающий контур to consume – потреблять shaft – вал, ось saturation – насыщение to decay – распадаться Read the text. A nuclear power plant (nuclear power station) looks like a standard thermal power station with one exception. The heat source in the nuclear power plant is nuclear reactor. As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations the heat is used to generate steam, which drives a steam turbine connected to a generator, which produces electricity. Steam turbine is a common feature of all thermal power plants. Steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity. Exceptional feature of the nuclear power plant is the nuclear reactor and its safety and auxiliary systems. As you can see the nuclear power plant consists of two main buildings: - containment building (houses Nuclear Reactor) - turbine building (houses Turbo Generator) 112 Fig.8 The containment building is the key building of nuclear island. It is an air-tight building, which houses a nuclear reactor and its pressurizer, reactor coolant pumps, steam generators, and other equipment or piping that might otherwise release fission products to the atmosphere in the event of an accident. Such buildings are usually made of steel-reinforced concrete. The turbine building is the key building of the conventional (turbine) island. The turbine building houses a turbine, generator, condenser and other equipment, which is used for conversion thermal energy from pressurized steam to mechanical work used for drive the generator. Also a cooling tower can be part of the nuclear power plant, but it is not necessary. Many nuclear power plants (coastal nuclear power plants) do not cool the cooling water via cooling towers. The key components common to most nuclear power plants are: 113 Nuclear Reactor. A nuclear reactor is a key device of nuclear power plants. Main purpose of the nuclear reactor is to initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction. In its central part, the reactor core's heat is generated by controlled nuclear fission. With this heat, a coolant is heated as it is pumped through the reactor and thereby removes the energy from the reactor. Heat from nuclear fission is used to raise steam, which runs through turbines, which in turn powers the electrical generators. Nuclear reactors usually rely on uranium to fuel the chain reaction. Uranium is a very heavy metal that is abundant on Earth and is found in sea water as well as most rocks. Naturally occurring uranium is found in two different isotopes: uranium-238 (U-238), accounting for 99.3% and uranium-235 (U-235) accounting for about 0.7%. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons. Thus, U-238 has 146 neutrons and U-235 has 143 neutrons. Different isotopes have different behaviors. For instance, U-235 is fissile which means that it is easily split and gives off a lot of energy making it ideal for nuclear energy. On the other hand, U238 does not have that property despite it being the same element. Different isotopes also have different half-lives. A half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of a sample of a radioactive element to decay. U-238 has a longer half-life than U-235, so it takes longer to decay over time. This also means that U-238 is less radioactive than U-235. Steam Generators. Steam generators are heat exchangers used to convert feed water into steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor core. They are used in pressurized water reactor between the primary and secondary coolant loops. Pressurizer. Pressure in the primary circuit is maintained by a pressurizer, a separate vessel that is connected to the primary circuit (hot leg) and partially filled with water which is heated to the saturation temperature (boiling point) for the desired pressure by submerged electrical heaters. Temperature in the pressurizer can be 114 maintained at 345 °C (653 °F), which gives a subcooling margin (the difference between the pressurizer temperature and the highest temperature in the reactor core) of 30 °C. Reactor Coolant Pumps. Reactor coolant pumps are used to pump primary coolant around the primary circuit. These pumps are powerful, they can consume up to 6 MW each and they can be used for heating the primary coolant before a reactor start-up. Safety Systems. According to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission primary objectives of nuclear reactor safety systems are to shut down the reactor, maintain it in a shutdown condition and prevent the release of radioactive material. Reactor safety systems consist of: Reactor Protection Systems Essential service water system Emergency core cooling systems Emergency power systems Containment systems Steam Turbine. A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Generator. A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy of the steam turbine to electrical energy. Condenser. A condenser is a heat exchanger used to condense steam from last stage of turbine. Condensate-Feed water System. 115 Condensate-Feed water Systems have two major functions. To supply adequate high quality water (condensate) to the steam generator and to heat the water (condensate) to a temperature close to saturation. The heat is produced by fission in a nuclear reactor and passes into the primary cooling water. This heat, deposited in the cooling water, is conducted to the steam generators situated in the containment building. Steam generators produce high pressurized steam. The pressurized steam is then usually fed to a multi-stage steam turbine. Steam turbines in western nuclear power plants are among the largest steam turbines ever. Answer the questions. a) How does a nuclear power plant look like? b) What is the common feature of all thermal power plants? c) What are the main two buildings of a nuclear power plant? d) Why is a nuclear reactor a heart of the power plant? e) Where does feed water convert into steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor core? f) What are reactor coolant pumps used for? g) Where does thermal energy extract from pressurized steam? h) What are the other parts of a nuclear power plant? Find the English equivalents to the following words and word combinations: с одним исключением, паровая турбина, соединенная с генератором, размещать турбину, генератор, конденсатор; заполненный водой, разница переохлаждения, вращать, преобразовать механическую энергию, теплообменник, пар под высоким давлением. Replace the italicized word and word combinations with synonyms. a) Steam turbine is a common feature of all thermal power plants. 116 b) The containment building is the key building of nuclear island. c) The turbine building houses a turbine, generator, condenser and other equipment. d) Isotopes are atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons. e) U-235 is fissile which means that it is easily split and gives off a lot of energy making it ideal for nuclear energy. f) Steam generators produce high pressurized steam. Read the sentences and mark them as true (T) or false (F). a) Nuclear power plants actually work like most other electrical power plants. b) There are many different buildings at the site and many different systems. c) All nuclear power plants have no a “containment structure” that holds the reactor. d) All nuclear power plants make electricity from the steam created by the heat of splitting atoms. e) Water from the reactor and the water that is turned into steam are in separate pipes and always mix. f) Nuclear reactor is the heart of the nuclear power plant. g) The reactor core’s heat is generated by controlled nuclear fusion. Find some additional information about the nuclear reactor and share your idea with the group. TEXT C 1. How can we use nuclear energy? Wordlist: 117 prerequisite – предпосылка disposable употребления product – продукция to propel – приводить в движение fertilizer – удобрение scarcity – нехватка одноразового Read the text. The main use of nuclear energy is the production of electric energy. Nuclear power plants are responsible for generating electricity. Nuclear fission reactors are generated in the nuclear reactors of the nuclear power plants. With these reactions thermal energy is obtained which will be transformed into mechanical energy and later into electrical energy. However, there are many other applications where nuclear technology is used directly or indirectly. Industrial applications. Nuclear technology is of great importance in the industrial sector, specifically used in the development and improvement of processes, for measurements, automation and quality control. Used as a prerequisite for the complete automation of high-speed production lines, and applies to process research, mixing, maintenance and study of wear and corrosion of plant and machinery. Nuclear technology is also used in the manufacture of plastics and in the sterilization of disposable products. Military applications, nuclear weapons. A weapon is an instrument used to attack or defend itself. Nuclear weapons are those weapons that use nuclear technology. Depending on the role of nuclear technology in the weapon, two types of nuclear weapons differ: those that use nuclear energy to exploit, such as the atomic bomb, and those that use nuclear 118 technology to propel. This second category includes cruises, aircraft carriers, submarines... Nuclear medicine. One in three patients who go to a hospital in an industrialized country receive the benefits of some kind of nuclear medicine procedure. Radiopharmaceuticals are used, such as radiotherapy for the treatment of malignant tumors, tele therapy for oncological treatment or radiological biology that allows the sterilization of medical products. Applications in agriculture. The application of isotopes to agriculture has made it possible to increase agricultural production in the least developed countries. Nuclear technology is very useful in controlling insect pests, maximizing water resources, improving crop varieties or establishing the conditions necessary to optimize the efficiency of fertilizers and water. As for food, nuclear techniques play a key role in food preservation. The application of isotopes allows a significant increase in the conservation of food. At present, more than 35 countries allow the irradiation of some foods. Environmental applications The application of isotopes makes it possible to determine the exact quantities of pollutants and places where they are present and their causes. In addition, electron beam treatment reduces the environmental and health consequences of large-scale use of fossil fuels, and contributes more effectively than other techniques to solving problems such as "the greenhouse effect" and acid rain. 119 Identification of water resources. What is essential for life, yet in most parts of the globe, there is little supply or scarcity of freshwater. Isotope hydrology techniques help scientists to accurately track and measure the degree of underground water resources. These innovative technologies offer vital analytical tools for efficient management and conservation of present water supplies and detection of new and renewable water sources. These tools also offer vital answers to questions revolving around origin, age and distribution of ground water. Additionally, they assist in determining the interconnections between surface and ground water. The outcomes allow informed planning and efficient management of water resources. Other applications. Like dating, which uses the properties of carbon-14 fixation to bones, woods or organic waste, determining their chronological age, and the uses in Geophysics and Geochemistry, that take advantage of the existence of natural radioactive materials for the fixation of the dates of deposits of rocks, coal or oil. Other applications of nuclear technology occur in disciplines such as hydrology, mining or space industry. Find the Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations in the text: organic waste, to obtain, to be of great importance, high-speed production line, the treatment of malignant tumors, food preservation, irradiation, to reduce consequences, to revolve. Match items in column (a) with items in column (b). 1. ground a) resources 2. renewable b) tools 3. to take c) water 120 4. nuclear d) industry 5. electron e) sources 6. analytical f) technology 7. radioactive g) advantage 8. space h) beam 9. water i) materials Make up all types of questions. a) Nuclear fission reactors are generated in the nuclear reactors of the nuclear power plants. b) A weapon is an instrument used to attack or defend itself. Find some additional information about the applications of nuclear energy and share your idea with the group. TEXT D 1. What are the pluses and minuses of nuclear energy? Wordlist: sulphur – диоксидсеры to sustain – поддерживать timeframe – срок, период inexhaustibility – неиссякаемость vulnerability – уязвимость proliferation – распространение Read the text. Just like other forms of energy, nuclear energy has its own advantages and disadvantages. Many people believe that nuclear 121 energy only offers minimal advantages and great numbers of advantages. It is important for a lot of people to understand and learn all the nuclear energy’s pros and cons. Learning them changes the people’s perception about this matter. Here are some of the nuclear energy’s pros and cons. Advantages of Nuclear Energy. Clean energy. Unlike the fossil fuels, the nuclear energy does not produce harmful gasses such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and etc. Nuclear energy produces electricity without pollution. It is cleaner than many other forms of energy production. Essentially, nuclear power would be “carbon-zero” if the uranium was mined and transported in a more efficient way. Reliability Nuclear energy is the most reliable source of energy that sustains an average base-load power of 85-90 percent and can be at the maximum of 92-95 percent. Nuclear energy plants were designed to operate a maximum of 50 years. With proper maintenance and care, it is believed these power resources can perform for another 50 years at their current levels. At the same time, there is enough uranium stored around the world to handle current energy demands for more than 100 years. There is also the potential to extend that timeframe by using radioactive waste byproducts from the plants themselves. Inexhaustibility. Uranium is a common metal found to be abundant in the earth’s crust and even more abundant than tin. Its quantity of supply is believed to increase by a minimum of a quarter in the last decade due to the increased mineral exploration. Moreover, the depletion of uranium could not be possible as there will be many future deposits expected in the seawater, a potential source of uranium. Low Operating Costs. 122 Nuclear power produces very inexpensive electricity. The cost of the uranium, which is utilized as a fuel in this process, is low. Also, even though the expense of setting up nuclear power plants is moderately high, the expense of running them is quite low. The normal life of nuclear reactor is anywhere from 40-60 years, depending on how often it is used and how it is being used. These variables, when consolidated, make the expense of delivering power low. Even if the cost of uranium goes up, the impact on the cost of power will be that much lower. Environmentally friendly. Outside of the nuclear waste materials and the threat of a meltdown, nuclear energy is just as friendly to the environment as renewable power technologies. No carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere during the nuclear fission or fusion process. Unlike coal or biomass power, there are no particulates released into the atmosphere with nuclear energy either. Because of its low emissions, nuclear energy can be placed virtually anywhere, as long as it can be safely managed. More Proficient. The other primary point of interest of utilizing nuclear energy is that it is more compelling and more proficient than other energy sources. A number of nuclear energy innovations have made it a much more feasible choice than others. They have high energy density as compared to fossil fuels. The amount of fuel required by nuclear power plant is comparatively less than what is required by other power plants, as energy released by nuclear fission is approximately ten million times greater than the amount of energy released by fossil fuel atom. This is one the reason that numerous nations are putting a lot of time and money into nuclear power. What’s nuclear power’s greatest benefit, above any other benefit that we may explore? It doesn’t rely on fossil fuels and isn’t influenced by fluctuating oil and gas costs. Coal and natural gas power plants discharge carbon dioxide into the air, which causes a number of environmental issues. With nuclear power plants, carbon emissions are insignificant. 123 Disadvantages of geothermal energy. Environmental impact. One of the biggest issues is environmental impact in relation to uranium. The process of mining and refining uranium hasn’t been a clean process. Actually transporting nuclear fuel to and from plants represents a pollution hazard. Also, once the fuel is used, you can’t simply take it to the landfill – it’s radioactive and dangerous. Radioactive Waste. As a rule, a nuclear power plant creates 20 metric tons of nuclear fuel per year, and with that comes a lot of nuclear waste. The greater part of this waste transmits radiation and high temperature, implying that it will inevitably consume any compartment that holds it. It can also cause damage to living things in and around the plants. Nuclear power plants create a lot of low-level radioactive waste as transmitted parts and supplies. Over time, used nuclear fuel decays to safe radioactive levels, however this takes a countless number of years. Even low-level radioactive waste takes hundreds of years to achieve adequate levels of safety. Vulnerability. The nuclear power plant is prone to the terrorism attack. The nuclear reactor and the spent fuel cooling pool are the two vulnerable parts in a nuclear power plant. If a major terrorist attack is launched, the nuclear power plant will release its components which are very dangerous to people and environment because of the accumulation of radiation. Nuclear proliferation. Nuclear proliferation threatens the international security today. This occurrence thus creates civil attacks on the sources of uranium, plutonium, and other fissile materials. The design of the nuclear power plant can, however, be used to make nuclear weapons through its waste that is used for nuclear fission. Non-renewable energy. 124 Nuclear energy is often treated as a renewable energy resource. It is not one, it’s alternative energy. Most nuclear facilities consume uranium to generate electricity. New facilities are able to consume thorium as well. That means nuclear energy, though cleaner than coal or natural gas, is still consuming natural resources. Unless new reserves are located, or technologies developed, there is a possibility that the materials needed to create nuclear fusion or fission will be gone in future generations. With so many advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy, it’s no wonder that nuclear power remains one of the most controversial source of energy in existence. Find some additional information about the pros and cons of nuclear energy and share your idea with the group. TEXT E 1. Read the text. Agreements Sealed for the World’s Biggest Nuclear Plant. The massive project to build six EPR reactors at the Jaitapur site in Maharashtra, India, received a significant boost in late June as GE and French utility EDF signed a strategic cooperation agreement that sets out who will provide the supply of key equipment and services. In a joint statement, the companies said the agreement lays the foundations for a long-term partnership concerning construction of the conventional island on each of the six reactors. It was an important step in implementing the Industrial Way Forward Agreement, which EDF inked with India’s state-owned nuclear operator, Nuclear Power Corp. of India Ltd. (NPCIL), in March. That agreement sets out the industrial framework for the massive 9.9GW project, formalizes EDF’s role as supplier of the EPR technology, and tasks it with all engineering studies and component procurement activities for the first two of the six reactors. India will reportedly consider doling out the responsibility of component purchasing for the remaining reactors to local companies. 125 Under the cooperation agreement signed in June, GE Power will design the conventional island for the plant and supply its main components. GE will also provide operational support services and a training program to respond to NPCIL’s requirements. EDF will be responsible for engineering integration covering the entire project (nuclear island, conventional island, and auxiliary systems) as well as provide all the requisite input data. Both companies now plan to move forward with work to set down the project’s technical options, fine-tune industrial arrangements, and finalize the designengineering and procurement schedule. GE and EDF have partnered on several projects before, though the crux of their partnership stems from GE’s acquisition of equipment giant Alstom in 2015. The French government holds preferred interests in an existing joint venture between GE and Alstom pertaining to global nuclear and French steam power (GE is set to purchase that interest by 2021). The French government, meanwhile held 83.5% of EDF’s shares as of March 2018. GE will be the main supplier of conventional island components for at least two nuclear plants that EDF is spearheading: Flamanville 3 and Hinkley Point C. Both projects use EPR technology developed by another French government-owned firm, Framatome (formerly AREVA). Flamanville 3, in particular, has been delayed for years, and EDF recently said startup of the project may be delayed again by several months due to pipe welding issues. That project could now start up in late 2018. The first 1,770-MW Hinkley Point C unit, the UK’s first nuclear power plant to be built in more than 20 years, is on track to be completed by 2025. GE Power’s Steam Power business will supply the two conventional power islands for that project, which include the steam turbine, generator, and other critical equipment. GE in June noted that Hinkley Point C’s Arabelle turbines will be the largest ever built. EDF’s Olkiluoto 3 EPR plant in Finland is meanwhile scheduled to be connected to the grid in May 2019. EDF marked its biggest milestone for EPR technology on June 28, as China General Nuclear Power Group connected the first unit at the Taishan nuclear plant west of Hong Kong to the grid. The plant is expected to enter commercial operation later this year. Unit 1, whose construction began in 2009, has an installed capacity of 1,660 126 MW. According to Framatome Chairman and CEO Bernard Fontana, successful grid connection of Taishan 1 was a historical moment for the company and the whole nuclear industry. “We also remain fully engaged in the completion and startup of Taishan 2, Flamanville 3, and Olkiluoto 3, and in the delivery of Hinkley Point C in the United Kingdom. All current and future EPR projects will also benefit from the broad experience acquired by our teams,” he said. Completion of Jaitapur would be an even bigger accomplishment. As planned, it is slated to be the world’s largest nuclear power plant. According to EDF, the project would be a huge boost both for EPR technology and Franco-Indian civil nuclear initiatives, which have gained ground since 2010, when France and India signed bilateral agreements. For India, which has 22 operating nuclear reactors—a total of 6,219 MW—the project would substantially expand its nuclear capacity. The country is currently building six reactors totaling 4,350 MW, including a prototype fast breeder reactor and a Russian VVER at Kudankulam. Within the next few years, the country plans to embark on 19 other units, at least 10 of which will be indigenously designed PHWRs. Answer the questions. a) What was signed in June? b) What does the agreement lay? c) Why was it an important step? d) What will be the two companies responsible for? e) Why may be the project delayed? f) Why would be completion in Jaitapur a bigger accomplishment? Render into English: АТОМНАЯ ЭНЕРГИЯ В конце прошлого века учёные с удивлением обнаружили, что атомы, точнее ядра атомов, сами собой распадаются на части, испуская лучи и тепло. Они назвали это явление радиоактивностью. А когда подсчитали, удивились ещё 127 больше: 1 г радия, если полностью распадётся, может дать столько же тепла, сколько дают, сгорая, 500 кг угля. Но использовать это свойство невозможно - атомы распадаются так медленно, что за 2000 лет выделяется лишь половина тепла. Это вроде большой плотины. Плотина закрыта, и вода течёт маленьким ручейком, от которого нет никакой пользы. Вот если бы открыть плотину, если бы люди научились разрушать атомы!.. Они получили бы бесконечный океан энергии. Но как это сделать? ...Говорят, что из пушки по воробью не стреляют, нужна маленькая дробинка. А где взять дробинку, чтобы расколоть ядро атома? Несколько десятков лет напряжённо работали учёные всей Земли. За это время они узнали, как устроен атом, и нашли для него «дробинку». Ею оказалась одна из частичек, которая входит в состав ядра, — нейтрон. Он легко проникает в атом и разбивает ядро. А потом выяснилось, что атомы металла урана, расколовшись, выделяют новые нейтроны, которые разрушают соседние атомы. Если взять кусок урана, в котором одновременно будет распадаться много ядер и будет выделяться много новых нейтронов, процесс деления разрастётся, как лавина в горах. Произойдёт взрыв атомной бомбы. Схема устройства атомного реактора. Толстые черные стержни поглотители нейтронов. В реакторе вода нагревается, а потом нагревает воду в теплообменнике до кипения. Образующийся пар вращает турбину электростанции. Вообрази, что рухнула большая плотина. Собранная за нею вода вся сразу бурно устремится вниз. Сила потока велика, но от него только вред, ведь он сметает всё на своём пути. Так и с атомом: колоссальная энергия взрыва может только разрушать. А людям атомная энергия нужна, чтобы строить. Вот если бы атом отдавал свои запасы такими порциями, какими мы захотим! Не 128 нужна энергия — закрыл заслонку. Понадобилась – (Сколько вам?) открыл две-три заслонки: «Получайте, сколько просили!» И человек обуздал взрыв. Кто главный «работник» на «атомном заводе»? Нейтрон. Это он разбивает ядра урана. А если мы уберём с «завода» часть рабочих? Работа пойдёт медленнее. Именно так работает атомный котёл, или атомный реактор. Это большой колодец с толстыми бетонными стенками (они нужны, чтобы вредные для людей излучения не выходили наружу). Колодец заполнен графитом, тем самым, из которого делают грифели карандашей. В графитовой начинке есть отверстия, куда помещают стержни из урана. Когда их достаточно, появляется нужное количество «рабочих» - нейтронов и начинается атомная реакция. Чтобы ею управлять, в других отверстиях находятся стержни металла, который захватывает, поглощает нейтроны. Это и есть «заслонки» в плотине. Не нужна энергия или есть опасность взрыва, заслонки стержни мгновенно опускаются, вылетающие из ядер урана нейтроны поглощаются, перестают работать, и реакция прекращается. Нужно, чтобы реакция пошла, поднимают стержни - заслонки, снова в реакторе появляются «рабочие» - нейтроны, и 129 температура в котле повышается (Сколько вам энергии? Получайте!). Ядерные реакторы можно ставить на атомные электростанции, на атомные подводные лодки, на атомный ледокол. Они, как обычные паровые котлы, послушно превратят воду в пар, который будет вращать турбины. 