HISTORY OF ENGLISH 1. Chronological division in the history of English. 1. pre-written or pre-historical – period, which may be termed Early Old English lasts from the 5th to the end of the 7th c. It is the stage of tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders (Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians). The tribal dialects were used for oral communication; there was no written form of English. The English of this period has been reconstructed from the written evidence of other Old Germanic languages, especially Gothic, and from later OE written records. It was the period of transition from PG to Written OE The period of sound changes The arrival of St. Augustine in 597 and the introduction of Christianity into Saxon England brought more Latin words into the English language. The most famous is a heroic epic poem called "Beowulf". It is the oldest known English poem and it is notable for its length - 3,183 lines. Experts say "Beowulf" was written in Britain more than one thousand years ago. The name of the person who wrote it is unknown. 2. Written OE extends from the 8th c. till the end of the 11th century. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional dialects OE was a typical Old Germanic language with a purely Germanic vocabulary, and few foreign borrowings; As far as grammar is concerned, OE was an inflected or "synthetic" language with a well-developed system of morphological categories, especially in the noun and adjective. The dialects were a medium of oral communication West Saxon dialect had the supremacy 3. Early Middle English starts after 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and covers the 12th, 13th and half of the 14th c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian and French. the official language in England was French, or rather its variety called Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman; it was also the dominant language of literature( a gap in English literacy tradition in 12 c.) Towards the end of the period their literary prestige grew, as English began to displace French in the sphere of writing, as well as in many other spheres. Early ME was a time of great changes at all the levels of the language, especially in lexis and grammar. English absorbed two layers of lexical borrowings: the Scandinavian element (NorthEast) and the French element (the South-East).Numerous phonetic and grammatical changes took place in this period. Grammatical alterations were so drastic that by the end of the period they had transformed English from a highly inflected language into a mainly analytical one. Therefore, H. Sweet called Middle English the period of “leveled endings”. 4. Late or Classical Middle English from the later 14th c. till the end of the 15th century – embraces the age of Chaucer, It was the time of the restoration of English to the position of the state and literary language and the time of literary flourishing. The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mixed dialect of London. The written forms developed and improved The growth of English vocabulary The phonetic and grammatical structure had undergone fundamental changes. Most of the inflections in the nominal system – in nouns, adjectives, pronouns – had fallen together. H. Sweet called Middle English the period of “levelled endings”. 5. Early New English lasted from the introduction of printing and embraced age of Shakespeare. This period started in 1475 and ended in 1660. The first printed book in English was published by William Caxton in 1475. This period is a sort of transition between two literary epochs - the age of Chaucer and the age of Shakespeare (also known as the Literary Renaissance) In this period the country became economically and politically unified; the changes in the political and social structure, the progress of culture, education, and literature led to linguistic unity. Thus, the national English language was developed. Early New English was a period of great changes at all levels, especially lexical and phonetic: The the growth of the vocabulary, the vowel system was greatly transformed,The loss of most inflectional endings in the 15th c. justifies the definition “period of lost endings” given by H. Sweet to the NE period 6. “the age of normalization and correctness”( neo-classical age) lasts from the mid-17th c. to the end of the 18th c The norms of literary language were fixed as rules( received standarts) Numerous dictionaries and grammar-books were published and spread through education and writing. The 18th c. is called the period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great vowel shift was over and pronunciation was stabilized Word usage and grammatical constructions were also stabilized. The formation of new verbal grammatical categories was completed. Syntactical structures were perfected and standardized. during this period the English language extended its area far beyond the borders of the British