500 кг атомного горючего содержимого всего десяти чемоданов - достаточно ледоколу «Ленин», чтобы плавать круглый год. Представляешь, как выгодно: не нужно возить с собой сотни тонн топлива, вместо него можно взять более полезный груз; можно целый год не заходить в порт для заправки горючим, тем более что на Севере это не всегда легко сделать. Да и машины можно поставить более сильные... В существующих ядерных реакторах получают энергию, разрушая ядра, состоящие из большого числа частичек (в ядрах урана, например, их больше двухсот). И хотя такого топлива пока на Земле много, но ведь когда-нибудь оно кончится... Нет ли способа получить ядерную энергию из других веществ? И учёные нашли! Оказалось, что атомы водорода, в ядре которого всего две частицы: один протон и один нейтрон, также могут служить источником энергии. Но они отдают её не при делении, а при соединении, или, как говорят, при синтезе, двух ядер. Атомы водорода для этого нужно нагреть до многих миллионов градусов. При такой температуре их ядра начинают двигаться с огромной скоростью и, разогнавшись, могут преодолеть электрические силы отталкивания, которые между ними существуют. Когда они достаточно сблизятся, начинают действовать ядерные силы притяжения и ядра сливаются. Выделяется в тысячи раз больше тепла, чем при делении ядра. Такой способ получения энергии называется термоядерной реакцией. Эти реакции бушуют в недрах и далёких звёзд, и близкого Солнца, дающего нам свет и тепло. Но на Земле они проявились пока в виде разрушительного взрыва водородной бомбы. 130 Сейчас учёные работают над тем, чтобы заставить ядра водорода соединяться постепенно. И когда мы научимся управлять термоядерными реакциями, мы сможем воспользоваться безграничными запасами энергии, заключённой в воде, которая состоит из водорода и кислорода и запасы которой неисчерпаемы. Speak about nuclear energy in general nuclear energy in the world nuclear energy in Russia types of nuclear power plants use of nuclear energy advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy a new project. UNIT 6. SOLAR ENERGY TEXT A 1. Has a solar power wide perspectives? Wordlist: contribution – вклад, содействие capture – захватывать, ловить 131 orient – настраивать, выравнивать absorb – впитывать, поглощать evaporate – испарять latent heat – скрытая теплота convection – теплообмен dispers – рассеивать, распространять Read the article. Radiant light and heat from the sun has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal electricity and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight 132 absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14°C. By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived. Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy Consumption Solar -3,850,000EJ Wind - 2,250EJ Biomass - 100-300EJ Primary energy use - 510EJ Electricity - 62,5EJ The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The technical potential available from biomass is from 100–300 EJ/year. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined. Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Answer the questions. a) What kinds of solar energy do exist? b) What are solar technologies characterized by? c) What is the total number of solar energy absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere? d) What are the perspectives of solar energy? Find in the article synonyms to the following words: 133 to use, crucial , to transform, modern, important, increase, to collect, enormous, make. Say whether the statements are true or false: a) Radiant light and heat from the sun has been used not so long ago. b) Solar technologies are characterized depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. c) The latent heat of water condensation produces several atmospheric phenomenas. d) The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is not so great. e) Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. Find participle or gerund in the sentences and define their function: a) Radiant light and heat from the sun has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. b) Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. c) The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere. d) Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14°C e) Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. TEXT B 1. Do you know any solar power technologies used for generating electricity? Wordlist: 134 photovoltaic cell – фотоэлектрический элемент alloy – сплав exhibit – обладать, проявлять trough – желоб, лоток solar pond – солнечный пруд trap – улавливать, поглощать appliance – прибор, устройство Read the text. How Solar Power Plant Works? Electricity can be generated in two ways with the help of solar energy or sun’s energy. It can be generated Firstly, with the help of photovoltaic electricity and secondly with solar thermal electricity. Types of Solar Power Plant: there are basically three main types of solar power plant namely Photovoltaic Solar Power Plant: This makes use of photovoltaic cells or solar cells as it is called for generating power. It is used for house wiring and powering electrical appliances. A photovoltaic cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is a technology used to convert solar energy directly into electricity. A photovoltaic cell is usually made from silicon alloys. Particles of solar energy, known as photons, strike the surface of a photovoltaic cell between two semiconductors These semiconductors exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect, which causes them to absorb the photons and release electrons. The electrons are captured in the form of an electric current- in other words, electricity. Thermal Energy Solar Power Plant: This can be used for heating water and drying clothes. Also this system is used for heating houses during cold days. 135 A solar thermal plant generates heat and electricity by concentrating the sun's energy. That in turn builds steam that helps to feed a turbine and generator to produce electricity. There are three types of solar thermal power plants: 1) Parabolic troughs This is the most common type of solar thermal plant. A "solar field" usually contains many parallel rows of solar parabolic trough collectors. They use parabola-shaped reflectors to focus the sun at 30 to 100 times normal intensity. The method is used to heat a special type of fluid, which is then collected at a central location to generate high-pressure, superheated steam. 2) Solar towers The solar tower takes a slightly different approach to solar thermal generation. In comparison with the previous type, solar tower concentrates heat collection at a single central facility including a large energy receiver and heat collector that is fitted on the top of a tower. The tower is positioned in the center of a field of special mirrors to focus the sunlight that reaches it onto the tower-mounted solar receiver. The concentrated solar energy is used to heat the air in the tower to up to 700 degrees Celsius (1,300 degrees Fahrenheit). The heat is captured in a boiler and is used to produce electricity with the help of a steam turbine. 3) Solar pond This is a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. It uses so-called salinity-gradient technology. Basically, the bottom layer of the pond is extremely hot-up to 85 degrees Celsius and acts as a transparent insulator, permitting sunlight to be trapped from which heat may be withdrawn or stored for later use. 136 This technology has been used in Israel since 1984 to produce electricity. Concentrating Solar Power Plant: This type of solar power plant is very similar to the photovoltaic one. However, the only difference is it makes use of mirrors and lenses for trapping sunlight. The trapped sunlight will then be directed to the photovoltaic cells that will convert into heat energy. These plans are used by big companies and industries. CSP technology Solar concentrators come into two main designs: Parabolic Trough. The most common CSP technology, it consists of long, curved mirrors concentrating sunlight on a liquid(generally oil) inside a tube that runs parallel to the mirror. The liquid, at about 300 degrees C, runs to a central collector, where it produces steam that drives an electric turbine. Central receiver. Central receiver CSP facilities, or “power towers”, use fields of mirrors to concentrate sunlight on the top of central towers. The intense heat, carried by molten salts, boils water, and the steam then dries on-site generators. Another type of CSP, though not yet broadly in use, is the parabolic dish. Similar to trough concentrators, this system focuses the sunlight on a single point. Dishes can produce much higher temperatures and thus have the potential of producing electricity more efficiently. Answer the questions. a) In what way can electricity be generated using solar energy? b) What are the main types of solar power plant? c) What are the main types of thermal energy power plant? d) What are the two main designs of solar concentrators? e) What type of solar power plant is more often used? Why? Match the words and their definitions: 137 concentrator cell appliance energy electricity boiler receiver a) device which burns gas, oil or coal in order to produce hot water b) an appliance receiving or uniting smth. c) the power from sources such as electricity and coal d) a device collecting the product of some process e) a form of energy carried by wires and used for heating and lightning f) a source producing potential difference on electrodes g) a device or machine used to do some job Say whether the sentences are true or false: a) There are basically five main types of solar power plants. b) Photovoltaic solar power plant makes use of photovoltaic cells for generating power. c) A photovoltaic cell is used to convert solar power into electricity. d) CSP technology consists of long, curved mirrors dissipating sunlight. e) Parabolic dish focuses the sunlight on a single point. Find the infinitives and define their functions: a) Electricity can be generated in two ways with the help of solar energy or sun’s energy. b) A photovoltaic cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is a technology used to convert solar energy directly into electricity. 138 c) That in turn builds steam that helps to feed a turbine and generator to produce electricity. d) The tower is positioned in the center of a field of special mirrors to focus the sunlight that reaches it onto the tower-mounted solar e) Similar to trough concentrators, this system focuses the sunlight on a single point. TEXT C 1. Read the article and learn about some applications of solar energy. Applications of Solar Energy Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies. Here are some solar energy applications: Solar transportation powered An innovative practice to effectively make use of sunshine is with transportation powered by photovoltaic energy. Railroads, subways, buses, planes, cars and even roads can all be powered by solar, and solar transit is becoming a popular offering in the renewable energy sector. Recently, the solar powered 139 aircraft made its way round the world. Meanwhile, solar buses are helping china reduce its carbon footprint while simultaneously maintaining efficient mass transit in densely populated cities like Beijing. Finally, solar cars are starting to play a role in racing competitions around the world, especially in Australia where the Solar Spirit model has gained major recognition. With these advances and more, there is no question that solar power is the transforming transportation sector around the world. Wearable Solar Tech: A personal way to use solar power Powering consumer electronics has become a common solar power use in today's world. Solar powered charges can charge anything from a cell phone to a tablet or e-reader. There are even solar power flashlights that can be charged by being exposed to sunlight Solar lightning: A popular example of solar energy One of the earliest ways to improve home efficiency is to add outdoor solar lightning to your property. Unlike traditional exterior lights, solar lightning requires no complicated setup as the lights are wireless and harness sunlight during the day to circumvent the need for grid-supplied electricity at night. Though solar lights are not yet as common as solar panels, they are quickly joining the likes of LED light bulbs and smart home thermostats as a cheap product that can reduce electric bills and improve the efficiency of your home. Additionally, the aesthetic of modern solar lightning can significantly improve the outdoor decor of a property. Elaborate lightning arrays can improve the exterior design of a property. Besides, they are often as cheap as $20 per light ans are available at major home retailers. Solar heating: Using PV for thermal energy A lot of homeowners are unaware that solar water heaters and solar space heaters are an effective way to heat one's home without making large investment of installing solar panels. Solar space heaters harness sunlight and convert it into thermal energy with the use of liquid or air as a medium, while solar water heaters use water as a method for thermal transfer. These solar heating systems can 140 either be passive or active- while passive systems utilize natural circulation, active systems use pumps to circulate water and generate heat. Homeowners who install a thermal solar array on their roof can expect 5 to 10 percent returns with a system that costs a fraction of a full solar panel installation. Speak about solar power applications. Add your own examples. TEXT D 1. Read the article. Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Power Advantages of solar energy Renewable energy source Among the benefits of solar panels, the most important thing is that solar energy is a truly renewable source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and is available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of the other sources of energy. Solar energy will be accessible as long as we have the sun; therefore sunlight will be available to us for at least 5 billion years when according to scientists the sun is going to die. Reduces electricity bills Since you will be meeting some of your energy needs with the electricity your solar system has generated, your energy bills will drop. How much you save on your bills will be dependent on the size of the solar systems and your electricity or heat usage. Moreover, you will be saving not only on electricity bills, but if you generate more electricity than you use, the surplus will be exported back to the grid and you will receive bonus payment for that amount. Savings can further grow if you sell excess electricity at high rates during the day and then buy electricity from the grid during the evening when the rates are lower. Diverse applications Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can generate electricity or heat. Solar energy can be used to produce electricity in 141 areas without access to the energy grid, to distill water in regions with limited clean water supplies and to power satellites in space. Solar energy can also be integrated into the materials used for buildings. Not so long ago Sharp introduced transparent solar energy windows. Low maintenance cost Solar energy systems generally don't require a lot of maintenance. You only need to keep them relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job. The inverter is the only part that needs to be changed after 5-10 years because it is continuously working to convert solar energy into electricity and heat. Apart from the inverter, the cables also need maintenance to ensure your solar power system runs at maximum efficiency. So, after covering the initial cost of the solar system, you can expect very little spending on maintenance and repair work. Technology development Technology in the solar power industry is considerably advancing and improvements will intensify in the future. Innovations in quantum physics and nanotechnology can potentially increase the effectiveness of solar panels and double or even triple, the electrical input of the solar power systems. Disadvantages of solar energy Cost The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high. Although, for example, in the UK government has introduced some schemes for encouraging the adoption of renewable energy sources, you will still have to cover the upfront costs. This includes solar panels, inverter, batteries, wiring and for the installation. Nevertheless, solar technologies are constantly developing, so it is safe to assume that prices will go down in the future. Weather dependent Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of the solar systems drops. Solar panels are 142 dependent on sunlight to effectively gather solar energy. Therefore, a few cloudy, rainy days can have a noticeable effect on the energy system. You should also take into account that solar energy cannot be collected during the night. Solar energy storage is expensive Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These batteries, used in off-the-grid solar systems, can be charged during the day so that the energy is used at night. This is a good solution for using solar energy all day long but it is also quite expensive. In most cases, it is smarter to just use solar energy during the day and take energy from the grid during the night. Luckily, your energy demand is usually higher during the day so you can meet most of it with solar energy. Uses a lot of space The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you will need. Solar panels require a lot of space and some roofs are not big enough to fit the number of solar panels that you would like to have. Associated with pollution Although pollution related to solar energy systems is far less compared to other sources of energy, solar energy can be associated with pollution. Transportation and installation of solar systems have been associated with the emission of greenhouse gases. There are also some toxic materials and hazardous products used during the manufacturing process of solar photovoltaics, which can indirectly affect the environment. Nevertheless, solar energy pollutes far less than other alternative energy sources. Speak about the main advantages and disadvantages of solar power. Add your own ideas. TEXT E 1. Read the article and speak about the biggest solar power plants. The world’s biggest solar power plants 143 The nations pulling ahead in the sunny sector are China and the US, which together make up two-thirds of the global growth in solar power. However, with a spate of planned projects across the globe, the title of ‘largest solar plant’ is never held for long. Power-technology.com profiles the eight biggest solar power plants in the world by installed capacity. Kamuthi Solar Power Station, India The Kamuthi solar facility in Tamil Nadu, India, has a total generation capacity of 648MW. Covering 2,500 acres (10 sq km) and consisting of 2.5 million solar panels, the site is estimated to make enough power for 750,000 people. Completed in September 2016 at a cost of approximately $679m, the station was built in just eight months. The plant is cleaned every day by a robotic system, which is itself charged by its own solar panels. Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, China The Longyangxia solar park has a total capacity of 850MW, sufficient to power 200,000 households. The site sits on the Tibetan Plateau in northwestern China’s Qinghai province and is operated by State Power Investment Corporation, one of China’s top five power generators. Phase I was completed in 2013 and Phase II was completed in 2015, with a total construction cost of around 6 billion yuan ($920.84m). Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park, India Kurnool solar park covers 5,932.32 acres (24.0072 sq km) in the Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh, with a total generating capacity of 1,000MW. Construction costs were around $1bn. Over four million solar panels were installed in the park, each with a capacity of 315W of 320W. 144 On sunny days, the site is able to generate more than 8 million kWh of electricity, sufficient to meet virtually the entire electricity demand of the Kurnool district. Enel Villanueva PV Plant, Mexico Located in the Mexican state of Coahuila, the photovoltaic (PV) facility comprises over 2.3 million solar panels across 2,400 hectares in the Mexican semiarid region. It will be able to produce more than 1,700GWh per year once fully operational, with completion expected in the second half of 2018. The Enel Group is investing approximately $650m in the construction of Villanueva. The plant is currently over 41% completed, equivalent to around 310MW. Tengger Desert Solar Park, China The Tengger solar park, located in Zhongwei, Ningxia, is currently the largest PV plant in the world in terms of both size and production. Dubbed the ‘Great Wall of Solar’, it covers 1,200km of the 36,700km Tengger desert, occupying 3.2% of the arid region. The site’s output is 1,547MW of power. Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park, UAE The Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park has a planned capacity of 1,000MW by 2020, and 5,000MW by 2030, which will make it the biggest solar power plant in the world. Upon completion, it is hoped that the park will reduce over 6.5 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions annually. PV and concentrated solar power technologies will be used to provide clean energy to residents of Dubai. The site will also include an Innovation Centre, a Research & Development centre, testing facilities and a solar powered water desalination plant. Bhadla Industrial Solar Park, India Bhadla solar farm is spread over 45 sq km in Rajasthan’s Jodhpur district. Once all four phases of the project are completed, the site 145 will be able to produce 2,255MW of electricity. It is due to become operational by December 2019. Over a million solar panels have already been installed, though only around 15% of the total park is currently operational. BK Dosi, managing director of the Rajasthan Renewable Energy Corporation Limited, the main developer of the project, said it will be “the jewel of Rajasthan and the showpiece of India’s solar power programme”. Pavagada Solar Park, India The Pavagada solar park spreads over 13,000 acres in the Tumkur district, Karnataka, which includes the five villages of Balasamudra, Tirumani, Kyataganacharlu, Vallur and Rayacharlu. The area was chosen due to its high solar radiation and the availability of land, as well as the fact that the region receives very little rainfall. By the end of 2018, the park is planned to have a total capacity of 2,000MW, with 600MW commissioned by the end of January 2018, and a further 1,400MW planned for this year. The total investment required to build the site was estimated at $2.2bn. Render into English: Бабкок-ранч: город, питаемый от солнечной энергии. В юго-восточной части Флориды появился футуристический город под названием Бабкок-ранч, который получает энергию исключительно из солнечных панелей. Создатели данного города хотят воплотить в реальность концепцию открытого современного мира, поэтому в городе не будет заборов у домов, а по улицам будут разъезжать электрокары. Впервые о проекте стало известно в 2005 году, когда за его разработку взялась компания из Флориды Kitson&Partners. Всего в планах построить 340 тысяч солнечных батарей, которые будут в полной мере обеспечивать город энергией, а ее излишки должны передаваться в другие населенные пункты. Под населенный пункт выделено 6 млн.кв футов, где смогут 146 разместиться 19б5 тысячи жилых домов. Кроме того, планируется построить офисные здания и предприятия легкой промышленности, а вся городская инфраструктура будет полностью поддерживаться за счет солнечной энергии. Город будущего смогут заселить около 45 тысяч жителей, а в начале 2018 сюда уже переехали две семьи. По городу будет курсировать общественный транспорт на электричестве, поэтому проблем с передвижением не возникнет. Планируется построить большое количество станций для зарядки авто. Согласно заявлениям создателей проекта, Бабкок-ранч является экспериментальным городом, который послужил некой «живой лабораторией» для других компаний, готовых заняться подобной деятельностью. Считается, что это новаторское творение поможет стать ближе к новому технологическому будущему и разрешить значительное число проблем, с которыми обычно сталкиваются современные города. По заказу компании-застройщика для Бабкок-ранч изготавливают большое количество солнечных панелей, стоимость которых оценивается в $350 млн, а цена всего проекта составляет около $2 млрд. Благодаря запуску указанного места жительства власти страны смогут не только обеспечить граждан новым жильем в уникальном городе, но и открыть около 20 тысяч рабочих мест. Speak about solar energy in general solar energy in the world 147 solar energy in Russia types of solar energy systems use of solar energy advantages and disadvantages of solar energy a new project. UNIT 7.WAVE ENERGY TEXT A 1. What do you know about wave energy? Wordlist: harness – использовать rigorous – мощный desalinization – обессоливание choppy – переменчивый, порывистый occurrence – проявление, явление Read the article. What is Wave Energy? Wave energy, also known as ocean or sea wave energy, is energy harnessed from ocean or sea waves. The rigorous vertical motion of surface ocean waves contains a lot of kinetic(motion)energy that is captured by wave energy technologies to do useful tasks, for example, generation of electricity, desalinization of water and pumping of water into reservoirs. 148 When wind blows across the sea surface, it transfers the energy to the waves. They are powerful source of energy. The energy output is measured by wave speed, wave height, wave length and water density. The more strong the waves, the more capable it is to produce power. The captured energy can then be used for electricity generation, powering plants or pumping water. It is not easy to harness power from wave generator plants and this is the reason that they are very few generator plants around the world. But how are those waves formed? When wind blows across the surface of the water strongly enough it creates waves. This occurs most often and most powerfully on the ocean because of the lack of land to resist the power of the wind. The kind of waves that are formed depend on from where they are being influenced. Long, steady waves that flow endlessly against the beach are likely formed from storms and extreme weather conditions. The power of storms and their influence on the surface of the water is so powerful that it can cause waves on the shores of another hemisphere. For example, when Japan was hit with a massive tsunami in 2011, it created powerful waves on the cost of Hawaii and even as far as the beaches of the state of Washington. When you see high, choppy waves that rise and fall very quickly, you are likely seeing waves that are created by a nearby water system. These waves are usually newly formed occurrences. The power of these waves can then be harnessed through wave energy converter. Answer the questions. a) What does energy output depend on? b) How are the waves formed? c) What do the kinds of waves depend on? d) Why are there so few generation plants around the world? 149 Find in the article synonyms to the following words: area, mighty, vessel, to form, use. Give Russian equivalents to the following English word combinations: to be harnessed from the ocean, to transfer energy to the waves, energy output, wave height, water density, captured energy, long steady waves. Say whether the statements are true or false: a) Waves are not powerful source of energy. b) It is easy to harness power from wave generation plants. c) Long steady waves are formed from storms and extreme water conditions. d) Tsunami cannot create powerful waves. Find in the article sentences with Passive Voice. TEXT B 1. Do you know any wave power devices? Wordlist: buoy – буй, бакен propagation – распространение, продвижение hydraulic ram – гидроцилиндр hose pump – шланговый насос attenuate – ослаблять, снижать to tether – ограничивать instigate – провоцировать, побуждать piston – поршень 150 Read the article. Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to capture the energy of the waves. They can also be categorized by location and power take-off system. Method types are point absorber or buoy; surfacing following or attenuator oriented parallel to the direction of wave propagation; terminator, oriented perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation; oscillating water column; and overtopping. Locations are shoreline, nearshore and offshore. Types of power take-off include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric turbine, air turbine, and linear electrical generator. Some of these designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave energy at the point of capture. These capture systems use the rise and fall motion of waves to capture energy. Once the wave energy is captured at a wave source, power must be carried to the point of use or to a connection to the electrical grid by transmission power cables. These are descriptions of some wave power systems: An example of a surface following device is the Pelamis Wave Energy Converter. The sections of the device articulate with the movement of the waves, each resisting motion between it and the next section, creating pressurized oil to drive a hydraulic ram which drives a hydraulic motor. The machine is long and narrow (snake-like) and points into the waves; it attenuates the waves, gathering more energy than its narrow profile suggests. Its articulating sections drive internal hydraulic generators (through the use of pumps and accumulators). With the Wave Dragon wave energy converter large "arms" focus waves up a ramp into an offshore reservoir. The water returns to the ocean by the force of gravity via hydroelectric generators. The Anaconda Wave Energy Converter is in the early stages of development by UK company Checkmate Sea Energy. The concept is a 151 200 meters long rubber tube which is tethered underwater. Passing waves will instigate a wave inside the tube, which will then propagate down its walls, driving a turbine at the far end. A device called CETO, currently being tested in Western Australia, consists of a single piston pump attached to the sea floor, with a float tethered to the piston. Waves cause the float to rise and fall, generating pressurized water, which is piped to an onshore facility to drive hydraulic generators or run reverse osmosis water desalination. Oyster wave energy converter is a hydro-electric wave energy device currently being developed by Aquamarine Power. The wave energy device captures the energy found in near shore waves and converts it into clean usable electricity. The systems consist of a hinged mechanical flap connected to the seabed at around 10m depth. Each passing wave moves the flap which drives hydraulic pistons to deliver high pressure water via a pipeline to an onshore turbine which generates electricity. The Lysekil Project is based on a concept with a direct driven linear generator placed on the seabed. The generator is connected to a buoy at the surface via a line. The movements of the buoy will drive the translator in the generator. The advantage of this setup is a less complex mechanical system with potentially a smaller need for maintenance. One drawback is a more complicated electrical system. Answer the questions. a) How are wave power devices categorized? b) What kind of device is Pelamis Wave Energy Converter? c) What converter is being developed by Aquamarine Power? d) What kind of generator is Lysekil Project based on? Match the words and their definitions: device 152 generator converter system turbine motor a) a part that uses electricity or fuel to produce movement b) an object that has been invented for a particular purpose (for example, for measuring smth.) c) a device that changes smth. into a different form d) a set of devices powered by electricity e) a machine which produces electricity f) a machine or engine using a stream of air, gas or steam to turn a wheel or produce power Say whether the statements are true or false: a) The capture systems use the rise and fall motion of water to capture energy. b) Wave power must carried to the point of use by transmission power lines. c) Oyster wave energy converter captures energy in near shore waves and converts it into electricity. d) The Lysekil project is based on the usage of a direct driven linear generator. e) The advantage of Lysekil generator is its mechanical simplicity and small need in maintenance. Render from Russian into English making use of Passive Voice: a) Устройства классифицируются используется для захвата волн. согласно методу, который b) Как только энергия вырабатывается, она должна быть передана потребителю или на энергосистему. 153 c) Вода возвращается в океан с помощью силы гравитации через гидроэлектрические генераторы. d) Устройство сейчас тестируется в Западной Австралии. e) Вода закачивается на берег, чтобы приводить в движение гидрогенератор. TEXT C 1. Read and learn about the main advantages and disadvantages of wave energy: Advantages and Disadvantages of Wave Power Advantages of wave energy It is a renewable resource Renewable means an endless resource. It does not need men’s intervention to continue existing. No one has dared to suggest that the oceans and seas will disappear one day. This aspect makes wave energy a reliable and efficient energy resource. It is highly predictable The wave arrival pattern is highly predictable. They arrive day and night and harbor more energy than other renewable sources like wind and solar. Wave energy is eco- friendly Wave energy is a completely clean energy source, it does not emit dangerous greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Fossil fuels, for instance, contribute greatly to environmental pollution because they release dangerous greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane to the atmosphere. Security of energy supply Setting up a strong wave energy infrastructure can enormously help a country from overdependence on fossil fuels. The fossil fuel market is largely volatile and could hurt a country's economy if 154 shortage occurs. Wave energy is the surefire way to bridge this volatility gap since it is cheap, reliable and efficient. Creation of green jobs Communities living in remote areas and declining industries like the ship building industry dear the biggest brunt of unemployment and economic unsustainability due to the lack of electricity. The way energy sector has the potential to create numerous green opportunities to remote and urban population alike because remote areas that are not able to be reached by conventional electricity supply are well catered by wave power. Land remains undamaged Wave energy plants may be situated offshore educing any risk that comes along with these plants situated onshore like soil pollution. Also, the land remains in its natural state unlike fossil fuel extraction, which requires high levels of excavation that leaves heavily damaged. The advantage of wave energy converter used on such plants is that even considerably low wave motions can produce sufficient airflow to maintain the movement of the turbine to generate electricity. Disadvantages of wave energy High upfront capital costs Construction of wave energy plants requires huge capital investments. Plant maintenance, connection to power grid, wave resources, expected drop in energy costs once the infrastructure is up and running and shelf life of the technology are just some of the variables driving up the cost of wave energy. Variability in wave magnitude can damage equipment The wave magnitude is so unpredictable in the seas. Sometimes it could cause heavy wear and tear to the generation turbines. Damage to these equipment can be costly in terms of repair. It would also mean interrupting of electricity supply. Damage of sea life ecosystem 155 Offshore energy projects are a lot more sophisticated than onshore ones/ The projects include platforms, cables, turbines, interconnections and much more. From ecological point, shallow waters are fertile breeding and resting grounds for more marine life. So, activities from construction and operation of the wave energy plant greatly affect marine ecosystem. Accidental leaks or spills of hydraulic fluids in the plants could potentially pollute the water resulting in marine life deaths. Disadvantages of location The downside to wave energy is the location. Individuals or towns in proximity to oceans and seas will enjoy the fruits of wave energy. Because the source is restricted to oceans ans seas, it can't be relied upon to serve the entire population of a country. This means that towns, cities and countries not close to such water bodies won't enjoy wave energy. Environmental concerns Although wave energy is a clean energy source, the sound produced by the plant generators could prove unbearable to some local residents. Plants also interfere with the natural aesthetic look of the ocean. However, the noise or the waves, in most cases, equalizes the noise produced by the generators. Still advantages outweigh disadvantages, especially, in this day and age where everyone is focusing on renewable forms of energy. So, now, that you know, maybe next time you look at the beach, you will see something more than just waves. Speak about the advantages and disadvantages of wave power. Add your own facts. TEXT D 1. Read the article. Endless Power for Cities from Oceans Two entrepreneurs have developed a simple technology that can generate renewable energy from ocean waves at a price that is 156 competitive with solar power – attracting interest from cities all over the world. More than a billion people live without electricity, mostly in developing countries. Their cities often have access to electricity, but emissions from power plants create high levels of air pollution, which expose their inhabitants to health risks. And bills for imported fuels are rising as electricity generation increases to meet demand. Two entrepreneurs have developed technology for extracting energy from waves and converting it into electricity. Their company is Eco Wave Power and its unique EWP wave energy device has technical advantages over competing systems not least on cost. “It is a very simple system, with 90 percent of the equipment on land and just 10 percent in the water”, says Inna Braverman, one of the two cofounders of the company. It requires no ships or divers and there is easy access for maintenance, unlike competing marine generation technologies, which operate mainly offshore. And it can generate power at night or in polluted atmospheres. So it is not expensive”. The two teamed up, David provided angel funding, while Inna carried out research on possible technologies. She launched a contest to find the best. She took the most promising ideas and tested them to find the best option. It was based on simple floaters attached to structures on the shore such as breakwaters. They rise and fall with the waves, creating hydraulic pressure that can be piped to buildings on dry land to turn motors and generate electricity. Smart automation controls the process to smooth power generation and feed it into the grid: if the waves become too rough, it can raise or lower the floaters to protect them from damage. Ten floaters make up a module for power generation, which will generate one megawatt of power – enough to supply around 1,000 households. They can be attached to any man-made structure, including jetties, piers and platforms as well as breakwaters. If there is room, more modules can be installed – for example, 50 could produce 50MW for 50,000 households. 157 Eco Wave Power has been operating a pilot wave energy plant off the coast of Israel for the past three years. And in 2016, the company began to install an EWP system in Gibraltar on a former Second World War ammunition jetty. ‘It will be enlarged to 5MW, in the first commercial wave energy array in Europe,’ says David Leb. ‘On completion, it will provide 15 per cent of Gibraltar’s electricity.’ The company is also about to begin construction in the Mexican port of Manzanillo of a 4.1 to 4.8MW installation, rising later to up to 25MW. And EWP is finalising an agreement with a Chinese nuclear company to collaborate on building 400MW of wave energy power stations in China Other projects are in the pipeline, says David, and interest is really high. Most of the installations can be made from locally manufactured steel with only the smart operating system imported from Israel. And local people can be trained to maintain the plant once installed. The two entrepreneurs are optimistic about the prospects, aiming to install 130MW of capacity over the coming years in countries they are already working with. ‘Cities have been extracting resources from the oceans for centuries and polluting them by what they put into them,’ says David. ‘Now we can extract something in the form of renewable energy, which doesn’t pollute them and can generate power endlessly.’ Answer the questions. a) What are the main pros of their technology? b) What kind of device do they use in their project? c) What option won the contest? What is it based on? d) Where have they started their pilot wave energy plant? e) What countries have the chosen for their future projects? f) Why are the two entrepreneurs so optimistic about their prospects? Render into English: 158 Энергия волн может обеспечить 10% мировой потребности к 2015 году. Компания Marine Power Systems (MPS) выпустила доклад, в котором подсчитала мировой потенциал энергии волн океана, пишет Clean Technica. Волны океана (не стоит путать с энергией приливов) способны ежегодно генерировать 80 тысяч Твт.ч. По данным OceanEnergyEurope, к 2050 году из волн океана можно добыть 337 Гвт энергии или 10 % всех мировых потребностей в электричестве. При этом может появиться рынок объемом в $97 млрд. Считается, что энергия волн океана обладает огромным потенциалом. Так, удельная мощность электрогенераторов, работающих от волн, выше, чем для других альтернативных источников энергии. Более того, коэффициент преобразования энергии волн может доходить до 85 %, что даже больше, чем для ветра. Наконец, волны присутствуют постоянно. Средняя мощность волнения океанов - 15 кВт/м, а при высоте волн в два метра - до 80 кВт/м. Это гораздо мощнее приливов, а главное постоянно. Наибольший потенциал получения энергии из волн океана - в Евросоюзе, в частности, Великобритании (на нее приходится треть всех запасов энергии волн Европы). В ЕС находятся 45% всех компаний, работающих в этой сфере. При правильной государственной политике и поддержке, к 2050 году европейский рынок энергии волн может составить €53 млрд. В Великобритании в создание соответствующей энергосети уже инвестировано £450 млн. Австралийская компания WaveSwellEnergy разработала устройство для генерации электроэнергии из морских волн. Его коэффициент мощности 47%, по сравнению с 30% у традиционных ветряных турбин, а цена за кВт.ч такая же, как и у дешевой угольной генерации. Speak about wave energy in general 159 wave energy in the world wave energy in Russia types of wave power devices use of wave energy advantages and disadvantages of wave energy a new project. UNIT 8. WIND POWER 160 No one can tell me, Nobody knows, Where the wind comes Where the wind goes… (Alan Alexander Milne) from, TEXT A WHAT IS A WIND? 1. Before you read the text below give your own ideas what the wind is, where it comes from and where it goes. 2. Read the text using the vocabulary: 1) collide (v) сталкиваться 2) pressure (n) давление 3) amount (n) количество 4) impart (v) сообщать передавать, 5) area (n) площадь 7) prevailing преобладающий, господствующий (adj) 8) latitude (n) широта 9) hemisphere (n) полушарие 10) traverse (v) перемещаться двигаться, 6) gradient (n) градиент, уклон Wind is air motion. The air, as we know, is composed of molecules which collide readily with each other and any objects on their way. Air motion causes pressure which is defined as the amount of force that these molecules impart on a given area. Generally, the more air 161 molecules present, the greater the air pressure. Wind, in its turn, is driven by what is called the pressure gradient force. Air pressure depends on the temperature. Wind is created when changes in temperatures cause air to move from high to low pressure areas. Low pressure areas are often where warm air is, because when air is warmed by the sun it rises, leaving behind less air, so there are fewer air molecules and therefore less pressure. So wind energy is in a way solar energy because the sun heats some areas of the Earth’s surface more than others, thereby creating low pressure systems. Wind speed depends on how much difference there is in pressure between a low-pressure and high-pressure system. High-pressure systems usually contain air that is cooler and drier. In our everyday life we use such words to denote winds as a breeze (a gentle breeze, a strong breeze), a gale, a storm, a violent storm, and a hurricane, the latter two being the fastest winds. Prevailing winds are the ones that dominate in their areas. For example, within the middle latitudes (35–65 degrees), the prevailing winds blow frequently from the west to the east. These winds play a very important role in the weather of certain areas, like the western coasts of continents. There are so called trade winds, they are those which blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast in the Southern. These winds are associated with sailing — particularly because they helped sailors travel from Europe to America, as they were able to traverse the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. 3. Answer the questions: a) What is a wind? b) Where does it come from? c) Where does it go? 4. Find synonyms in the groups of words: 162 a) blow, dominate, measure, prevail b) is associated, is composed, contains c) to heat, to sail, to warm d) in general, for example, generally e) thereby, that’s why, consequently 5. Give antonyms for the following words and wordcombinations: a) low pressure 6. Translate the following words into Russian: a) is defined (paragraph 1) b) cool c) dry d) fast e) rise b) pressure gradient force (para 1) c) in a way (para 2) d) a gale (para 3) e) a hurricane (para 3) f) within (para 4) 7. Answer the questions: 163 a) What is the definition of air pressure? b) How does the temperature influence air pressure? c) What does wind speed depend on? d) What is the strongest wind called, according to the text? e) What are trade winds? Do they have to do anything with commerce? 8. Give the main idea of each paragraph. Write the ideas down. 9. Retell the text according to its main ideas. TEXT B WIND CHARACTERISTICS 1) Before you read the text below give your ideas about what properties the wind has. 2) Read the text using the following vocabulary: 1) origin (n) происхождение 2) northerly (n) северный ветер 8) troposphere (n) – тропосфера, самый низкий слой атмосферы ( 6 - 10 км от поверхности земли) 3) degree (n) градус 4) due north точно на север 5) anemometer (n) анемометр 6) hemispherical полусферический 7) per (prep) в; per second – в секунду (adj) 164 9) Rossby Россби waves – волны Direction Since wind is air movement from one place to another it has direction. The direction of the wind is determined by its origin. Thus the wind blowing from the north is known as the north wind, or the northerly. Wind direction is measured in degrees clockwise from due north and so a wind coming from the north has a wind direction of 0 degrees; one from the east is 90 °; one from the south has a wind direction of 180 °. One from the west is 270 ° or -90 °. For a long time wind direction has been found by an instrument called wind vane. It rotates to minimize air resistance. The way a weather vane is pointed by prevailing winds indicates the direction from which the wind is blowing. Speed (velocity) Any motion has velocity, so does the wind. Wind speed is affected by a number of factors and situations. These include the pressure gradient, Rossby waves, and local weather conditions. There are also links to be found between wind speed and wind direction, notably with the pressure gradient and terrain conditions. Pressure gradient is a term to describe the difference in air pressure between two points in the atmosphere or on the surface of the Earth. It is vital to wind speed, because the greater the pressure difference, the faster the wind flows (from the high to low pressure) to balance out the variation. Rossby waves are strong winds in the upper troposphere. These operate on a global scale and move from West to East (hence being known as Westerlies). The Rossby waves are themselves a different wind speed from what we experience in the lower troposphere. Local weather conditions play a key role in influencing wind speed, as the formation of hurricanes, monsoons and cyclones can drastically affect the flow velocity of the wind. Wind speed is measured in meters per second (mps). The instrument to measure wind velocity is called ‘anemometer’. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, which means ‘wind’, 165 and is used to describe any wind speed instrument used in meteorology. The first known description of an anemometer was given by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450. A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson, of Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms, which were mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate that was roughly proportional to the wind speed. Therefore, counting the turns of the shaft over a set time period produced a value proportional to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. It is also called as rotational anemometer. Nowadays, there are different kinds of anemometer, such as cup anemometers, vane anemometers, hot-wire anemometers, laser Doppler anemometers, ultrasonic anemometers and many other. 3) Answer the questions: a) What properties does the wind have? b) How is wind direction measured? c) What is the instrument to find where the wind blows? d) What does wind velocity depend on? 4) Give English equivalents for the following Russian words: a) градус b) направленный c) обозначать d) особенно e) муссон f) выровнять g) средний h) диапазон. 166 5) Give Russian equivalents for the following English words: a) origin, b) shaft, c) ultrasonic, d) link, e) terrain, f) rotational, g) nowadays, h) term. 6) Two of the three words in each line are synonyms. Which ones? a) rate, velocity, pressure b) since, so, as c) kind, value, type d) rotational, vital, significant e) affect, influence, effect 7) Give opposites to: a) Northerly b) East c) disproportional d) vertical e) dismount f) high g) low 167 8) Answer some more questions: a) Where does 180 degree wind blow from? b) What part of the wind vane shows where the wind is blowing from? c) What does ‘mps’ mean? d) What does the pressure gradient show? e) Does the wind flow from the low pressure area to the high pressure one, or vice versa? f) What does the Greek word ‘anemos’ mean? What does it have to do with wind velocity? g) What was the rotational anemometer’s mode? 9) Make up a plan of the text and then retell the text according to your plan. TEXT C WIND ENERGY 1. Before you read the text below tell the group what wind energy is? How can it be converted into electrical energy? 2. Read the text studying the vocabulary: 168 1) crusaders (n) крестоносцы 5) recommence (v) вновь начать 2) windmill мельница 6) enhance (v) повысить (n) ветряная 7) tax incentive – налоговые льготы 3) blade (n) лопасть 4) decline (n) спад Wind energy has been used by man since ancient times. Windmills are known to have been used in Persia in 200 BC. Such structures were widespread in the Islamic world and they were brought to Europe by crusaders in the XIII century. The windmills were used for grinding corn and pumping water. Centuries had passed before man learned to use windmills to produce electricity. The first windmills for generating electricity were built in Denmark in XIX century. It was there that the first wind power plant was constructed in 1890 and by 1908 they had already had 72 power plants. The largest towers were 24 m high and had four-bladed rotors 23 m in diameter. In Russia, the modern wind power plant precursor appeared in Yalta in 1931. Its capacity was 1.25 Megawatts. From the 1940s to the 1970s, there was a decline in the wind electrical engineering development which was caused by the growth of transmission and distribution lines providing fairly cheap weather unaffected electrical energy. An interest in wind-power engineering recommenced after the petroleum crisis of 1973. It revealed the fact that many countries’ depended on oil import and resulted in searching for ways of lowering the dependence. The 1970s witnessed large-scale wind generators testing in Denmark. The Chernobyl catastrophe enhanced the interest in renewable sources of energy. California, USA, introduced a stimulating project of tax incentives to producers of electrical energy out of wind. 169 3. Answer the questions: a) What were the forefathers of wind power plants? b) What was the function of windmills in ancient times? c) What country was the first to build a windmill to produce electricity? d) Why did the period from 1940s to 1970s witness a decline in wind electrical engineering? 4. Translate the following words and word combinations using a dictionary: grind corn pump water r towe for search renew able 5. Give definitions, or synonyms, or explain: BC; diameter; four-bladed rotor; petroleum; large-scale. 6. Answer some more questions: a) Did windmills appear in Europe or Asia first? b) What do the numbers refer to? 23; 72; 24; 1.25 c) What triggered the interest in wind power engineering in the 1970s? d) Why did Chernobyl make engineers turn to wind energy again? 7. Make a plan of the text. 170 8. Retell the text according to your plan. TEXT E FROM THE HISTORY OF WIND POWER PLANTS 1. Skim the text below for the following information: a) Was the first wind turbine of the year 1887 used industrially? b) How long did Charles F. Brush’s home wind power plant last? c) Who discovered that turbines with fewer rotor blades were most efficient in generating electricity? d) What country was the “eggbeater” patented in? e) What invention by Johannes Juus is still used in windmills today? f) How many turbines did the first wind farm consist of? g) What records did the wind turbines in Hawaii break in 1981? h) What does an “off shore” wind farm mean? i) What is the capacity of the wind farm built in Scotland in 2007? j) What is the UK government planning to increase by 20% by 2020? k) Why did Scottish ministers overrule the plans to build one of Europe's largest onshore wind farms in the Outer Hebrides? July 1887, Glasgow, Scotland The first windmill for electricity production is built by Professor James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (now Strathclyde University). The professor experiments with three different turbine 171 designs, the last of which is said to have powered his Scottish home for 25 years. Winter 1887, Ohio, US Professor Charles F. Brush builds a 12kW wind turbine to charge 408 batteries stored in the cellar of his mansion. The turbine, which ran for 20 years, had a rotor diameter of 50m and 144 rotor blades. 