Isles, first of all to North Americ 7. Late New English or Modern English 19th and 20th c The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries. By the 19th c. English had acquired all the properties of a national language. The classical language of literature was strictly distinguished from the local dialects. The dialects were used only in oral communication. The “best” form of English, the Received Standard, was spread Some geographical varieties of English are now recognized as independent variants of the language. In the 19th and 20th c. the English vocabulary has grown due to the rapid progress of technology, science, trade and culture. an English speaker of the 21st century uses a form of language different from that used by the characters of Dickens or Thackeray one hundred and eighty years ago. It was the final stage of development, or as a cross-section representing Present-day English. There have been certain linguistic changes in phonetics and grammar: some pronunciations and forms have become old-fashioned, while other forms have been accepted as common usage. 2. Evolution of the nominal parts of speech from OE to NE. When speaking about the nominal parts of speech, that is noun, adjective, pronoun and numeral, we should say that the tendency of their development was simplification. It means that the paradigms of these parts of speech were simplified. They lost some of the categories and those which remained consist of fewer members. The Noun had the following categories in OE: Number – Singular and Plural Case – Nominative (Nom), Genitive (Gen), Dative (Dat), Accusative (Acc). Gender – Masculine (M), Feminine (F), Neuter (N): o In OE the nouns started to grouped into genders according to the suffix: -þu (F) – e.g. lenζþu (length); -ere (M) – e.g. fiscere (fisher). Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. OE was a synthetic language. In building grammatical forms OE employed grammatical endings, sound interchanges in the root, grammatical prefixes and suppletive forms. The parts of speech in OE were the following: the noun, the adjective, the pronoun, the numeral (nominal parts of speech), the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection. Grammatical categories are usually subdivided into nominal categories, found in nominal parts of speech, and verbal categories, found chiefly in the finite verb. There were 5 nominal categories in OE: number, case, gender, degrees of comparison and the category of definiteness/indefiniteness. The most remarkable feature of OE nouns was their system of declensions, the general number of which exceeded twenty-five. The system of noun declensions was a sort of morphological classification based on a number of distinctions: the stem-suffix, the gender of nouns, the phonetic structure of the word, phonetic changes in the final syllables. According to the traditional view, there were two main declensions – strong and weak – differing in the final sound of the stem. The strong declension, or vowel declension, included nouns with vocalic stems (ending in [-a-, -o-, -u-, -i-:]) and the weak, or consonant, declension included nouns with [-n-], [-r-] and [-s-] stems. In rare cases the new form was constructed by adding the ending directly to the root (root-stem declension). There were also minor types. There are only two grammatical categories in the declension of nouns against three in Old English: number and case, the category of gender having been lost at the beginning of the Middle English period. There are two number forms in Middle English: singular and plural. The number of cases in Middle English is reduced as compared to Old English. There are only two cases in Middle English: Common and Genitive, the Old English Nominative, Accusative and Dative case having fused into one case – the Common case at the beginning of Middle English. In Old English we could speak of many types of consonant and vowel declensions, the a-, -n, and root-stem being principal among them. In Middle English we observe only these three declensions: a-stem, n-stem, root-stem. In New English we do not find different declensions, as the overwhelming majority of nouns is declined in accordance with the original a-stem declension masculine, the endings of the plural form –es and the Possessive –s being traced to the endings of the original a-stem declension masculine Thus, in ME the distinction between the OE strong and weak declension was lost. Only two numerous groups of nouns existed in ME, distinguished mainly by their plural forms: 1) the former a-declension which had absorved the lesser types, 2) the n-declension, which consisted of former feminine nouns (the weak declension). All modern irregular noun forms can be subdivided into several groups according to their origin: 1. nouns going back to the original a-stem declension, neuter gender, which had no ending in the nominative and accusative plural even in Old English, such as: sheep – sheep (OE scēap – scēap) 2. some nouns of the n-stem declension preserving their plural form, such as: ox – oxen (OE oxa – oxan) c) the original s-stem declension word child – children (OE cild – cildru) d) remnants of the original root-stem declension, such as: foot – feet (OE fōt – fēt) 5.