1890s, Askov, Denmark Scientist Poul la Cour begins his wind turbine tests in a bid to bring electricity to the rural population of Denmark. In 1903, Poul la Cour founded the Society of Wind Electricians and in 1904 the society held the first course in wind electricity. La Cour was the first to discover that fast rotating wind turbines with fewer rotor blades were most efficient in generating electricity production. 1927, Minneapolis, US Joe and Marcellus Jacobs open the Jacobs Wind factory, producing wind turbine generators. The generators are used on farms to charge batteries and power lighting. 1920s The first vertical axis wind turbine, the Darrieus turbine, is invented by Frenchman George Darrieus who in 1931 has it patented in the US. The design, often referred to as the "eggbeater windmill", due to the appearance of its two or three blades, is still used today. 1931, Yalta, former USSR A precursor to the modern horizontal wind generator is used in Yalta, generating 100kW. The turbine has a 30m tower and a 32% load factor, meaning it provides 32% of its potential energy output, pretty good even by today's standards. 1041, Vermount, US The world's first megawatt wind turbine is built and connected to the power grid in Castleton, Vermont. The turbine has 75-foot blades and weighs 240 tons. 1956,Gedser,Denmark 172 The Gedser wind turbine is built by Johannes Juul, a former student of Poul la Cour. The 200kW, three-bladed turbine inspired many later turbine designs, and Juul's invention - emergency aerodynamic tip breaks – is still used in turbines today. The turbine operated until 1967 and was refurbished in the mid 1970s at the request of Nasa. 1970s, Ohio, US The United States government, led by Nasa, begins research into large commercial wind turbines. Thirteen experimental turbines are put into operation and the research paves the way for many of the multi-megawatt technologies used today. 1980, New Hampshire, US The world's first wind farm consisting of 20 turbines is built in New Hampshire. The wind farm however, is a failure as the turbines break down and the developers overestimate the wind resource. 1981, Washington and Hawaii, US In 1981 the 7.5mW Mod-2 is built by Nasa, followed in 1987 by the 3.2mW, two-blade wind turbine Mod-5B. Both turbines break records for diameter and energy output. 1991, Vindeby,Denmark The first offshore wind farm is created in Vindeby, in the southern part of Denmark. The wind farm consists of 11 450kW turbines. 1991, Cornwall,UK The UK's first onshore wind farm is opened in Delabole, Cornwall. The farm consists of 10 turbines and produces enough energy for 2,700 homes. 2003, North Wales, UK The UK's first offshore wind farm is opened. North Hoyle offshore wind farm is located 7-8km off the north Wales coast between Prestatyn and Rhyl and consists of 30 2mW turbines. 2007, Stirling, UK 173 Installed capacity of wind power in the UK reaches 2gW, with the opening of the Braes O'Dounewind farm, in Scotland, which produces 72mW of power. The UK announced plans for thousands of new offshore wind turbines which could power every home in Britain by 2020. 2008, UK The EU sets the UK government a target to increase the contribution of renewables to UK electricity to 20% by 2020 as part of efforts to dramatically reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance energy security. Plans to build one of Europe's largest onshore wind farms in the Outer Hebrides were rejected after Scottish ministers ruled the £500m scheme would devastate a globally significant peatland. There are currently 186 operational wind farms in the UK (both onshore and offshore) with 2,120 turbines creating enough energy to power the equivalent of 1,523,052 homes and saving 6,156,175 tonnes of carbon. There are 42 in construction, with a further 134 consented and 268 in planning. 2. Scan the text above and answer the following questions a) Does wind power engineering use renewable or non-renewable sources of energy? b) What profession did the pioneers of wind power engineering belong to? c) How can the output of Yalta wind power plant of 1931 be assessed today? d) Who are the US government decisions in the area of electrical power engineering led by? e) Why did the first wind farm fail? f) What is the difference between onshore and offshore wind farms? g) What are the advantages of wind power engineering? h) What are the disadvantages of wind farms? TEXT F WIND TURBINE 174 1. Before you read the text below study the vocabulary: 1) axis (n) ось 8) yaw mechanism – механизм угла рыскания 2) blade (n) лопасть 9) torque (n) вращательный момент 3) rotor shaft – ось ротора 4) tower (n) опора, мачта 5) steerable (adj) управляемый 10) fatigue life – усталостная долговечность 6) visibility (n) видимость 11) stiffness (n) прочность 7) gear box – коробка передач A wind turbine is a device to convert the wind's kinetic energy into electrical energy. Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal, or a vertical axis, the horizontal ones being older and more common. They can also include blades, or be bladeless. Vertical designs produce less power and are not so widespread than their horizontal counterparts. Large three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT), with the blades upwind of the tower produce the majority of wind power in the world today. These turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed. They are known for good reliability. The blades are usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and are from 20 to 80 meters long. 175 The size and height of turbines increase year by year. Offshore wind turbines are built up to 8MW today and have a blade length up to 80 meters. Usual tubular steel towers of multi megawatt turbines have a height of 70 m to 120 m and in extremes up to 160 m. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components: The rotor that includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy. The generator which includes the electrical generator, the control electronics, and most likely a gear box for converting the low-speed incoming rotation to high-speed rotation suitable for generating electricity. The surrounding structure includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism. Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is 176 highly variable. It is also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance. However, these designs produce much less energy, which is a major drawback. The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, and the inherently lower power coefficient. This rotor type needs more analyzing and designing before a prototype is fabricated. Competition in the wind market makes companies look for ways to achieve greater efficiency from their designs. One of the ways wind turbines have increased performance is by increasing rotor diameters, and thus blade length. Fitting current turbines with larger blades reduces the need and risks associated with a system-level redesign. As the size of the blade increases, its tendency to deflect also increases. Thus, from a materials perspective, the stiffness-toweight is of major importance. As the blades need to function over a 100 million load cycles over a period of 20–25 years, the fatigue life of the blade materials is also of utmost importance. By incorporating carbon fiber into parts of existing blade systems, manufacturers may increase the length of the blades without increasing their overall weight. Higher stiffness and lower density make it possible to manufacture lighter blades offering equivalent performance. In a 10-MW turbine—which will become more common in offshore systems by 2021—blades may reach over 100 m in length and weigh up to 50 metric tons when fabricated out of glass fiber. 2. Answer the questions: a) What is the main function of the wind turbine in electrical engineering? b) What are the two most common types of wind turbines? 177 c) Why are the blades of wind turbines painted white? d) What are the main tendencies in the wind turbine design? 3. Find in the text the words that mean: a) безлопастный b) аналог c) трехлопастный d) мегаватт e) электронная аппаратура управления f) производительность g) оснастить, оснастка h) изготовить i) наибольшая важность j) углерод 4. Explain or decipher: a) HAWT b) VAWT c) MW d) 170m e) more common f) off-shore system g) ground-based gearbox 178 h) maintenance i) major drawback 5. Decide if the following statements are true or false: a) A wind turbine is designed to convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy. b) c) reliable. VAWTs are wind turbines with rotor horizontal axis. HAWTs are more widespread because they are more d) VAWTs’ design is less sophisticated and time consuming than that of HAWTs’. e) The longer the blades the greater performance the turbine has. f) When carbon is used in manufacturing turbine blades they become more fatigueproof. g) In 2021 the length of blades may reach 50 m and the weight will amount to 100 tons. h) Glass-fiber is another material to use in increasing wind turbines’ performance. i) The three main components of a wind turbine are the rotor, the generator and the surrounding structure. 6. Answer some more questions: a) What are the three main components of a wind turbine? b) How can a rotor be placed? c) What does the turbine generator consist of? 179 d) What does the blade length of the rotor determine? e) Does the blade weight have to increased or reduced for better performance? f) What materials are used to make the blades stiffer and lighter? g) What are the turbines’ measurements supposed to be like in offshore farms in the nearest future? 7. Make a plan of the text. 8. Retell the text according to your plan. 9. Render the following text into English. The following words may be of use: 1) фундамент – footing 4) мощность – capacity 2) вводить в эксплуатацию – commission 5) выдаваемая мощность output capacity – 3) размах - spread ВЕТРОГЕНЕРАТОР ENERCONE-126 Ветрогенератор Enercon E-126 производится немецкой компанией Enercon. Его мощность составляет 7,58 МВт. Первая турбина модели E-126 была введена в эксплуатацию в 2007 году недалеко от города Эмден в Германии. Высота несущей башни (от основания до оси ротора) может изменяться в зависимости от требований, в стандартном варианте составляет 135 м, размах лопастей — 126 м, высота установки — 198 м. Первоначальная номинальная мощность 6 МВт была увеличена до современного значения 7.5 МВт 180 в 2009 году. В зависимости от погодных условий выдаваемая мощность может превосходить номинальную. Ветрогенератор Enercon E-126 способен производить ≈18 млн кВт⋅ч электроэнергии в год. Масса фундамента установки должна составлять 2500 т, вес несущей башни — 2800 т, генераторная гондола имеет вес 128 т, вес электрогенератора — 220 т, вес ротора вместе с лопастями — 364 т. Общая масса ветроустановки составляет величину около 6000 т. 10. Mask the text above and retell it in English. TEXT G WIND FARMS 1. Before you read the text below study the vocabulary: 1) Wind farm – ветропарк (ветряная электростанция) 2) offshore – находящийся на некотором расстоянии от берега, в море 3) nacelle – гондола 4) grid disturbances – нарушения системы 5) power converter – силовой преобразователь 7) remote (adj) – отдаленный 8) curtailment – свертывание сокращение, 9) quadruple (v) – увеличиться в четыре раза 10) conventional традиционный (adj) – 11) utility (n) – сооружение или предприятие 12) 6) grid - сеть amount (n) количество 181 A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines placed over an extended area. For example, Gansu Wind Farm, the largest wind farm in the world, has several thousand turbines. A wind farm may also be located offshore. Almost all large wind turbines have the same design — a horizontal axis wind turbine having an upwind rotor with three blades, attached to a nacelle on top of a tall tubular tower. In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communications network. In general, a distance of 7D (7 × Rotor Diameter of the Wind Turbine) is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm. A substation, next, increases the voltage of this medium-voltage electric current with a transformer to connect it to the high voltage electric power transmission system Different types of wind turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances. In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage during faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven by synchronous generators. Today most turbines use variable speed generators combined with partial- or full-scale power converter between the turbine generator and the collector system, which generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection. On-shore wind farms are placed on land. Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms built in the sea to generate electric power. These farms use powerful 182 winds which are more frequent and more powerful in these locations. They also have less aesthetic impact on the landscape. However, the construction and the maintenance costs of wind farms are considerably higher. In 2012, 1,662 turbines at 55 offshore wind farms in 10 European countries produced 18 TW, enough to power almost five million households. Walney Extension in the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 659 MW. Transmission lines are required to bring the generated power to (often remote) markets. If constructing a new high-voltage line may be too costly for the wind resource alone, but wind sites may use the lines installed for conventionally fueled power plants. The generation capacity should meet the transmission capacity, otherwise wind farms are forced to produce below their full potential or stop running all together, in a process known as curtailment. World wind generation capacity more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2006, doubling about every 3 years. The United States were the first to build wind farms; plants’ installed capacity was the greatest in the 1980s and into the 1990s. In 1997, Germany surpassed the United States and led until once again overtaken by the United States in 2008. China has been rapidly expanding its wind installations in the late 2000s and passed the United States in 2010 to become the world leader. In 2011, 83 countries around the world were using wind power on a commercial basis. 183 Top 10 wind power producing countries in 2015 Country Wind-power Production(TW) United States 190.7 China 185.8 Germany 78.9 Spain 48.1 India 42.8 United Kingdom 40.3 Canada 26.2 Brazil 21.6 France 21.2 Sweden 16.3 Although the wind power industry was affected by the global financial crisis in 2009 and 2010, if has been forecast that the installed capacity of wind power will be 792.1 GW by the end of 2020 and 4,042 GW by end of 2050. This type of renewable power has broken the prices records. In some cases, wind offshore is already the cheapest electric power and costs are continuing to decline. The contracted prices for wind onshore for the next few years are now as low as 30 USD/MWh. Wind power generation sector of the world electricity market has been invariably increasing. In 2015 it was 3.5%. 184 According to the American Wind Energy Association, production of wind power in the United States in 2015 avoided consumption of 73 billion gallons of water and reduced CO2 emissions by 132 million metric tons, while providing USD 7.3 bn in public health savings. Wind power can now compete with conventional fossil fuels like coal. Prices have fallen to about 4 cents per kilowatt-hour in some cases and utilities have been increasing the amount of wind energy in their portfolio, saying it is their cheapest option. 2. Answer the questions: a) What is the difference between a wind turbine and a wind farm? b) How may wind turbines does the largest wind farm have? c) Wind farms can be constructed on land and in the sea, can’t they? d) What do you call those built on land and the ones built in the sea? e) What are the pros and contras of constructing a land-type wind farm? f) What may be the pros and contras of building an off-shore wind farm? g) How is the generated power transported to the households and factories? h) What does it mean ‘the generation capacity must meet the transmission capacity’? i) Is wind power engineering on the rise or declining now? j) What are the merits of a wind farm? k) What disadvantages do wind farms have? 3. Decide if the statements are true or false: a) In a wind farm the turbines are connected with a voltage of 3.5kv. 185 b) The preferable type of generator for a wind farm is an induction one. c) If the capacity of a transmission line is lower than that of the wind farm the farm is sometimes curtailed. d) Russia was the first to build a wind farm. e) The world leaders of wind power engineering are (according to electricity production) are (respectively): Germany, USA, Sweden. f) It was the financial crisis of 1998 which speeded up wind power engineering development. g) Wind produced electricity is not so cheap and conventional types. h) The reduction of water consumption is one of wind power engineering advantages. i) Walney Extension in the United Kingdom is the largest wind farm in the world. j) In the USA, one kilowatt-hour costs four dollars. 4. Find a sentence in the text which: a) describes a typical wind turbine of a wind farm; b) tells the reader what type of transmission lines are used to transport generated electricity from the wind farm; c) shows that the USA was the leader in wind power engineering twice; d) tells the reader how much the contracted prices for wind produced electricity will be in the nearest future; e) proves that wind farms have the ability to reduce the global warming effect; f) shows that wind power generation is less detrimental for people’s health. g) mentions a government body which regulates wind power generation. 186 5. Answer some more questions: a) Do wind farms use renewable or non-renewable sources of energy? b) What does 7D mean? c) Which is a larger number: M (in MW) or T (in TW)? Do you know how much each quantity is equal to? d) What is the greatest wind farm capacity? e) Which is a larger number: 173b or 173m? f) Since the beginning of the new millennium wind power generation has tripled every three years, hasn’t it? g) Have the governments spent more or less money on public health with the development of wind power generation? TEXT I WIND TURBINE STRUCTURE 1. Look at the picture of a turbine structure. Suggest English inscriptions for the parts of the mechanism. Make use of a dictionary if necessary: 187 1. башня 2. лопасти винта 3. лестница 4. поворотный механизм 5. анемометр 6. тормозная система 7. трансмиссия 8. устройство для изменения шага винта 9. колпак ротора 10. гондола 11. фундамент 12. электрогенератор 13. силовой шкаф, включающий силовые контакторы и цепи управления Fig.9 2. Watch a video ‘What’s inside a wind turbine?’Check if you have selected the right terms. The video can be found at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNXTm7aHvWc TEXT J 1. Render the following text into English: Одним из экономных видов энергии является энергия ветра, которая способна производить электрическую энергию в объемах достаточных для удовлетворения нужд как бытовых потребителей, так и промышленных предприятий. Основой конструкции для выработки электроэнергии из ветра является установленный на мачте генератор. Конструкция ветряной 188 электростанции включает в себя следующие элементы: генератор, мачту, лопасти, анемометр, аккумуляторные батареи, устройство автоматического включения резерва (АВР). Принцип работы ветряной электростанции основан на преобразовании энергии ветра во вращательное движение турбины. Это осуществляется при помощи лопастей ротора. Ветер следует контуру лопастей, приводя их во вращение. Современные ветряные электрические станции имеют три лопасти. Их длина может достигать 56 м. Скорость вращения – в пределах 12-14 об/мин.Для увеличения скорости вращения используют редукторы. Мощность современных ветрогенераторов может достигать 750 кВт. Анемометр предназначен для измерения скорости ветра. Он монтируется на тыльной стороне корпуса турбины. Информация о скорости ветра анализируется встроенным компьютером для выработки наибольшего количества электроэнергии. Конструкция ветряной электростанции может работать при скорости ветра 4 м/сек. При достижении скорости ветра 25 м/сек ветряные электростанции автоматически выключаются. Бесконтрольное вращение лопастей при сильном ветре является одной из причин аварий и поломок ветряка. Трансформатор преобразовывает напряжение до величин, необходимых для транспортировки электроэнергии к потребителю по проводам линии электропередачи. Обычно трансформаторы устанавливают у основания мачты. Мачта является важным элементом конструкции ветряной электростанции. От ее высоты зависит выработка генератора. Высота мачты современных ветряков колеблется в пределах 70-120 м. Некоторые конструкции предусматривают наличие вертолетных площадок. TEXT K THE WORLD’S LARGEST WIND FARM 1. Read the text: 189 1) The world's largest wind farm, which is bigger than San Francisco and powers more than half a million homes, was built in the Irish Sea, off the coast of England. 2) The Walney Extension opened with a generating capacity of 659 megawatts, and is located between northern England and the Isle of Man. Its 87 turbines, which are 640 feet tall, belong to the world's biggest ones in operation. (Taller is generally better for harnessing the wind because wind speeds tend to pick up as you get higher off the ground.) 3) The project is part of a larger trend of investment in offshore wind farms as a way to produce clean, renewable energy. The first offshore wind farm in the US, a 30 megawatt farm that is 30 miles off the coast of Rhode Island, was completed in 2016. One recent report estimated that by 2026, 2.3 gigawatts of offshore wind power will be used in the US. That would be enough wind energy to light up over a million American households. 4) Meanwhile, the Dutch are proposing a 30-gigawatt farm, complete with its own artificial island, to be built in the ocean between the Netherlands, Norway, and the UK by 2027. So the Walney Extension will not be able to hold a world record for a long time. 5) The Walney Extension is an array of 87 turbines in the Irish Sea off the west coast of England. At capacity, the wind farm provides enough power for more than 590,000 homes. The turbines are less than 12 miles away from Walney Island in England. The wind farm occupies 56 square miles — an area bigger than the island of Manhattan or the city of San Francisco. 6) It was Orsted, a Danish wind power company that built the new farm. The farm has two of its own electrical substations. It first generated power in August 2017, but construction wasn't complete until June 2018. 7) The turbines, made by Siemens and MHI Vestas, each stand more than 600 feet in the air, more than twice the height of the Statue of Liberty. The farm is hooked up to more than 186 miles of cables, which connect the wind power to England's national grid. 8) The Walney Extension beats existing offshore wind farm records for both power and size. It is 9 square miles larger and 29 megawatts more powerful than the world's number two offshore wind farm, the London 190 Array, which sits off the southeast coast of the UK. The world's largest wind farm overall is located on land in China. 9) Offshore wind isn't cheap. It costs about 20 cents per kilowatt hour to produce, but the price is projected to drop to 10 cents per kilowatt hour by 2022. That would make it roughly three times the price of onshore wind power. As prices for renewable energy sources like wind continue to fall, more people around the world are expected to begin relying on them to power their lives. Energy sources including wind and solar are expected to provide close to half of the world's energy needs by 2050. 2. Say in what paragraph(s) you can find the following information: a) The off shore wind farm in the Irish Sea is a part of a larger project. b) Another power producer is likely to surpass Walney Extension in the nearest future. c) The area the wind farm occupies. d) Where the generated power is transmitted. e) Wind speed depends on the height of the location. f) The largest off-shore wind farm is not the largest in general. g) The cost of the generated power by off shore wind farms is different from the cost of power produced by on land wind installations. h) The new wind farm is a record holder. i) One more type of renewable energy sources is likely to be developed in the future. j) The price of one kilowatt hour in 2020. 3. Explain the word combinations or give synonyms: 191 a) The farm is hooked up to … cables. b) National grid. c) Twice the height of the Statue of Liberty. d) Off the coast. 4. Convert the imperial figures into the metric system: a) 186 miles b) 12 miles c) 640 feet d) 30 miles 5. Give the main idea of each paragraph. Join the ideas into a small text about the largest off shore wind farm. Retell the text in short. TEXT L The concept of integrating different types of power generation is being developed now. New power plants combining double-mode and even triple mode operation have been built in the world. They are called ‘hybrids’ and may use both renewable and non-renewable sources. Wind-solar power plants use both, wind and solar energy to generate electrical power (in this case solar power can be complementary to wind power, or vice versa). They are thought to be more efficient than their one-mode counterparts, as the wind energy or the sun do not belong to the continuous processes regulated by man. 1. Render the text into English. Make use of the following vocabulary: 1) министерство – department 192 5) финансировать - finance 2) гибридный – hybrid 6) тендер – bid 3) Всемирный банк – World Bank 7) тариф – tariff 4) хранилище – storage facility 8) рупия – rupee 9) прогнозировать – forecast В ИНДИИ РЕАЛИЗУЮТ МЕГАПРОЕКТ ГИБРИДНОЙ ЭЛЕКТРОСТАНЦИИ Индийское Министерство новой и возобновляемой энергетики планирует реализовать рекордный проект. В штате Андхра-Прадеш будет построена крупнейшая в мире гибридная ветро-солнечная электростанция (ВСЭС). Мегапроект будет совместно реализован Solar Energy Corporation India (SECI), Агентством возобновляемых источников энергии штата, а также компаниями NREDCAP и Transco. Его мощность составит 160 МВт, а займет станция площадь в 400 гектаров. Стоимость проекта – 155 млн долл, эти средства предоставит Всемирный банк. Предполагается, что 120 МВт мощности обеспечат солнечные батареи, 40 МВт – ветрогенераторы. ВСЭС оборудуют хранилищем электроэнергии, которое позволит станции постоянно подавать питание в сеть, даже при условии снижения скорости ветра в ночное время. Согласие Всемирного банка финансировать проект означает, что тарифы на электроэнергию этой станции будут вполне конкурентоспособны по отношению к расценкам традиционных индийских теплоэлектростанций. Идея данного мегапроекта состоит в том, чтобы создать модель электростанции на возобновляемых источниках энергии, которая будет так же надежна с точки зрения поставок электричества, как и любая угольная или мазутная. Подобные гибридные станции уже существуют на Ямайке и в Китае, однако индийский проект будет крупнейшим в своем классе. 193 Стоит отметить также, что солнечная энергия в Индии продолжает дешеветь. Весной две энергетические компании – ACME Solar Holdings и SBG Cleantech One – предложили рекордно низкие цены за электричество на аукционе за право строить солнечный парк Bhadla Phase-III. ACME Solar Holdings и SBG Cleantech One заверили организаторов тендера, что в их исполнении электроэнергия, произведенная на третьей очереди парка Bhadla, обойдется в 2,45 рупии (около 3,8 американского цента) за 1 кВт*ч. Предложенная на этом аукционе тарифная ставка побила предыдущий рекорд Индии. Он был равен 2,62 рупии (4 цента) за 1 кВт*ч и установлен компаниями Phelan Energy и Avaada Power. Тарифы, которые энергетические компании предлагают в ходе тендеров на строительство солнечных электростанций в Индии, устанавливаются на 25 лет. Так что данные цены реально отражают состояние рынка возобновляемых источников энергии (ВИЭ) в стране. Эксперты отрасли уже прогнозируют, что Индия продолжит снижать цены на генерируемую солнечную энергию. Источник: newsdiscover.net TEXT M 1. Read the text. Make use of the vocabulary: 1) decade (n) десятилетие 5) surplus (adj) излишний 2) access (n) доступ 6) retail credit – розничный кредит 3) eliminate (v) устранить 4) utility system – энергосистема общего пользования 7) intermittent прерывистый 8) awareness (n) осознание MICROGENERATION 194 (adj) – Small-scale wind power (microgeneration) encompasses wind generation systems with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power. Communities living in remote areas with no access to the local grids and relying, basically, on diesel generators, may use wind turbines as an alternative. Individuals may buy and install these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electric power for economic reasons, or to reduce the carbon effect. Wind turbines have been used for home electric power generation together with battery storage over many decades. Recent examples of small-scale wind power projects in urban areas can be found in New York City. Since 2009, a number of buildings have put Gorlov-type helical wind turbines on their roofs. Although the energy they generate is small compared to the buildings' overall consumption, they help to increase the building's 'green' contribution. Grid-connected domestic wind turbines may use grid energy storage, thus replacing purchased electric power with locally produced power when available. Some jurisdiction provide that the surplus power produced by domestic micro-generators can be fed into the network and sold to the utility company, producing a retail credit for the micro-generators' owners to reduce their energy costs. Off-grid system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries, photovoltaic or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine. Equipment such as parking meters, traffic warning signs, street lighting, or wireless Internet gateways may be powered by a small wind turbine, possibly combined with a photovoltaic system, that charges a small battery replacing the need for a connection to the power grid. Microgeneration from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change. The electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units with the utility system can include additional functions, such as the active filtering to enhance the power quality. 2. Answer the questions: a) What is the capacity of microgenerators? b) Who are the typical users of small-scale power? 195 c) d) e) 3. a) b) c) d) e) 4. a) b) c) d) 5. 6. How can an individual using his own wind generator benefit from the use of his technical innovation? Should a home wind turbine be supplemented by something? What is the role of filters in connecting the small-scale renewable generation device and the utility system? Explain what is meant by the words: communities living in remote areas with no access to local grids; individuals buy small wind installations for economic reasons; individuals buy small wind installations to reduce the ‘carbon’ effect; small wind power projects help to increase the building’s ‘green’ contribution; microgeneration from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change. Develop the idea: Small wind turbines may be used as an alternative. Small scale generated power cannot only help economize but to spend too. Sometimes, only a wind turbine is not enough to power small wattage equipment. Using a home wind turbine will cause the employment of additional electronic devices. Retell the text in detail, paragraph by paragraph. Render the text below into English: Пусть и медленно, но в России строятся объекты малой энергетики. o ВЕТРО-СОЛНЕЧНАЯ ЭЛЕКТРОСТАНЦИЯ В ПРИБАЙКАЛЬЕ Наряду с дизельным генератором на электростанции в поселке Онгурен Ольхонского района будут применяться солнечные батареи и ветряные установки. Планируемая энергетическая мощность, которую будет производить комбинированная электростанция, определяется показателем в 100 кВ. В итоге у жителей поселка будет электроэнергия круглосуточно, а не несколько часов в день. 196 Как сообщает пресс-служба «Облкоммунэнерго», проект ветросолнечной станции выполнила структура группы НИТОЛ. Монтажом станции занимается компания ЗАО «ЭнергопромЭлектроникс». Сейчас в поселок доставлено все необходимое для строительства оборудование. Областная энергокомпания также принимает участие в проекте строительства солнечной электростанции, в частности, выполняет работы по строительству воздушных линий электропередачи 0,4-10 кВ. Именно эти линии обеспечивают электроэнергией жителей поселка Онгурен. Всего энергокомпания построит 1 км ВЛ-0,4-10 кВ с применением самонесущего изолированного провода и установкой 31 железобетонной опоры, построит 3 трансформаторных подстанции. Отметим, что на отведенном участке уже установлено 10 опор. Первую часть установок ветро-солнечной электростанции мощностью 50 кВт планируется запустить в августе текущего года (40 кВт придутся на солнечную батарею, ещё 10 – на ветроэнергетическую установку). Также при максимальных зимних нагрузках параллельно будет включаться автоматизированная дизельная электростанция. Напомним, решение о строительстве ветро-солнечной электростанции было принято в июле прошлого года на заседании «Научно-экспертного совета по энергоэффективности», созданного распоряжением Правительства Иркутской области. Площадка под строительство выбрана не случайно. Поселок Онгурен – самый северный и труднодоступный поселок на Малом море Байкала, он изолирован от центрального энергоснабжения, электричество подается только три-четыре часа в сутки от дизельной станции. Такая ситуация отрицательно сказывается на качестве жизни местного населения. (источник: www.newchemistry.ru) 7. Research the suggested areas: 197 a) Interview your group-mates as to their plans to use microgeneration in their homes in future. b) Study the use of wind energy for electrical engineering in the Nizhny Novgorod Region (Central Russia). c) Suggest your own topic for a research. 8. Write a report on the topic suggested: a) Supply the information for the benefit of the others. b) Supply the analysis of the problem together with recommendations. Use a neutral or formal style. Begin by introducing the subject of your report. Present your ideas in a logical sequence. Use paragraphs and headings to indicate the main points. End your report with a recommendation or a conclusion. c) Some useful phrases: Introduction The report describes… The aim of this report is… Describing trends Typically, it is … There has been an increase in …. The proportion of …. By comparison … 198 This is due to … Conclusion In conclusion … To sum up … It appears that … It seems that IT IS INTERESTING TO KNOW THAT 1. Trade winds have nothing to do with commerce. We know that trade is a wind blowing steadily toward the equator from the northeast in the northern hemisphere or the southeast in the southern hemisphere, especially at sea. Two belts of trade winds encircle the earth, blowing from the tropical high-pressure belts to the low-pressure zone at the equator. The words ‘trade winds’ originated in the middle of 17th century from the phrase ‘blow trade’ meaning ‘blow steadily in the same direction’. As these winds were important to navigation 18th century etymologists erroneously connected the word ‘trade’ with ‘commerce’. 2. In situations where modern instruments are not available, an index finger can be used to test the direction of wind. This is accomplished by wetting the finger and pointing it upwards. The side of the finger that feels "cool" is (approximately) the direction from which the wind is blowing. The "cool" sensation is caused by an increased rate of evaporation of the moisture on the finger due to the air flow across the finger, and consequently the "finger technique" of measuring wind direction does not work well in either very humid or very hot conditions. 3. "Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an additional rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which results in greater solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area 199 divided by the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing. 4. The oil shortages of the 1970s changed the energy picture for the U.S. and the world. It created an interest in alternative energy sources, paving the way for the re-entry of the wind turbine to generate electricity. From 1974 through the mid-1980s, the U.S. government worked with industry to advance the technology and enable development and deployment of large commercial wind turbines. Large-scale research wind turbines were developed under a program overseen by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to create a utility-scale wind turbine industry in the United States. With funding from the National Science Foundation and later the U.S. Department of Energy, 13 experimental turbines were put into operation using four major wind turbine designs. This research and development program pioneered many of the multi-megawatt turbine technologies in use today. The large wind turbines developed under this program set several world records for diameter and power output. 5. The wind blows to the south and goes round to the north: round and round goes the wind, and on its circuits the wind returns. Ecclesiastes 1:6. The earth’s atmosphere can be modeled as a gigantic heat engine. It extracts energy from one reservoir (the sun) and delivers heat to another reservoir at a lower temperature (space). In the process, work is done on the gases in the atmosphere and upon the earth-atmosphere boundary. There will be regions where the air pressure is temporarily higher or lower than average. This difference in air pressure causes atmospheric gases or wind to flow from the region of higher pressure to that of lower pressure. These regions are typically hundreds of kilometers in diameter. Solar radiation, evaporation of water, cloud cover, and surface roughness all play important roles in determining the conditions of the atmosphere. The study of the interactions between these effects is a complex subject called meteorology. 6. AMERICAN WIND POWER CENTER MUSEUM Most of the thousands of windmills used from the late 1800s and early 1900s have been lost, but the American Wind Power Center and Museum in Lubbock, Texas, houses more than100 rare and unique windmills. The Center is internationally recognized as the place to observe and photograph windmills in their natural setting. 200 The Center also serves as the premier educational facility where the windmill’s heritage is taught, seen and heard. Complementing the many windmills is a large collection of photographs, drawings, and models in the Windmiller’s Art Gallery and other rare collections of windmill artifacts. The WINDSMITH museum store is also located in the building, specializing in a unique variety of windmill-related keepsakes. 7. In European countries, where wind power engineering is developing speedily local population complains of the discomfort it bears when living near a wind farm. Sometimes people can see wind turbines at 200-250 m distance from homes; they get irritated by the noise that is heard hundreds of meters around the wind farm. It means living under a constant stress. Besides, the turbines’ blades can cast long shadows several kilometers around. Laws are being developed to minimize the inconvenience of living near such mechanisms. 8. A Gorlov-type helical wind turbine is evolved from the Darrieus turbine design. It was invented by Alexander Moyseevich Gorlov, a Soviet, later an American, scientist, professor emeritus of the Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. It was patented from 1995 to 2001. This is a vertical-axis turbine which means the axis is positioned perpendicular to current flow, whereas traditional turbines are horizontal-axis turbines which means the axis is positioned parallel to the flow of the current. Fluid flows, such as wind, will naturally change direction, however they will still remain parallel to the ground. So in all vertical-axis turbines, the flow remains perpendicular to the axis, regardless of the flow direction, and the turbines always rotate in the same direction. This is one of the main advantages of vertical-axis turbines. 9. Wind power plants are placed where the average wind velocity is 4.5 mps and above. Prior to the construction a research is done to find the area wind potential. Anemometers are put from 30 to 100 m from the ground, and data about the wind speed and direction is collected for a year or two. The obtained data is then placed on the maps of wind power availability. The maps and special computer software enable the prospective investors to evaluate the payback rate. Conventional meteorological data are not used for building wind plants as they have been collected on the land surface (up to 10m) in urban areas or airports. In many countries such maps are prepared by government bodies or are government201 assisted. For example, the Department of Development of Canada made a Wind Atlas and WEST (Wind Energy Simulation Toolkit), the latter being a computer model that can plan the installation of wind turbines in any area of the country. In 2005, the UNO Development Project made a wind atlas for 19 developing countries. TEST YOURSELF 1. What type of energy does wind power belong to: renewable or non-renewable? 2. What are the main characteristics of the wind? 3. What is the instrument called anemometer used for? 4. How strong should a wind be for the wind turbines to operate? 5. How long have windmills been used to produce electrical power? 6. Why, do you think, wind farms are often placed in the mountainous areas? 7. Does China belong to the leaders of wind power engineering? 8. What axis rotor turbines are said to be more reliable: horizontal or vertical? 9. What is the negative effect of wind turbines? 10. Russia? When and where was the first wind power plant built in 11. What are the prospects of wind power generating? 12. What is a hybrid power plant? 13. Do feet refer to imperial or metric measurements? 14. Which is longer a mile or a kilometer? Why? 15. have? How many turbines does the largest off-shore wind farm 202 16. Why, do you think, Russia does not belong to wind power engineering leaders? 17. What is the Gorlov type turbine? What are its advantages? What are its disadvantages? 18. Do engineers use conventional meteorological data when projecting a new wind farm? Why? 19. What are the main components of a wind turbine? 20. What does the length of blades affect? 21. farms? What electricity is cheaper: generated by onshore or off shore 22. construction? Can you name any companies employed in wind farms 23. What is Enercon E-126? 24. Why was the first wind power plant in Russia the first and the last for decades? 25. What useful invention did crusaders bring to Europe from the Islamic world? 26. Do the words ‘speed’ and ‘velocity’ mean the same? 27. Where does the wind blow according to Ecclesiastes? 28. curtailed? 29. prices? What should be done for the wind farm not to be Does India show a tendency to raise or to cut down electricity 30. Would you like to work in wind power engineering? 31. What is microgeneration? 32. How can an individual in New York benefit from setting a small wind turbine of the roof of his house? 33. Why are wind turbines painted white? 203 34. Have you ever seen a wind farm (not in the picture)? 35. Why are wind turbine towers very high? 36. in detail? What aspect of wind power engineering would you like to study 37. Where are transformers usually placed in wind turbines? 38. Have you ever seen a wind vane? 39. Can wind power be used in traffic? 40. you think? What types of power generation will prevail in 2050, do 204 UNIT 9. BIOMASS ENERGY TEXT A 1. Read the text below, using the suggested vocabulary: 1) absorb (v) – поглощать 5) waste (n) – отходы 2) release (v) высвобождаться – 6) manure (n) – навоз 7) sewage (n) – сточные воды 3) biofuels (n) – биотопливо 205 4) biogas (n) – биогаз (метан) 8) yard waste – бытовые отходы WHAT IS BIOMASS ENERGY? Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals, and it is a renewable source of energy. Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat. Biomass can be burned directly or converted to liquid biofuels or biogas that can be burned as fuels. Examples of biomass and their uses for energy: Wood and wood processing wastes—burned to heat buildings, to produce process heat in industry, and to generate electricity Agricultural crops and waste materials—burned as a fuel or converted to liquid biofuels Food, yard, and wood waste in garbage—burned to generate electricity in power plants or converted to biogas in landfills Animal manure and human sewage—converted to biogas, which can be burned as a fuel. 2. Answer the questions: a) What are the sources of biomass? b) What has to be done for the biomass to release its energy? c) What intermediate stage is resorted to make biomass full-valued fuel? d) Is biomass used to generate electricity? 206 3. Say what word is meant in the definition or word. The first letter of the word is to help you: a) part of flora – pb) part of fauna – ac) transform – cd) spent material, refuse – w4. Retell the text using all the words below: biomass energy absorb release heat electricity biogas power plant liquid biofuels burn convert generate TEXT B d.a.i.1. Study the vocabulary before reading the text 1) carbon dioxide – углекислый газ 6) pyrolysis (n) пиролиз 2) availability (n) доступность 7) charcoal (n) древесный уголь 3) supply (n) предложение 8) forge (v) ковать 4) complement (v) дополнить 9) soil exhaustion – истощение почв 5) inevitable (adj) неизбежный FROM BIOMASS TO COAL When burned, biomass releases carbon dioxide stored in the organic material. Many of the biomass fuels used today come as wood 207 products, dried vegetation, crop residues, and aquatic plants. Biomass has become one of the most commonly used renewable sources of energy in the last two decades, second only to hydropower in the generation of electricity. It is such a widely used source of energy due to its low cost and easy availability. Nowadays, it accounts for almost 15% of the world’s total energy supply; in developing countries its share equals 35%. For thousands of years, biomass has been converted by partial pyrolysis to charcoal. Charcoal, in its turn, has been used for forging metals and for light industry. Wood and charcoal made the energy bases of the early period of Industrial Revolution. Biomass is employed in the process of making steam, the latter being used as a by-product to generate electricity. The organic matter is used for off-grid electricity generation. There are as many benefits in using biomass for power generation as detrimental aspects. For example, if coal is replaced by biomass you get a considerable reduction in net carbon dioxide emission that contributes to the greenhouse effect. On the other hand, the use of wood and other plant material for fuel results in deforestation. Widespread clear cutting can cause groundwater contamination and irreversible erosion patterns that could literally change the structure of the world ecology. Actual commercial use of grown fuels for power generation is limited to a few isolated experiments. Plants need time and place to grow and if biomass is looked upon as a serious source of energy you should have an area of millions square miles for plantations, not to mention inevitable soil exhaustion. Biomass cannot replace our current dependence on coal, oil, and natural gas. But it can complement other renewables such as solar and wind energy. Although it currently used all over the world, it cannot sustain the world’s energy needs on its own. d.a.i.2. Decide if the statements are true or false: 208 a) The share of biomass in power generation has grown in the recent twenty years. b) Its highly developed countries which widely resort to this source of energy. c) Charcoal and biomass are of the same origin. d) There are no disadvantages in using biomass as a renewable. e) The advantages of biomass as a source of energy are greenhouse effect and deforestation. f) For the most efficient power production biomass should be used together with wind and solar sources. d.a.i.3. Derive verbs from the following nouns: NOUN generat ion emissio n VER B gene rate exhaust ion NOUN reducti on depen dence a renew able vegetati on produc tion contami nation proces s contrib ution experi ment plantati on comple ment 209 VERB d.a.i.4. Make up a number of sentences with the words above to illustrate the contents of the text above. Write them down d.a.i.5. Give the main idea of each paragraph. Retell the text according to the main ideas. TEXT C d.a.i.5.a.i.1. Read the text using the vocabulary: 1) carbon dioxide - 5) recoup (v) - углекислый газ возместить, восстановить 2) under-utilized farm land - 6) feedstocks (n) - малоплодородная земля исходное сырье 3) paper mill - 7) lumber mill - лесопилка бумажная фабрика 8) municipal waste городские отходы 4) refinery (n) перерабатывающий завод 9) gaseous (adj) газообразный BIOMASS’ BENEFITS Biomass can be used for fuels, power production, and products that would otherwise be made from fossil fuels. In such cases, biomass can provide a number of benefits. For example: The use of biomass energy can greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. One might say, that burning biomass releases about the same amount of carbon dioxide as burning fossil fuels. However, fossil fuels release carbon dioxide captured by photosynthesis 210 millions of years ago—an essentially "new" greenhouse gas. Biomass, on the other hand, releases carbon dioxide that is largely balanced by the carbon dioxide captured in its own growth. However, recent studies have found that deforestation to grow biomass results in a carbon penalty that takes decades to recoup, so it is best if biomass is grown on previously cleared land, such as under-utilized farm land. For countries which don’t produce oil the use of biomass can reduce dependence on foreign oil because biofuels are the only renewable liquid transportation fuels available. The main biomass feedstocks for power are paper mill residue, lumber mill scrap, and municipal waste. For biomass fuels, the most common feedstocks used today are corn grain (for ethanol) and soybeans (for biodiesel). Long-term plans include growing and using dedicated energy crops, such as fast-growing trees and grasses, and algae. These feedstocks can grow sustainably on land that will not support intensive food crops. A modern trend in biomass using is to develop technologies for biorefineries that will convert biomass into a range of valuable fuels, chemicals, materials, and products—much like oil refineries and petrochemical plants do. One of the tasks the companies working in the area have is to develop and advance technologies for the following biomass energy application: converting biomass into gaseous or liquid fuels that burn more efficiently, to generate electricity. d.a.i.5.a.i.2. Decide if the following statements are true or false: a) Like fossil fuels, biomass can be used for power production. b) The use of biomass energy cannot greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. c) Carbon dioxide emitted in burning fossil fuels and carbon dioxide emitted in burning biomass has two different characters. 211 d) It is better to grow biomass on under-utilized farm lands. e) The purpose of biorefineries is to convert biomass into a range of valuable fuels, chemicals, materials, and products. f) Companies have developed numerous technologies for converting biomass into gaseous or liquid fuels that burn more efficiently, to generate electricity. d.a.i.5.a.i.3. Answer the questions: a) What do fossil fuels and biomass have in common? b) How are they different? c) What is the difference between carbon dioxide emitted in burning fossil fuels and one emitted in burning biomass? d) What are the main feedstocks for biomass? e) Why is biomass a relief for oil non-producing countries? f) What is the way of using biomass most efficiently in power production? SOME INTERESTING FACTS 1. Wood is still the largest biomass energy resource today, but other sources of biomass can also be used. These include food crops, grassy and woody plants, residues from agriculture or forestry, oil-rich algae, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Even the fumes from landfills (which are methane, the main component in natural gas) can be used as a biomass energy source. 2. In the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates—complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When these carbohydrates are burned, 212 they turn back into carbon dioxide and water and release the energy they captured from the sun. 3. But like all our energy sources, biopower has environmental risks that need to be reduced. If not managed and monitored carefully, biomass for energy can be harvested at unsustainable rates, damage ecosystems, produce harmful air pollution, consume large amounts of water, and produce net global warming emissions. 4. Ветер, солнце, вода, морские волны, биомасса являются энергетическим сырьем, которое постоянно окружает нас и легко доступно. Эти источники являются экологически чистыми, они не производят токсичных выбросов и не дают радиоактивных отходов. 5. Ежегодное количество органических отходов по разным отраслям народного хозяйства России составляет более 390 млн т. Сельскохозяйственное производство дает 250 млн т, из них 150 млн т приходится на животноводство и птицеводство, 100 млн т – на растениеводство. Лесо- и деревопереработка дают 700 млн т, твердые бытовые отходы городов – 60 млн т, коммунальные стоки – 10 млн т. 6. В настоящее время, электростанции на биомассе в качестве топлива используют древесину, растительные отходы, торфяные брикеты, и имеют КПД около 25%. Электростанции на биомассе в основном оборудованы паровыми турбинами, и работают по принципу паротурбинных теплоэлектростанций. Уровень мощности электростанций на биомассе может быть самым различным. От 4 до 100 КВт, для использования, к примеру, в фермерском хозяйстве, и до 100 МВт-ых промышленных электростанций. Электростанции малой мощности, работающие на биомассе, как правило, снабжены установками газификации биомассы, а также газогенераторными установками. Биомасса в этом случае значительно превосходит по своей способности к газификации уголь, что делает подобные электростанции более экономичными, по сравнению с угольными. 