“foreign plurals” – words borrowed in early New English from Latin. These words borrowed were borrowed by learned people from scientific books who alone used them, trying to preserve their original form and not attempting to adapt them to their native language. Among such words are: Datum – data, automaton – automata, axis – axes, etc. The adjective in OE could change for number, gender and case. Like nouns, adjectives had three genders and two numbers. The category of case in adjectives differed from that of nouns: in addition to the four cases(Nom, Genet, Dative,Acc) of nouns they had one more case, Instr. Adjectives can be declined either strong/weak. The vowel declension comprised 4 principle paradigms: a-stem, o-stem, u-stem, i-stem The consonants decl-n comprised nouns with the stem originally ending in –n, -r, - s and some other consonants. Most OE adjectives distinguished between three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. The regular means used to form the comparative and the superlative from the positive were the suffixes –ra and –est/-ost. In the course of the ME period the adjective underwent greater simplifying changes than any other part of speech. It lost all its grammatical categories with the exception of the degrees of comparison. By the end of the OE period the agreement of the adjective with the noun had become looser and in the course of Early ME it was practically lost. The first category to disappear was gender, which ceased to be distinguished by the adjective in the 11 c. The number of cases shown in the adjective paradigm was reduced: the Instr. case had fused with the Dat. by the end of OE; distinction of other cases in Early ME was unsteady, as many variant forms of different cases, which arose in Early ME, coincided. In the 13th c. case could be shown only by some variable adjective endings in the strong declension (but not by the weak forms); towards the end of the century all case distinctions were lost. The strong and weak forms of adjectives were often confused in Early ME texts. The use of a strong form after a demonstrative pronoun was not uncommon, though according to the existing rules, this position belonged to the weak form. In the 14th c. the difference between the strong and weak form is sometimes shown in the singular with the help of the ending –e. Number was certainly the most stable nominal category in all the periods. In the 14th c. plural forms were sometimes contrasted to the singular forms with the help of the ending -e in the strong declension. In the 13th and particularly 14th c. there appeared a new plural ending -s. The degrees of comparison are the only set of forms which the adjective has preserved through all historical periods. However, the means employed to build up the forms of the degrees of comparison have considerably altered. It should be noted, however, that out of three principal means of forming degrees of comparison that existed in old English: suffixation, vowel interchange and suppletive forms, there remained as a productive means only one: suffixation, the rest of the means seen only in isolated forms. In ME the fourth way of making degrees of comparison appeared – by means of using more and most in the comparative and superlative degrees: interesting – more interesting – most interesting. Thus, the most important innovation in the adjective system in the ME period was the growth of analytical forms of the degrees of comparison. In ME, when the phrases with ME more and most became more and more common, they were used with all kinds of adjectives, regardless of the number of syllables and were even preferred with mono- and disyllabic words. OE pronouns fell roughly under the same main classes as modern pro-nouns; personal, demonstrative, interrogative and indefinite. OE personal pronouns had three persons, three numbers in the 1st and 2nd p. (two numbers — in the 3rd) and three genders in the 3rd p. In OE, while nouns consistently distinguished between four cases, personal pronouns began to lose some of their case distinctions: the forms of the Dat. case of the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd p. were frequently used instead of the Acc. There were two demonstrative pronouns in OE: the prototype of NE that, which distinguished three genders in the sg and had one form for all the genders in the pl. and the prototype of this with the same subdivisions: They were declined like adjectives according to a five-case system: Nom., Gen., Dat., Acc, and Instr. (the latter having a special form) Demonstrative pronouns are of special importance for a student of OE for they were frequently used as noun determiners and through agreement with the noun, indicated its number, gender