7. Власти сербского города Крушевац объявили о начале строительства новой тепловой электростанции, топливом для которой будет служить местная биомасса. Новая электростанция 213 будет иметь установленную электрическую мощность 4,8 МВт, а также установленную тепловую мощность 20 МВт. После пуска новая сербская ТЭЦ, работающая на биомассе, будет генерировать 38,4 ГВт*часов электроэнергии в год. SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARY A summary is a shorter version of the original. Such a simplification highlights the major points from the much longer subject, such as a text, speech, film, or event. To write a summary, use your own words to express briefly the main idea and relevant details of the piece you have read. Your purpose in writing the summary is to give the basic ideas of the original reading. What was it about and what did the author want to communicate? While reading the original work, take note of what or who is the focus and ask the usual questions that reporters use: Who? What? 214 When? Where? Why? How? Using these questions to examine what you are reading can help you to write the summary. Sometimes, the central idea of the piece is stated in the introduction or first paragraph, and the supporting ideas of this central idea are presented one by one in the following paragraphs. Always read the introductory paragraph thoughtfully and look for a thesis statement. Finding the thesis statement is like finding a key to a locked door. Frequently, however, the thesis, or central idea, is implied or suggested. Thus, you will have to work harder to figure out what the author wants readers to understand. Use any hints that may shed light on the meaning of the piece: pay attention to the title and any headings and to the opening and closing lines of paragraphs. A written summary starts with a lead, including title, author, text type, and the main idea of the text. It has a clearly arranged structure and is paraphrased with new words without quotations from the text. Unlike a retelling, a summary is written in present tense or historical present. In summaries only indirect speech is used and depictions are avoided. Remember: Do not rewrite the original piece. Keep your summary short. Use your own wording. Refer to the central and main ideas of the original piece. Read with who, what, when, where, why and how questions in mind. Do not put in your opinion of the issue or topic discussed in the original piece. WordList on Summaries Introduction The article (text) is written by… 215 It is about … It deals with … The author tackles upon some important problems… The text presents/describes… The author highlights … The author tells the readers… The author comes to the conclusion… The author concludes the article …. Content The article begins, ... During ... While ... As/When ... Since/As ... Just then ... After ... Before ... However, ... Yet … On the contrary … Again/Once again ... At this point ... Eventually, .../Finally, ... 216 The author Says, states, points out that… Claims, thinks, believes that… Describes, explains, makes clear that… Criticizes, analyses, comments on… Tries to express… Argues that… Suggests that… Compares X to Y… Passes on to … States … Doubts that… Tries to convince the readers that… Concludes that… Give a summary of the following text: THE TEN BIGGEST HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS IN THE WORLD 217 By Praveen Duddu Hydropower is one of the oldest and most widely-used renewable sources of energy. China, the world's largest producer of hydroelectricity, operates two of the 10 biggest hydroelectric power plants in the world, including the world's largest Three Gorges project. Power-technology.com profiles the world's ten biggest hydroelectric power production facilities based on installed capacity. The 10 biggest hydroelectric power plants in the world Three Gorges, China The 22,500MW Three Gorges hydroelectric power plant in Yichang, Hubei province, China, is the largest hydropower station in the world. It is a conventional impoundment hydropower facility exploiting the water resource of the Yangtze River. The project is owned and operated by China Three Gorges Corporation through its subsidiary China Yangtze Power. Construction of the CNY203bn ($29bn) power project was started in 1993 and completed in 2012. A 181m tall and 2,335m long gravity dam was built as part of the Three Gorges project. The power plant consists of 32 turbine / generator units rated 700MW each, and two 50MW power generators. Six foreign groups were involved in the supply of equipment for the project, including Alstom, which supplied 14 Francis turbine units. The generating units of the Three Gorges power station were commissioned between 2003 and 2012. Annual power output of the plant is estimated at 85TWh. The generated power is supplied to nine provinces and two cities, including Shanghai. Itaipu, Brazil & Paraguay The Itaipu hydroelectric power plant with an installed capacity of 14,000MW ranks as the world’s second largest hydropower plant. The project is located on the Parana River, at the border between Brazil and Paraguay. The facility is operated by ItaipuBinacional. Construction of the $19.6bn plant began in 1975 and was completed in 1982. A consortium of US-based IECO and Italy-based ELC 218 Electroconsult carried out the construction. Power production at Itaipu started in May 1984. The Itaipu hydro-electric facility supplies about 17.3% of Brazil’s energy consumption and 72.5% of the energy consumed in Paraguay. It consists of 20 generating units with a capacity of 700MW each. It produced 98.2TWh in 2012, which made it the biggest generating hydropower plant in the world. Guri, Venezuela The Guri power project, also known as the Simón Bolívar hydroelectric power station, ranks as the world’s third biggest hydroelectric power station, with an installed capacity of 10,200MW. The Venezuelan power facility is located on the Caroni River in the Bolívar State of southeastern Venezuela. CVG Electrification del Caroni owns and operates the plant. Construction of the power project started in 1963. It was carried out in two phases, with the first phase completed in 1978 and the second phase in 1986. The power plant consists of 20 generating units of different capacities ranging between 130MW and 770MW. Alstom was awarded two contracts in 2007 and 2009 to refurbish four 400MW units and five 630MW respectively. Andritz received a contract to supply five 770MW Francis turbines for the powerhouse II of Guri in 2007. The Guri power station supplies around 12,900GW/h of energy for Venezuela. Tucuruí, Brazil The Tucuruí Hydropower Complex situated on the lower Tocantins River in Tucuruí, Pará, Brazil, ranks as fourth largest hydroelectric power plant in the world. The 8,370MW power plant was built in two phases and has been producing since 1984. Construction of the $5.5bn Tucuruí hydropower project started in 1975. The first phase was completed in 1984. It involved construction of a concrete gravity dam 78m in height and 12,500m in length, 12 generating units with a capacity of 330MW each and two 25MW auxiliary units. 219 Construction of the second phase to add a new powerhouse was started in 1998 and completed in late 2010. It involved installation of 11 generating units with 370MW capacity each. A consortium of Alstom, GE Hydro, Inepar-Fem and Odebrecht supplied the equipments for this phase. The power station delivers electricity to the Belém town and the surrounding area. Grand Coulee, United States of America The 6,809MW Grand Coulee hydropower project located on the Columbia River in Washington, US, is currently the world’s fifth biggest hydroelectric power station. The project, built in three phases, is owned and operated by the US Bureau of Reclamation. The power facility commenced operation in 1941. The annual generating capacity of the plant is more than 24TWh. The Grand Coulee hydro-power station consists of three power plants and a concrete gravity dam 168m high and 1,592m in length. Construction was started in 1933. The left and right power houses, consisting of total 18 Francis turbines rated 125MW and three 10MW additional units, were operational by 1950. The third power plant consists of three 805MW units and three 600MW units. Construction of the third power plant began in 1967 and the six units of the plant were commissioned between 1975 and 1980. The overhaul of three 805MW units at the third station began in 2013 and is expected to be completed in September 2017. The overhaul of the rest three 600MW units is set to start in 2018. Sayano-Shushenskaya, Russia The Sayano-Shushenskaya hydropower plant located on the Yenisei River in Sayanogorsk, Khakassia, Russia, ranks as sixth biggest hydroelectric power station in the world. The power facility, operated by RusHydro, has an installed capacity of 6,400MW. Construction of the power station started in 1963 and was completed in 1978. An arch-gravity dam 242m in height and 1,066m in length was constructed as part of the project. The power plant consists of 10 Francis generating units with a capacity of 640MW 220 each. It generates 23.5TWh of energy annually, of which 70% is delivered to four aluminum smelters in Siberia. The plant was shut down in 2009 following an accident which caused damage to nine to 10 turbines. It was reopened in 2010. Ten new units with 96.6% efficiency are planned to be installed at the plant. The upgrades are estimated to cost $1.4bn. Longtan, China The Longtan hydropower project located on the Hongshui River in Tian’e County, Guangxi, China, is the seventh largest hydroelectric facility in the world and sixth biggest in Asia. The installed capacity of the plant is 6,300MW. The hydroelectric power station consists of nine Francis 700MW generating units. The Longtan dam is a roller-compacted concrete gravity dam 216.5m in height and 832m in width. The power station is owned and operated by Longtan Hydropower Development. The power project was designed by Hydrochina Zhongnan Engineering and built by Sinohydro. Construction of the Longtan hydropower project started in May 2007. The first generating unit was commissioned in May 2007. The project became fully operational in 2009. The turbine generators for the plant were supplied by Voith, Dongfang, Harbin and Tianjin. The annual generating capacity is estimated at 18.7TWh. Krasnoyarsk, Russia The Krasnoyarsk Hydroelectric Power Plant located on the Yenisei River in Divnogorsk, Russia, is currently the eighth largest hydroelectric power station in the world. The 6,000MW power facility is operated by JSC Krasnoyarsk HPS. Construction of the power project started in 1956 and was completed in 1972. Krasnoyarsk Dam is a 124m high and 1,065m long concrete gravity dam. The power plant comprises of 12 Francis generating units with a capacity of 500MW each. Turbines and generators for the plant were supplied by LeningradskyMetallichesky Zavod (LMZ) and Electrosila. 221 Gidroenergoproek was the engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contractor. The power station’s annual generating capacity is 18.4TWh. Robert-Bourassa, Canada The 5,616MW Robert-Bourassa generating station located on the La Grande River in northern Quebec, Canada, ranks as the world’s ninth largest hydroelectric power plant. The power station is owned and operated by Hydro-Québec. Construction of the C$3.8bn power project started in 1974. It involved construction of an embankment dam 162m in height and 2835m in length. The generating station comprises of two power plants installed with total 16 Francis turbines rated at 351MW each. The generating units were commissioned between 1979 and 1981. A major rehabilitation project is underway at the Robert-Bourassa generating station since 2012 to improve its operational reliability energy performance. It is expected to be completed in 2020. Alstom was awarded a contract in January 2012 to upgrade the power station’s efficiency as part of the rehabilitation project. Churchill Falls, Canada The 5,428MW Churchill Falls Generating Station located on the Churchill River in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, ranks as tenth largest hydroelectric power plant in the world. The power project is owned by Churchill Falls Labrador Corporation and operated by Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro, a subsidiary of Nalcor Energy. Construction of the $C946m hydropower station started in 1967. The project did not involve construction of any large dam. The water reservoir is, rather, contained in 88 rock-filled dikes. The underground power house consists of 11 Francis turbines rated at 493.5MW each. The generating units of the hydroelectric power station were commissioned between 1971 and 1974. The annual generating capacity of the power plant is 35,000GWh. It is one of the largest power facilities in North America. 222 Hydroelectric Engineers Overview Hydroelectric engineers are responsible for developing and maintaining the mechanical technology at hydroelectric plants and overseeing the overall performance of the plant. They create designs and specifications for hydroelectric projects, which can include details for structures and/or machinery and equipment. They work with or manage other engineers and technicians, and may travel to facilities to oversee operations. The Job Hydropower represents 19 percent of the total electricity production in the world, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. And there are still plenty of hydro resources yet to be developed— about two-thirds of the world’s potential remains untapped. While long lead times are required to research and propose new hydroelectric power sites, and the costs to create facilities can be prohibitive, there are many aspects of hydroelectric power that make it an attractive alternative to fossil fuels. No fuel is burned, thus causing minimal pollution and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Once built, costs to operate and maintain hydroelectric facilities are relatively low. And nature provides the water: rainfall renews the supply. Hydroelectric projects supply power to public electricity networks as well as to industrial enterprises. Some hydroelectric facilities are built to provide electricity to aluminum electrolytic plants. For example, the Grand Coulee Dam, constructed between 1935 through 1941 in the Columbia River Basin, contributed to the World War II effort by providing power to Alcoa Aluminum in Bellingam, Washington, for airplane manufacturing. After the war, it continued providing power to aluminum industries, as well as irrigation and power to communities. Hydroelectric engineers who work for hydroelectric generation facilities review customers’ specifications and create descriptions of 223 the work that’s planned. They work on new projects as well as rehabilitation of existing facilities. They not only engineer and design projects, using drafting software such as AutoCAD (computer-aided design), but also estimate the costs. Familiarity with blueprints, spreadsheets, databases, Microsoft Office, and other related programs is often required. Hydroelectric engineers perform engineering studies and computations and conduct field analysis, inspection, and performance tests. They also evaluate and monitor hydroelectric equipment performance, and compile findings in reports. They may gather data and present their findings to management, or direct others in conducting this work. They map out the testing, operating, and maintenance plans for the project; create project schedules and technical specifications; and oversee installation and construction, making sure company standards and procedures are followed. They may also be involved in business development efforts by preparing proposals and bids, and participating in pitch meetings. Hydroelectric engineers work with other engineers, technicians, and craftsmen on such hydroelectric machinery as turbines, pumps, fans, boilers, heat exchangers, tanks, piping, scrubbers, compressors, scrubbers, and material handling equipment. Civil hydroelectric engineers analyze and design structures such as concrete dams, pipelines, levees, canals, powerhouses, intakes, spillways, and foundations. Some engineers are tasked with covering multiple sites in their work. For example, an Internet advertisement for a substation design engineer listed the job location as: Madison, Wisconsin; Tucson, Arizona; and Billings, Montana. In addition to being able to travel, responsibilities for this job included performing conceptual and detailed designs of high-voltage utility substations; being well versed in SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition, a system that collects data from various sensors at a factory, plant, or other remote location and forwards that data to a central computer); ability to create physical layouts of substations; and selecting substation equipment and writing up specifications. 224 New Projects to Make Geothermal Attractive Energy More Economically Geothermal energy, a clean, renewable source of energy produced by the heat of the earth, provides about 6 percent of California’s total power. That number could be much higher if associated cost were lower. Now, scientists at the Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have launched two California Energy Commission –funded projects aimed at making geothermal energy more cost-effective to deploy and operate. “There is huge potential for geothermal energy in the U.S., and especially in California,” said Patrick Dobson, who leads Berkeley Labs Geothermal Systems program in the Energy Geosciences Division. “The U.S. Geological Survey has estimated that conventional and unconventional geothermal resources in the western U.S. are equivalent to half of the current installed generation capacity of the U.S.; however, commercial development of these resources would require significant technological advances to lower the cost of geothermal deployment”. The first project will test deployment of a dense array of seismic sensors to improve the ability to image where and how fluids are moving underground. The second project will develop and apply modeling tools to enable geothermal plants to safely run in flexible (or variable) production mode, allowing for better integration with other renewable energy sources. The California Energy Commission’s Electric Program Investment Charge (EPIC) program has awarded Berkeley Lab a total of $2,7 million for the two projects. California is looking to geothermal energy to help in reaching its goal of getting half of its electricity from renewable sources by the year 2030. Geothermal plants are possible only in locations with particular geological characteristics, either near active volcanic centers or in places with a very high temperature gradient, such as parts of the western United States. Thanks to its location on the Pacific “Ring of Fire”, California has a vast amount of geothermal electricity generation capacity. Seeing fluid flow with seismic sensors 225 While geothermal technology has been around for some time, one of the main barriers to wider adoption is the high up-front investment. “A large geothermal operator might drill three wells a year at a cost approximately $7 million dollars per well. If one of the wells could provide twice the steam production, a savings of $7 million dollars could be realized. That’s where we come in “said Lawrence Hutchings, a Berkeley Lab micro earthquake imaging specialist who has worked in geothermal fields around the world. In a project led by Berkeley Lab scientist Kurt Nihei, a dense network of potable seismic recorders will be installed to demonstrate the ability to perform high-resolution tomographic imaging. “The goal is to image where steam and fluids are going using geophysics, Nihei said. “We will improve the spatial resolution of the imaging using a dense array and demonstrate that this can be done cost-effectively in an operating geothermal field”. The demonstration will take place at The Geysers, the world’s largest geothermal field, located north of San Francisco in Somona and Lake Counties. Wells there- some deeper than two miles – bring steam to the surface. The steam is converted to electricity while water injected into the underground rock to replenish the steam. Berkeley Lab scientists currently run network of 32 seismic recorders at The Geysers to monitor micro earthquakes. With the dense network of 100 inexpensive seismic recorders, they will be able to improve the resolution of seismic imaging sufficient to track fluid movement as it moves through the network of fractures that intersect the injection wells. “Similar to what is done in medical ultrasound tomography with sound waves; we will record seismic waves – both compressional waves and shear waves – from which we can extract information about rock properties, fluid properties, and changes in the subsurface stresses,” Nihei said. “We think these images will allow us to get a clearer picture of where fluids are going and how stresses in the rock are changing in time and space between the injection wells and production wells.” Having a better understanding of fluid flow in fractured geothermal reservoirs would be a big benefit for well placement as well as cost226 effective operation. “If they can increase the likelihood getting a productive well every time they drill, it would be huge,” said Hutchings. “More than 10 percent of California’s total renewable energy capacity comes from geothermal, so the potential impact of this technology is exciting.” Lowering the cost of renewables In the second project, led by Berkeley Lab scientist Jonny Rutqvist, the goal is to enable the conversion of geothermal production from baseload or steady production to flexible or variable mode. Flexiblemode geothermal production could then be used as a supplement to intermittent renewable energy sources such as wind or solar, which are not available around the clock, thus significantly reducing the costs of storing that energy. The technical challenges are considerable since grid demands may require rapid changes, such as reducing production by half within tens of minutes and then restoring full production after a few hours. Such changes could lead to mechanical fatigue, damage to well components, corrosion and mineral deposition in the wells. “A better understanding of the impacts of flexible-mode production on the reservoir –wellbore system is needed to assure safe and sustainable production,” said Rutqvist. Berkeley Lab will adapt a suite of their modeling tools for wellbore and geothermal reservoir integrity, including t2 well, which models fluid flow and heat transfer in wells; and tough react, which simulates scaling and corrosion. These tools will be integrated with geomechanical tools into an improved thermal-hydrologicalmechanical-chemical (THMC) model to address the specific problems. “This will provide the necessary tools for investigating all the challenges related to flexible-mode production and predict shortand long –term impacts,” said Rutqvist. "The advantages to California are many, including greater grid reliability, increased safety, and lower greenhouse gas emissions.” 227 In both projects, the Berkeley Lab researchers will be working with Calpine Corporation, which has the largest commercial operation at the Geysers. Calpine will contribute data as well as access to their sites and models. The projects build on a wide variety of prior research at Berkeley Lab funded by the DOE’s Geothermal Technologies Office. A Geothermal Power Plant A geothermal power plant is used to generate electricity using the heat that occurs naturally below the surface of the Earth. There are three ways that a geothermal power plant can be used to transform heat from the earth into energy, and all of them involve the use of steam powered turbines. At this site, steam was already erupting through the earth’s crust, which made it easy to harness and transform this energy into electricity. Prior to this, energy from geothermal reservoirs was used as a heat source, though it was not stored for later use. The most common type of geothermal power plant is one that pumps hot water up from the geothermal reservoir and then transforms it into steam that is used to move a turbine. This type of plant is called a flash steam plant. Once the steam cools and turns back into liquid water, it is usually put back into the system to be heated by the earth again. In most cases, it is necessary to drill to between 1 and 2 miles below the surface in order to reach a supply of water that is under enough pressure to make this type of plant run. Another common type of geothermal power plant uses steam that is captured to move a turbine as it escapes the earth’s crust. These plants, which are called dry steam plants, do not require drilling because steam, often in the form of geysers, erupts naturally. Binary cycle power plants may also be used as geothermal power plants. In these plants, hot water from below the surface of the earth is used to transform another liquid into steam. 228 Word geothermal has its roots in two Greek words, geo (earth) and therme (heat) and means Earth’s heat and in accordance to that, Earth’s thermal energy is called geothermal energy. Inner Earth’s heat is the result of forming planets from dust and gases that happened more than 4 billion years ago, and since radioactive decompose of elements in rocks continuously regenerates this heat, geothermal energy is renewable energy resource. Basic medium that is transferring heat from inner to surface is water or steam, and this component is renewing itself on a way in which water from rains is bursting deep on fissures heating itself and circulates back to surface where it appears in shapes of geysers and hot springs. Earth’s crust is from five to 50 kilometers deep and is composed of rocks. Substances from inner core are constantly getting on surface through volcanic vents and through leaks on ocean’s bottom. Under crust is a mantle that is reaching to a deep of 2900 kilometers and is made of stuff rich with iron and magnesium. Underneath it all are two layers of core-liquid layer and solid layer, located precisely in planet’s core. Radius of the Earth is about 6378 kilometers and nobody knows exactly how Earth’s inner looks like, all that was said before are nothing but scientific presumptions of how the inner of the planet looks. These presumptions are based on experiments taken in conditions of high pressure and huge temperatures. By dropping deeper through the crust, temperature rises approximately about 17 °C to 30 °C by every kilometer deeper (50 – 87 °F every one mile deeper). Under the crust, there is mantle that is composed of partly melted rocks and temperature of this layer is between 650 and 1250 °C (1200 – 2280 °F). In Earth’s core, temperatures could be according to some estimations between 4000 and 7000 °C (7200 – 12600 °F). Since heat is always transferring from hotter to colder parts, heat from inner Earth gets transferred to surface and this heat transfer is the major mover of tectonic plates. On places where tectonic plates are connected, leaking of magma to upper layers is possible and this magma then gets cooled creating in process new layer of the Earth’s crust. When magma gets to surface it can create volcanoes, but in most cases stays beyond surface making huge reservoirs and here it’s cooled in the process that lasts from 5000 to one million years. Areas underneath which 229 these magma pools can be found have high temperature gradient, which means that temperature rises very fast as the depth increases and these areas are therefore highly favorable for exploit of the geothermal energy. Geothermal energy has huge potential because its quantity is 50000 times bigger from all energy that can be gained from oil and coal across the world. Geothermal resources are located from shallow surface all the way to couple of kilometers deep reservoirs of hot water and steam which could be brought to surface and there exploited. In nature, geothermal energy is mostly in the form of volcanoes, hot water springs or wells and geysers. In some countries, geothermal energy is being used for millenniums in form of baths and recreational-sanative bathing. However, progress in science did not stop only in exploring healing effects of geothermal energy and has pushed use of geothermal energy in many different ways of which two take special place, namely its use in producing the electricity and its use in heating the households and industrial installments. Uses of geothermal energy for central heating of the buildings and for generating electricity are the main ways of its exploration, but not the only ones. Geothermal energy can be also used in many other ways and it’s used for pasteurizing milk, paper manufacturing, in swimming pools, drying timber and wool, animal husbandry etc. Electricity is generated from a conventional geothermal system by using deep wells that intersect a geothermal reservoir (i.e. the rock containing a fluid above 180 degrees centigrade in most cases). The reservoir fluid, which is made of water, gases and dissolved minerals is found at high pressure and temperature conditions. The fluid ascends to the surface through the well very quickly, without losing much of its initial pressure and temperature. Once at the surface, water and steam are separate due to the high drop of pressure. Then the steam is directed to a power plant where a turbine converts pressure and thermal energy into electricity. The separated water, depending on its new temperature, is used in a binary cycle to extract as much heat as possible before being injected back into the reservoir. 230 New technologies are currently being developed in order to take advantage of anomalous geothermal gradients in the crust, not related to magmatic activity. These are known as Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS). These systems are different to the conventional geothermal system, an EGS does not require a geothermal fluid to transport the heat to the surface. Instead, a reservoir is engineered by fracturing the rock at depth which is at high temperature. Then, water is injected into the new reservoir allowing the water to capture part of the heat contained by the rock. Using a secondary well, the heated water is recovered at the surface to produce electricity. Geothermal Energy in Russia. The economic and political changes that have taken place in Russia greatly influence the way the power industry is developing. Power and heat generation in Russia mainly is based on fossil fuel utilization and operation of nuclear and hydro power plants. Nowadays contribution of geothermal energy is comparatively modest, although the country possesses significant geothermal resources. Contemporary economic situation in Russia depends on development of its energy potential. Difficulties with fuel transportation make the problem of power supply significant, particularly in northern and eastern regions of the country. Under these circumstances, it is natural that the regions should strive to use their own energy resources and develop renewable sources of energy. In the Far Eastern regions, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and, particularly, in Kamchatka, utilization of the Earth’s thermal energy is coming to be a subject of great importance. There are 8 main regions promising for “direct” utilization (heat supply to residential and industrial buildings, heating of greenhouses and soils, in the cattle breeding industry, fish farming, in industrial manufacture, for chemical elements extraction, for increase of a reservoir recovery, for frozen rocks melting, in balneology etc.), as well as for heat generation with application of heat pumps and power production at binary cycle GeoPP (geothermal power plant). One of them – region 5 (Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands) is region of active volcanoes being most promising for “direct” utilization of geothermal heat and 231 construction of single and double flash GeoPP. So far 66 thermal water and steam-and-hydrothermal fields have been explored in Russia. Half of them is in operation providing approximately 1.5 mlnGkal of heat annually, which is equal to the annual replacement of almost 300 thousand tonnes of conventional fuel. Vartanjan, Komjagina (1999) Daghestan Republic at the Northern Caucasus is one of the biggest area for the development of geothermal energy. Total amount of resources at the depth of 0,5-5,5 km allows to obtain approximately 4 million m 3 /day of geothermal fluid. At present, more than 7,5 million m 3 /year of hot water 50-1100 C is used in Daghestan. Among them, 17% as hot water; 43% for district heating; 20% for greenhouses and 3% for balneology and mineral water production. Totally in Daghestan about 180 wells have been drilled at a depth from 200 to 5500 m. The regions of such towns as Kizlyar, Tarumovka and Jushnosukhokumsk, possess unique reserves of hot water. For instance, Tarumovskoye deposit has the reserves of geothermal water of high salinity (200 g/l) with temperature up to 195 0 C. Six wells have been drilled to depths of about 5500 m, the deepest geothermal wells in Russia. Tests indicate high reservoir permeability with wells producing between 7,500 and 11,000 m 3 /day at wellhead pressures of 140-150 bar. Magamedov K.M. et. al. (1999) Practically all territory of Kamchatka has geothermal heat available in the form of hot water, two-phase fluid and steam. In the south of Kamchatka near the PauzhetskayaGeoPP, exploration of the Koshelevskaya geothermal system has discovered resources sufficient for GeoPP, with a capacity of about 350 MW. North of MutnovskayaGeoPP there are resources available for the generation of 180-200 MW. The eastern part of Kamchatka is estimated rich of high temperature geothermal water resources, for a power capacity of about 250 MW. In the center and northern part of Kamchatka the estimated power capacity of the geothermal resources with temperatures above 1500C is 550 MW, and the estimated heat capacity of the geothermal resources with temperatures below 150 0C is up to 600 MW. Nowadays there are 5 geothermal power plants in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands under successful operation and 2 232 more under construction. Main high potential (steam and hydrothermal) systems of Kamchatka are: Mutnovsky, Pauzhetsky, Koshelevsky, Bolshebanny and Kireunskyfields. At present power and heat supply of Kuril Islands is mostly fulfilled from diesel electricity generators and heating boiler-houses operating on imported coal. At the same time, Kuril Islands are rich with geothermal resources. Their expected capacity reaches 300 MW. Geothermal power and heat plants of required capacity can be constructed in the vicinity of each large settlement, operating or planned facilities of Kuril Islands - on Kunashir, Iturup, Paramushir islands, etc. Several geothermal reservoirs were explored and several geothermal manifestations were detected at the mentioned islands. For example, at Kunashir Island, according to exploration works data, the expected reserves of the geothermal reservoir "Goryachy Plyazh - Mendeleyevskoye" are estimated at 52 MW. The expected reserves of the most northern island of Kuril ridge Paramushir, calculated by various methods, can support operation of a geothermal power plant with capacity of 15- 100 MW. A similar geothermal power complex is under construction at Iturup Island. It will permit supplying electricity for Kurilsk city. Construction of a geothermal power plant is implemented on site at the foot of Baransky volcano, 21 km away from Kurilsk city. Two power modules were installed on two sites, with total capacity of 3.6 MW. In 2006 I start-up complex with capacity of 1.8 MW was commissioned. Reserves of fluid for Okeansky reservoir, "Kipyashchy" area, ensure a geothermal power plant’s capacity of 5.0 MW. Geothermal heat supply of Kurilsk city is not planned, due to the terrain relief complexity. Tidal Giants – the World’s Five Biggest Tidal Power Plants Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station, South Korea – 254MW With an output capacity of 254MW, the Sihwa Lake tidal power station located on Lake Sihwa, approximately 4km from the city of Siheung in Gyeonggi Province of South Korea, is the world’s biggest tidal power plant. 233 The project, owned by Korea Water Resources Corporation, was opened in August 2011 and utilises a 12.5km long seawall constructed in 1994 for flood mitigation and agricultural purposes. Power is generated on tidal inflows into the 30km 2 basin with the help of ten 25.4MW submerged bulb turbines. Eight culvert type sluice gates are used for the water outflow from the barrage. The $355.1m tidal power project was built between 2003 and 2010. Daewoo Engineering & Construction was the engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contractor for the project. The annual generation capacity of the facility is 552.7GWh. La Rance Tidal Power Plant, France – 240MW The 240MW La Rance tidal power plant on the estuary of the Rance River in Brittany, France, has been operational since 1966 making it the world’s oldest and second biggest tidal power station. The renewable power plant, currently operated by Électricité de France (EDF), has an annual generation capacity of 540GWh. The La Rance tidal power facility, built between 1961 and 1966, involved the construction of a 145.1m long barrage with six fixed wheel gates and a 163.6m-long dyke. The basin area covered by the plant is 22km2. Power is produced through 24 reversible bulb turbines with a rated capacity of 10MW each. The plant site features an average tidal range of 8.2m, the highest in France. Electricity is fed into the 225kV national transmission network serving the needs of approximately 130,000 households every year. Swansea Bay Tidal Lagoon, United Kingdom – 240MW The 24MW Swansea Bay Tidal Lagoon Project, to be built at Swansea Bay in the UK, is the world’s biggest tidal power project and will become the world’s third biggest tidal power project upon completion. The planning application for the £850m ($1.4bn) project was approved in March 2013. The plant will be located at a site with average tidal range of 8.5m and will involve the construction of a 9.5km-long sea wall or breakwater facility to create a lagoon cordoning off 11.5km2 of sea. 234 The plant will use reversible bulb turbines to generate power as water passes in and out of the lagoon with the rise and fall of tides. The ground breaking for the tidal power project is scheduled for 2015 while full commissioning is expected in 2018. The tidal lagoon, with an estimated annual power generation capacity 400GWh, will power over 120,000 homes for 120 years. MeyGen Tidal Energy Project, Scotland – 86MW MeyGen Tidal Energy Project located in the Inner Sound of the Pentland Firth off the north coast of Caithness, Scotland, is currently the world’s biggest underwater tidal turbine power project under development. The tidal array project received offshore planning consent for its 86MW first phase development from the Scottish Government towards the end of 2013. The second phase development of the project is expected to raise the total installed capacity to 398MW by 2020. The MyGen project was initiated in 2006 by the Scottish company MeyGen, a joint venture between the tidal technology company Atlantis Resources and Morgan Stanley. Atlantis Resources acquired full ownership of the tidal array project in December 2013. Construction is expected to start for a demonstration array involving up to six AR1000 single-rotor tidal turbines in 2014 with final commissioning expected in 2015. The first 1MW prototype of the 22.5m tall AR1000 tidal turbine with 18m rotor diameter was deployed at the European Marine Energy Centre in 2011. Annapolis Royal Generating Station, Canada – 20MW The Annapolis tidal power generating station located in the Annapolis Basin, a sub-basin of the Bay of Fundy in Canada, has an installed capacity of 20MW making it the world’s third biggest operating tidal power plant. It generates 50GWh of electricity annually to power over 4,000 homes. The plant, operated by Nova Scotia Power, came online in 1984 after four years of construction. The plant utilises a causeway built in the early 1960s, which was originally designed to serve as a 235 transportation link as well as a water control structure to prevent flooding. The power plant comprises of a single four blade turbine and sluice gates. The gates are closed as the incoming tides create a head pond in the lower reaches of the Annapolis River upstream of the causeway. The gates are opened and the water rushing into the sea drives the turbine to generate power when a head of 1.6m or more is created between the head pond and sea side with the falling of the tide. Ocean Energy Firms Set to Test New Devices in Ireland Six marine energy companies are set to deploy their technologies at an Irish test site after receiving funding from an EU programme. The €11m ($14m) FORESEA programme this week approved the funding, which will allow the firms to deploy demonstration projects at the SmartBay Marine and Renewable Energy Test Site 1.5 km off Spiddal in County Galway. The programme helps to bring offshore renewable energy technologies to market by providing free access to a network of European test centres including the European Marine Energy Centre 236 (EMEC) in the UK, SEM-REV in France, SmartBay in Ireland and Stichting Tidal Testing Centre in The Netherlands. At the SmartBay site, which was granted a 35year license in December, companies are able to trial and validate prototype equipment and marine sensors in water depths of up to 25 metres. The site is designed to allow smaller scale devices, or those at an earlier stage in their development, to test in less challenging conditions than those experienced at full-scale Atlantic Ocean test sits. Among this week’s winning companies are Ireland’s Sea Power and US-based Calwave, which make wave energy converter platforms; Ireland’s Bluwind Power, which focuses on wind energy; Welsh firm Marine Power Systems, which launched a quarter-scale prototype of its wave energy device last year; and Australia’s Blue Ocean Monitoring, which makes autonomous underwater vehicles. John Breslin, SmartBay Ireland’s general manager, said the funding “marks the beginning of a new phase for the development of sustainable low carbon technologies in Ireland, with a significant increase in the planned testing of a range of promising devices in the SmartBay Test Site”. Gareth Stockman, CEO of Marine Power Systems, added: "With an estimated 100 GW of ocean energy capacity deployable in Europe 237 alone, the potential economic and environmental benefits to be gained from our oceans are significant.” Bid to Bring Tidal Energy to Japan UK engineering and advisory group Xodus has signed a memorandum of understanding with Scottish wave power company Atlas Resources pursue the development of a tidal energy project in Japan. The target of the agreement is to secure funding and establish a commercially viable tidal energy demonstration project of three to eight turbines in the country. The companies visited Japan earlier this year to meet with government departments, supply chain and utility companies to promote the collaboration and lobby for the promotion of tidal energy as a credible energy source in Japan. Atlantis is a global developer of renewable energy projects with more than 1000 MW in various stages of development, including the world's flagship tidal stream project, MeyGen, in Scotland, in which Xodus was also involved. Peter Tipler, principal consultant at Xodus Group, said:”Over the last few years, we have built strong connections in Japan and we look forward to progressing this opportunity with Atlantis. “We have a long and trusted relationship with Atlantis from the early days of their turbine testing at the European Marine Energy Centre and through the MeyGen project and can rely on the experience of their team to understand the opportunities and challenges of developing a tidal project in Japan. Together, we need to prove a tidal energy as a competitive renewable energy source for the country”. Tim Cornelius of Atlantis Resources added:”We are looking forward to working alongside Xodus pursuing development opportunities in this exciting market. This is a continuation of our long-established relationship over many years at the MeyGen project that has seen the tidal stream sector move from demonstration to operations of commercial scale arrays. 238 “We look forward to replicating this success and have already commenced pursuing several project opportunities in Japan together”. Tidal Energy Facts Tidal Energy is the oldest form of renewable energy, which was used in the water mills by the Romans when they occupied England. It was later used for the same purpose, give power to the mills, along the shores of Spain, France and Britain. Tidal energy is clean renewable green energy and does not use any fossil fuels, thus has zero CO2emissions and zero impact to the environment. Tidal movement occurs twice a day by the gravitational effect of the moon. Tidal power is used mostly for the production of Electricity. Tidal Energy can be captured by either exploiting the kinetic energy or the potential energy of the tides. It all depends on the technology and the location used. Potential Energy exploitation in the case of Tidal Energy has 80% efficiency which is considered to be high compared to other forms of renewable green energy sources. The technology required and used to convert the power of tides into electricity is similar, and in some cases the same, as the technology used in dams and other hydroelectric installations. Not all seashores are suitable for tidal power exploitation. For a place to be suitable for a Tidal Energy installation it should have tidal range of more than 7 meters. Tidal power can be captured for a maximum of a 10 hours cycle per day. The tidal barrage technology has the disadvantage of affecting the surrounding eco-system and wildlife in the area of the barrage. The cost of building a Tidal powered electricity station is high and varies from 1.3million USD per MW to 1.8million USD per MW 239 depending on the location and technology used. This high cost is one of the prohibitive factors of the expansion of tidal power. Tidal power installations can provide additional or side benefits to the area of their installation. Such side benefits can be bridges and roads that can be built over the tidal power installations. This was the case in the La Rance installation where a road was built running over the tidal power plant. Tidal Power Plants The largest tidal power plant that was built for commercial use is located in Northern France on the estuary of La Rance. The first Tidal project in Canada was built in Annapolis Nova Scotia where the highest tides in the world are harnessed to produce electricity. With a capacity of 20 MW the plant can provide electricity to about 4500 homes. The first tidal project in the USA, which is connected to the grid is the Cobscook Bay, is the Tidal project in Maine. Two other commercial Tidal Power plants are located in the White Sea in Russia and in Jiangxia, China. The tides in North West Australia reach a height of 30 feet and this makes the region a potential region of Tidal power plants. Scotland is an area where a lot of research and development is done in the two ocean energy subcategories: Wave and Tidal Energy. Scotland invests a lot in these energy sources and the technologies related to them. Scotland has currently two large tidal turbines in operation. The world’s largest tidal turbine is installed in Scotland. The world’s largest tidal energy project will be built in Scotland between two islands. The island of Jura and the island of Islay. The 240 project will have 10 tidal turbines and will be capable of producing 1MW of electricity. The SeaGen, tidal energy plant in Ireland, is the first commercial tidal project which has reached the 5 GWh electricity generation mark. A new and incredible by many standards Tidal Energy plant is expected to be completed in 2012 off the coast of France in Brittany. Tidal Power Tidal power is an ocean based technology with the high potential of providing us with clean and free energy for the future. Tidal power involves taking advantage of the kinetic energy stored in the movement of the incoming and outgoing tides, as well as the daily differences between the high tide and the low tide at a given location. One of the oldest ways used to harness tidal power for the generation of electricity involves building a dam across a suitable bay or estuary that has large differences in elevation between high and low tides. Today there are many tidal power projects around the world using tidal barrages and dams, oscillating hydrofoils, tidal turbines and tidal kites for small scale electricity generation within the shallow and deeper waters around different coastal areas. There are many different types and varieties of renewable energy systems, but tidal power, being an ocean based technology is one of the few sustainable sources that can be accurately predicted over many years as the ebb and flow of the tides rely on the gravitational movement of the sun and moon. As the movement of the tides around a coastline does not occur at the same time, but is staggered around the coast, full tidal power generation will be available at one tidal location when there is no tidal power available at another location around the coastline, thus allowing power generation from multiple locations over a period of time. 241 As a marine renewable technology, tidal power generating machines can be located underwater and beneath the waves in under utilised locations. This gives a big advantage over other marine based systems as the tidal turbines cannot be seen, unlike off-shore wind farms or wave energy devices. Tidal Power Devices There many different types of tidal power technologies and machine designs used around the world, but there are basically two methods of generating electricity from the movement of the tides: Tidal Range Devices: these take advantage of the potential energy stored between the high and low tide levels. Tidal Stream Devices: these utilise the kinetic energy of moving water in tidal currents to generate electricity. Tidal range devices make use of the vertical difference in the water level between a high tide and a low tide. They do this by trapping or impounding the sea water within a flooded basin behind a large tidal barrage before releasing it back to the sea via turbines. By opening and closing sluice gates, sea water is allowed to enter into the basin 242 or estuary before being trapped on one side creating a static head of water across it due to the cyclic movement of the tides. When the head of sea water is suitably large enough, the sluice gates are reopened and the impounded water is allowed to flow back to the sea using the force of gravity across horizontal axis turbine blades for electricity generation. By shaping the design of the turbine enclosure, the sea water can be concentrated and accelerated much faster over the turbines blades increasing the efficiency of generation. Tidal range devices can be used in various electrical generation tidal schemes such as: flood generation, ebb generation and two-way electrical energy generation with the type of scheme depending upon the strength of the tide and water requirements. Tidal stream devices are generally designed for deep water operation were it is too deep to mount tidal turbines directly to the seabed. Tidal stream technologies use large turbines to extract the energy from the moving tides and are similar in operation to wind turbines. Like their wind turbine cousins, tidal turbines use axial shaped turbine blades that operate according to the principles of aerodynamic lift. As the dense seawater flows over the turbine blades, it produces a rotational force turning the blades and producing electricity. 243 Although tidal currents tend to be much slower in terms of velocity compared to the wind, the greater density of the seawater compensates for this allowing tidal stream devices to generate similar levels of electrical energy to that of conventional threebladed wind turbines. Also unlike wind power, there are no sudden or extreme changes in speed of the tidal currents underwater which could potentially damage the tidal stream devices and any storms or severe weather conditions above the surface can not damage the tidal stream devices or force them to shut down. Although tidal stream turbines do not have significant impacts on water levels, unlike tidal range devices with their dams and tidal barrages, they can impact on the surrounding water quality by reducing both the upstream and downstream tidal current velocities due to the extraction of energy allowing for sediment concentrations to build up. This could affect both the erosion and deposition of the sea bed a considerable distance away from the location of the tidal power array. Also large rotating marine energy devices such as tidal turbines can have many other unseen impacts on the surrounding environment such as underwater noise pollution, the generation of electromagnetic fields around the generators and electrical cables as well as the striking of fish and marine animals by the turbines rotor blades or other moving parts Oscillating hydrofoil devices extract energy from the tidal current in a similar manner to a rotating tidal turbine but oscillate in an up and down motion. An oscillating hydrofoil developed by the University of Strathclyde, consists of a large hydrofoil wing attached to a long lever arm that is allowed to move up and down. 244 Due to its wing like shape, as the tidal current flows over the hydrofoil wing it generates a vertical lift which causes the attached lever to move upwards. At the peak of the movement, the hydrofoil’s angle of attack relative to the approaching tidal currents changes, so that now the lift is being generated on the underside of the hydrofoil wing. This reverses the direction of motion forcing the wing downwards until moving water over the wing causes it to reverse direction, and the up-down movement continues once again. Thus the total swept area for an oscillating hydrofoil wing will be its vertical up-down distance by its wingspan. The resulting up-down oscillations of the hydrofoil wing is used to drive a high pressure hydraulic pump which in turn drives and electrical generator. The advantage of the oscillating hydrofoil wing is that the single blade can be of a much simpler design than those of a rotating axial turbine, because the speed of the flow of the seawater, and therefore the blades angle of attack, is the same along its entire length and not twisted like the axial turbine blade. Tidal kite devices as its name suggests, works in the same way as a conventional kite, but underwater. A tidal kite consists of a hydrofoil wing tethered to the seabed and which is allowed to “fly” or glide along in the oceans tidal currents. The flow of these tidal currents over the hydrofoil shaped wing creates a lifting force that pushes the 245 kite forwards through the moving water in much the same way as a conventional kite moves through the air. Through a combination of tension in the kites tether and the use of a suitable rudder to aligning itself to the current controlling its direction. The tidal kite can be made to fly through the water along a given trajectory. The mechanical energy of a small turbine attached to the kite is used to drive a generator to produce electrical energy as the kite flies through the seawater. The obvious disadvantage here is what happens when the tidal currents stop flowing on the turn of the tides, does the tidal power kite fall to the seabed. The simple answer is no, as the hydrofoil wing has neutral or slight positive buoyancy meaning it wants to float and fly even if there are no tidal currents. Other such flying tidal power devices include those that resemble underwater aeroplanes with two counter rotating turbines connected to electrical generators, positioned symmetrically either side of fuselage shaped body. The advantage of these types of tidal power technologies is that compared to large undersea turbines, they are relatively cheap to produce, easy to maintain and service, have a relatively low environmental impact, and can be installable almost anywhere, sea or river. 246 World Sets Record for Fossil Fuel Consumption A BP logo sits on a totem sign outside a gas station in London on Feb 2. BP released its annual Statistical Review of World Energy on Wednesday. (Simon Dawson/Bloomberg) Each year in June two very important reports are released that provide a comprehensive view of the global energy markets. The highlight of the recently released Renewables 2016 Global Status Report was that the world's renewable energy production has never been higher. But the biggest takeaway from this year's BP Statistical Review, released Wednesday, may be that the world's fossil fuel consumption has also never been higher. While global coal consumption did decline by 1% in 2015, the world set new consumption records for petroleum and natural gas. The net impact was a total increase in the world's fossil fuel consumption of about 0.6%. That may not seem like much, but the net increase in fossil fuel consumption -- the equivalent of 127 million metric tons of petroleum -- was 2.6 times the overall increase in the consumption of renewables (48 million metric tons of oil equivalent). As a result, despite the record increase in renewable consumption, global carbon dioxide emissions once again set a new all-time record high. Carbon dioxide emissions in 2015 were 36 million metric tons higher than in 2014, and marked the 6th straight year a new record high has been set. But perhaps the silver lining is that 2015 marked the 2nd straight year that the increase was smaller than the year before. Carbon dioxide emissions in 2013 were 505 million tons higher than in 2012, but then 2014 and 2015 respectively saw increases of 224 million metric tons and 36 million metric tons. The primary reason for the slowdown in the growth of carbon dioxide emissions was the reduction in global coal consumption, but this was offset by a nearly 2 million barrel per day (bpd) increase in global oil consumption. Notably, oil consumption in the U.S. rose for the 3rd straight year, and is now at the highest levels since 2008. U.S. crude oil consumption is now back to within 6% of the all-time high consumption level set in 2005. 247 Global crude oil production increased by 2.8 million bpd in 2015, led by a 1 million bpd increase in U.S. production. The bulk of the rest of the world's oil production increase came from OPEC, which cumulatively boosted production by 1.6 million bpd over 2015. BP's definition of crude oil "includes crude oil, shale oil, oil sands and NGLs (natural gas liquids - the liquid content of natural gas where this is recovered separately)." Per this definition, the U.S. was the world's top crude oil producer with 12.7 million bpd of oil production in 2015 (the highest production number ever recorded for the U.S.). Saudi Arabia was in 2nd place at 12.0 million bpd. Coal Gasification Engineers Coal gasification engineers use engineering techniques and analysis to design coal gasification systems for chemical processes and power generation. They work closely with various engineers to help monitor and maintain coal gasification plants. They may work closely with vendors; travel to meet with suppliers and clients; and inspect and work on systems at construction sites. Coal gasification engineers may work as gasification plant production engineers. In such capacity, their responsibilities may include working closely with operations and maintenance staff to track the performance of the gasification equipment. They may also work with the gas cleanup and system equipment vendors, and with performance engineers to maintain the cleanup system equipment and processes. They are familiar with silos, conveyors, metering, grinding, and drying equipment. Plant production engineers recommend equipment performance upgrades and modifications, evaluate spare parts inventories for the plant, develop and conduct tests to improve plant production capacity, and discuss and help resolve maintenance, operations, and technical issues. Most companies prefer to hire plant production engineers who have a master’s degree in chemical engineering. Some companies are setting up pilot projects and plants to produce cleanly, substitute natural gas from coal and renewable energy, recycle greenhouse gas releases, and create a new source of domestic transportation fuel. For example, Parsons, a California248 based engineering and construction service company, plans to construct a 60-acre pilot plant in Holbrook, Arizona, for these environmentally concerned purposes. The aim of this research and development project is to “develop, test, and evaluate at an engineering scale, a fully integrated algae farm producing biofuels from recycled carbon dioxide emissions, a two-ton per day Hydrogasifier which produces SNG [synthetic natural gas], hydrogen from electrolysis, and fuel derived from algal lipids. The algae will be grown in saline water on non-arable land.” The company was seeking process engineers with basic engineering knowledge, including mechanical engineering, to work on this project. A process engineer is involved in the design of coal gasification systems, and may also be involved in designing other systems such as electrolysis, algae farm, and lipid recovery, as is the case in Parsons’ job requirements. A bachelor’s degree in engineering is usually the minimum educational requirement for this job. Several years of work experience in goal gasification is preferred, and proficiency in computer-aided design (CAD) software and other engineering software programs is essential. Engineers may also be required to interact with sales and commercial operations teams, make presentations to prospective clients, and field questions regarding technical aspects of the equipment and processes. Project managers and directors are responsible for hiring and overseeing staff, creating and managing work schedules, tracking work progress and creating reports, and liaising with various engineering teams as well as construction and mining crews and others. Those who own engineering consulting firms also handle the day-to-day tasks of running a business, including purchasing and maintaining office equipment and supplies; managing staff and this job. Several years of work experience in goal gasification is preferred, and proficiency in computer-aided design (CAD) software and other engineering software programs is essential. Engineers may also be required to interact with sales and commercial operations teams, make presentations to prospective clients, and field questions regarding technical aspects of the equipment and processes. Project managers and directors are 249 responsible for hiring and overseeing staff, creating and managing work schedules, tracking work progress and creating reports, and liaising with various engineering teams as well as construction and mining crews and others. Those who own engineering consulting firms also handle the day-to-day tasks of running a business, including purchasing and maintaining office equipment and supplies; managing staff and performing staff reviews; marketing and promoting the business; negotiating contracts; and accounting and bookkeeping Nuclear Power Plant Many people associate term “nuclear” only with threats and dangers, but this is really absolutely not like that. There are many nuclear power plants around the world, and each of them generates a huge amount of cheap electricity. Of course, nuclear power has its disadvantages, but there are much more advantages. In order to form an opinion about need of nuclear power to the world, it is necessary to begin with understanding how nuclear power plants work. Nuclear power plant is nuclear facility consisting of a nuclear reactor and a number of necessary systems, the purpose of which is to produce electricity. However, how does plant generate energy itself? Let’s start with the basics of the whole idea and talk about nuclear fuel. Surely you found in cartoons glowing green rods often. The real nuclear fuel, uranium and plutonium, of course, do not shine. At least visually. Now let’s find what happens to the uranium after it is loaded into the reactor. To understand the principle of a nuclear power plant work it is necessary to remember school lessons about the structure of any atom. The core of every atom consists of neutrons and protons. Powerful energy holds bond between these particles. The main purpose of a nuclear reactor is to break this bond, thereby freeing an incredibly powerful energy. There are several areas of nuclear energy, different types of reactors, nuclear plants and forms of nuclear fuel. The main thing is that as a result of decay reactions thermal energy is released. The reactor consists of a fuel assembly, which in turn consists of a plurality of tubes. Uranium nuclear begin to decay, causing a chain reactions that releases heat. With the help of heat spreading system, this heat 250 is transferred to the primary contour – ordinary water. The water that reached a temperature of 322 ° C is supplied to the steam generator and from there through a complex system of heat transfer, heat transferred to the secondary contour – another circle of water. It is sufficiently cooled down and then returned to the reactor and the process goes to the new range. Due to the pressure difference in the contours second level water is converted to steam with temperature of 274 ° C. The steam generator supplies steam to the turbine, where, by several special cylinders, steam turn the turbine and rotates the generator. And that, in turn, is already creating a final product – electricity. The steam condenses and returns to the initial position. Thus, apart from nuclear fuel plant requires a large amount of water for the operation of the turbine, and cooling the reactor. Thus, the nuclear plant works on a controlled process of decay, which is covered by the constant chain reaction. Nuclear fuel produces a huge amount of energy and it is spending in extremely small quantities. To understand how much more economical is to work on nuclear fuel just compare – 1 gram of uranium due to the decay provides the same amount of energy as 2 tons of fuel equivalent. The unbelievable power of the reactor, of course, requires vigilant monitoring and security. Station management is concentrated in the unit control. A lot of different sensors and counters are under constant inspection by a group of professional engineers. Thus, they monitor the state of the process of decay and the subsequent movement of energy. The territory of the nuclear power plant and adjacent land are divided into sections by type of security. The reactor itself is provided with reflectors and different layers of protective covers to minimize the negative impact on the environment. As mentioned above, nuclear power has many advantages. However, the terrible consequences that are possible in case of an accident played a bad role for nuclear power plant reputation. Chernobyl and “Fukushima” nuclear plant s accident have led to the fact that many nuclear power countries frozen the construction of stations, while others close new projects at all. However, we must remember that absolutely any invention may not be safe for non-compliance with safety regulations. Should we stop using vehicles if there is a risk of an accident? In addition, a lot of plants are already operating in the world for many years and they 251 provide a large number of low-cost production of electricity, also they are environmentally friendly and reduce fuel waste state. So what are nuclear power plants – the most dangerous or most efficient method of generating electricity? Modern nuclear plant is equipped with a mass of safety devices, which record any emerging problems. Plus, the work on the station is allowed only for highly qualified personnel. The mistakes that led to disaster in the “Fukushima”, or the Chernobyl nuclear power plant are already considered. Also it is important to count that the damage from other types of plants are also fairly big. And it is not only the danger of man-made disasters (like floods in the accident at the hydro-power plant), but also constant atmospheric emissions, as well as the need for a large amount of fuel that is produced in not the most ecological methods. Nuclear Power Reactors (Updated January 2018) Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactors which were developed in the 1950s and improved since. New designs are coming forward and some are in operation as the first generation reactors come to the end of their operating lifetimes. Over 11% of the world's electricity is produced from nuclear energy, more than from all sources worldwide in 1960. A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of certain elements. In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is used as heat to make steam to generate electricity. (In a research reactor the main purpose is to utilize the actual neutrons produced in the core. In most naval reactors, steam drives a turbine directly for propulsion.) The principles for using nuclear power to produce electricity are the same for most types of reactor. The energy released from continuous fission of the atoms of the fuel is harnessed as heat in either a gas or water, and is used to produce steam. The steam is 252 used to drive the turbines, which produce electricity (as in most fossil fuel plants). The world's first nuclear reactors operated naturally in a uranium deposit about two billion years ago. These were in rich uranium orebodies and moderated by percolating rainwater. The 17 known at Oklo in West Africa, each less than 100 kW thermal, together consumed about six tons of that uranium. It is assumed that these were not unique worldwide. Today, reactors derived from designs originally developed for propelling submarines and large naval ships generate about 85% of the world's nuclear electricity. The main design is the pressurized water reactor (PWR) which has water at over 300°C under pressure in its primary cooling/heat transfer circuit, and generates steam in a secondary circuit. The less numerous boiling water reactor (BWR) makes steam in the primary circuit above the reactor core, at similar temperatures and pressure. Both types use water as both coolant and moderator, to slow neutrons. Since water normally boils at 100°C, they have robust steel pressure vessels or tubes to enable the higher operating temperature. (Another type uses heavy water, with deuterium atoms, as moderator. Hence, the term ‘light water’ is used to differentiate.) Components of a nuclear reactor. There are several components common to most types of reactors: Fuel. Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core. In a 1000 MWe class PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets. Moderator. Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite. Control rods. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it. In some PWR reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain 253 a low level of power efficiently. (Secondary control systems involve other neutron absorbers, usually boron in the coolant – its concentration can be adjusted over time as the fuel burns up.) PWR control rods are inserted from the top, BWR cruciform blades from the bottom of the core. Coolant. A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is secondary coolant circuit where the water becomes steam. (See also later section on primary coolant characteristics.) A PWR has two to four primary coolant loops with pumps, driven either by steam or electricity – China’s HualongOne design has three, each driven by a 6.6 MW electric motor, with each pump set weighing 110 tonnes. Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator. Steam generator. Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where the high-pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam for the turbine, in a secondary circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger like a motorcar radiator. Reactors have up to six 'loops', each with a steam generator. Since 1980 over 110 PWR reactors have had their steam generators replaced after 20-30 years’ service, 57 of these in USA. Containment. The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. It is typically a metre-thick concrete and steel structure. Newer Russian and some other reactors install core melt localization devices or 'core catchers' under the pressure vessel to catch any melted core material in the event of a major accident. Nuclear Energy 254 Since the discovery of nuclear technology, its applications have been and continue to be numerous. Among them, the best known is the production of electricity. However, there are many other applications in other fields. Many of these applications are unknown to the public: industry, hydrology, agriculture and food, medicine, art, science, space exploration and cosmology. The diverse applications of nuclear energy are fundamental to everyday life. Moreover, in the future they will be even more important thanks to the investigations that increase the possibilities of their application and justify their use. Space exploration One of the main applications of nuclear technology is space navigation, using nuclear batteries. This means the isotopic electric generators are instruments that contain a hermetically encapsulated radionucleid, whose radiation are absorbed into the capsule’s walls. This is the equivalent to a heat source, since the capsule transforms energy from radiations. This source is fixed to an electric circuit to generate an electric current that feeds the instruments. The source will be long-lasting if the radioisotope’s semi-disintegration period is long. Unmanned flights to planets outside the Earth’s solar system have been carried out in missions provided with robotic feeding on the electricity produced by the radio isotope Plutonium-238, with a semi-disintegration period of 87.74 years and not fissionable like other isotopes of Plutonium, for which reason it can only be obtained from the uranium irradiated fuel. The European Space Agency is considering the substitution of Plutonium-238 with another electricity-generating isotope, to cater to the needs of electric and electronic equipment used for measuring and transmission of data to Earth. One of the isotopes being considered is Americium-241, commonly used in fire detectors, and an alpha emitter whose disintegration heat is similar to that of Plutonium-238, but which has a disintegration period of 432.2 years. This makes it possible to use it for longer missions, although a larger quantity will be required in order to achieve the same amount of energy. 255 What countries have the highest installed capacity of solar PV power? Country Installed PV 1 Germany 32,411 2 Italy 16,361 3 China 8,300 4 USA 7,777 5 Japan 6,914 6 Spain 5,166 7 France 4,003 8 Belgium 2,650 9 Australia 2,650 10 Czech Republic 2,072 Where are the solar energy resources located? Many of the countries in the world that have the highest capacities of installed solar power do not necessarily have high levels of insulation. Incentives (government and state subsidies) play a major role in making solar power affordable. Germany is number one in the world. Germany has by far the highest capacity of solar photovoltaic power (PV) in the world at 32,4 GW (31%) at the end of 2012. Newly connected PV systems worth 7.6 GW were added this year. Germany’s solar panels generated about 23 TWh (terawatt hours) of electricity in 2012, which is impressive, but still only covers 3% of the country’s total electricity consumption. Market analysts believe this 256 number will increase to 25% before 2050. Germany aims for a total capacity of 66 GW by 2030 with an annual growth of 2.5-3.5 GW. Germany is not a country with incredible amounts of solar energy – what they do have is an excellent subsidizing framework, which ensures that solar power can compete on the market. With a welldeveloped feed-in tariff scheme, small and large-scale solar PV systems can send excess electricity production to the utility grid for profit. The rest of Europe is catching up. Other countries in Europe have also started to implement similar incentives, and show impressive numbers in terms of new growth: Italy added more than 3.4 GW of solar PV capacity in 2012. France, UK, Greece and Bulgaria were not far behind. Spain has become the world leader in solar thermal power (CSP) with a capacity of 1 GW in 2012. This represents 65 percent of the total installed CSP capacity in the world. Solar leasing spurs growth in the U.S. The U.S. places number four on the list with a total solar PV capacity of 7,8 GW, right behind China at 8,3 GW. The California Solar Initiative is at the forefront of the development. California, as of June 2013, has close to 1,6 GW of solar power. New Jersey, Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico are not far behind. Brazil Promotes First Wave Power Generator The first Brazilian generation of power from ocean waves was obtained in a prototype of the Research and Technological Development Program of the Brazilian Electricity Regulatory Agency (ANEEL). The generation lasted 10 minutes on June 24th, and powered the auxiliary systems of the plant – lightning and air conditioning. Operations and trials continue in order to generate power for a longer time. 257 Located at Porto do Pecém, in São Gonçalo do Amarante (Ceará), the plant is part of the R&D project called “Deployment of Onshore Waves Converter Prototype on Sea Conditions of the Northeast of Brazil”, initiated in March 5th, 2009. The project had TractebelEnergia S.A as proponent company and University of Rio de Janeiro’s Foundation of Project Coordination, Research and Technological Studies (COPPE, in Portuguese) as executor institution. The project will last 36 months at a total cost of R$ 14.4 million. The project had TractebelEnergia S.A as proponent company and University of Rio de Janeiro’s Foundation of Project Coordination, Research and Technological Studies (COPPE, in Portuguese) as executor institution. The project will last 36 months at a total cost of R$ 14.4 million. The prototype that converts waves into electric power is two modules consisted by floater, branch and pump that, once fixed on breakwater, contributes to a single set of turbine, generator and hyperbaric chamber to generate 50 KW of electric power. The proposed converter was developed in COPPE Submarine Technology Laboratory. 258 The advantage when compared to others available on the market is related to the easy production, with great potential of participating in the national industry. Other benefit is its easy coupling to the system of desalinization by reverse osmosis, which consists on a very efficient process of obtaining drinkable water from the sea. The still initial small generation of power represents a great progress, as the Brazilian coast presents good conditions for energy use, due to its proximity to the consumers composed by high population density cities. Also, the use of ocean resources presents promising perspectives such as extensive areas, great worldwide ocean distribution and mostly in areas of potential generation of power, the biggest among all renewable sources. The mandatory application of resources in R&D is foreseen by law and concession contracts, being the Agency responsible for the regulation and investments on the project, as well as following the projects’ execution and evaluates their results. America’s Premiere Wave Power Farm Sets Sail Wave energy is among the impressive list of renewable energy resources that is being developed in the United States. New Jerseybased developer, Ocean PowerTechnologies has launched a project that features the nation’s first commercial wave power farm off the coast of Reedsport, Oregon. Once the project is completed, wave energy will generate power for several hundred homes in Oregon. The wave power farm operates on the wave energy that is created when a float on a buoy flows with the natural up and down movement of the waves. This action subsequently causes an attached plunger to follow the same kind of ebb and flow movement. The plunger is attached to a hydraulic pump that changes the vertical movement to a circular motion, which drives an electric generator to produce electricity that is sent to shore through submerged cables. When the initial project is finished, the first $4 million dollar buoy will measure 150 feet tall by 40 feet wide, weighing 200 tons. Nine 259 more of these crafts will be set in motion by the year 2012 for a total cost of $60 million dollars. About four hundred homes will receive electricity from Oregon’s wave power farm by the completion of the project. The wave energy project has promising potential, but has encountered some degree of skepticism and is faced with several areas of concern. One factor is that wave power is still in the early stages of development and is rather costly, running about five or six times more than wind power. Secondly, many people question how the buoys can be stabilized in the water to gather the energy from wave power. Another concerning factor is that waves are so unpredictable, and the size of the waves could result in either equipment damage of lack of cost effectiveness. The wave power farm is a developing renewable energy source that could potentially compete with wind and solar energy, although it has had a bit of a shaky start. The first commercial wave power farm was developed in Portugal in 2008, but the project was suspended indefinitely last year for financial reasons. In addition, a wavepowered technology that was developed by a Canadian company sank off the Oregon coast two years ago. The Oregon wave power farm is being funded by several sources, including Oregon tax credits, Pacific Northwest Generating Cooperative and the U.S. Department of Energy. The wave power farm concept has a great deal of promise and there are other projects around the world that are being developed in Spain, Scotland, Western Australia and off the coast of Cornwall, England. In the United States, Oregon Power Technologies is developing a wave power technology program in Hawaii in conjunction with the U.S. Navy. 260 БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК 1. Christian Ngo, Joseph B. Natowitz. Our energy future: resources, alternatives, and the environment. A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication, 2009.-505 261 2. 3. 4. Macmillan encyclopedia of energy / John Zumerchik, editor in chief. Macmillian Reference USA, 2001.-1284 Pamela Fehl. Green careers: Energy. 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Максимова Технический редактор Т.П. Новиковаа Компьютерный набор и верстка Т.В. Захарченко, Л.С. Исмакова, 265 Е.Н. Каракозова, Т .Г. Скребнева Подписано в печать Формат 60x84 1/16 . Бумага офсетная. Печать офсетная. Усл. печ. л. 11 Уч.-изд. л. 11. Тираж 100 экз. Заказ … _____________________________________________________________________ __ Нижегородский государственный технический университет им. Р.Е. Алексеева. Типография НГТУ. Адрес университета и полиграфического предприятия: 603950, Нижний Новгород, ул. Минина, 24. 266