and case Interrogative pronouns —had a four-case paradigm (NE who, what). The Instr. case of hwæt was used as a separate interrogative word hwӯ (NE why). Some interrogative pronouns were used as adjective pronouns, e. g. hwelc, hwæper. Indefinite pronouns were a numerous class embracing several simple pronouns and a large number of compounds: ān and its derivative ǣniʒ (NE me, any); The four-case system that existed in OE gave way to a two-case system. The genitive case as a form of a personal pronoun disappeared and merged with the possessive pronouns, retaining only its ability to express possessive meaning in the function of an attribute. The dative and accusative cases merged in one objective case. As a grammatical phenomenon gender disappeared already in Middle English, the pronouns he and she referring only to animate notions and it – to inanimate. The three number system that existed in Early Old English (singular, dual, plural) was substituted by a two number system already in Late Old English The new fem. pronoun, Late ME she, is believed to have developed from the OE demonstrative pronoun of the fem. gender – sēo (OE sē, sēo, þæt, NE that). In the course of ME another important lexical replacement took place: the OE pronoun of the 3rd p. pl. hīe was replaced by the Scand. loan-word they [ ei]. Demonstrative pronouns were adjective-pronouns; like other adjectives, in OE they agreed with the noun in case, number and gender and had a well-developed morphological paradigm. The OE forms of the demonstrative pronoun (or definite article) sē, sēo were changed into þe, þēo on the analogy of the forms derived from the root þ-. In Early ME forms like and þe, þēo, þat functioned both as demonstrative pronoun and as article. The other classes of OE pronouns were subjected to the same simplifying changes as all nominal parts of speech. The OE interrogative pronouns hwā, hwæt > who, what have three cases in ME: Nom. Gen. Obj. The form of the OE Instr. case hwy developed into an adverb why ‘why’. Most indefinite pronouns of the OE period simplified their morphological structure and some pronouns fell out of use. For instance, man died out as an indefinite pronoun; Eventually new types of compound indefinite pronouns came into use – with the component -thing, -body, -one, etc; in NE they developed a two-case paradigm like nouns: the Comm. and the Poss. or Gen. case: anybody – anybody's. Reflexive pronouns appeared as a result of combining the form of the objective case of personal pronouns with the form self The first elements of the category of the article appeared already in Old English, when the meaning of the demonstrative pronoun was weakened, and it approach the status of an article in such phrases as: Sē mann (the mann), sēo sǽ (the sea), þæt lond (the land) However, we may not speak of any category if it is not represented by an opposition of at least two units. Such opposition arose only in Middle English, when the indefinite article an appeared. The form of the definite article the can be traced back to the old English demonstrative pronoun sē (that, masculine, singular), which in the course of history came to be used on analogy with the forms of the same pronoun having the initial consonant [θ]and began to be used with all nouns, irrespective of their gender or number. The indefinite article developed from the Old English numeral ān. In Middle English ān split into two words: the definite pronoun an, losing a separate stress and undergoing reduction of its vowel, and the numeral one, remaining stressed as only other notional word. Later the indefinite pronoun an grew into the indefinite article a/an, and together with the definite article the formed a new grammatical category – the category of determination, or the category of article. Numerals from 1 to 3 were declined. Numerals from 4 to 19 were usually invariable, if used as attributes to a noun, but they were declined if used without a noun. Numerals denoting tens had their Gen. in –es or in –a, -ra, their Dat. in –um. 1 – ān (was declined as a strong adjective) 2 – twe3en (M), tū, twā (N), twā (F) 3 – þrīe, þrī, þrý (M), þrīo, þrēo (N), þrīo, þrēo (F). 4 – fēower 5 – fīf 6 – siex, six, syx 7 – seofon, siofon, syofn 8 – eahta 9 – ni3on 10 – tīen, týn, tēn 11 – endlefan 12 – twelf Numerals from 13 to 19 were derived from compounding of the first 9 numerals and the numeral tīen (týn, tēn) - 10, e.g. fiftīen – 15. Numbers consisting of tens (from 20 to 60) were composed by the proper numeral (from 2 to 6) and suffix –ti(3), e.g. twenti3 - 20. From 70 to 100 the names of the numerals had such part as hund – 100, e.g. hundsiofonti3 – 70. Numerals from 100 to 900 had this part as their last component: tū hund – 200. 1000 was called þūsend. Numbers consisting of tens and units were denoted in the following way: twā and twenti3 – 22. Numbers ān – 1, twē3en – 2 and þrīe – 3 had the special ordinals: forma, fyresta; ōþer, æfterra; þridda, þirda. The rest of the ordinal numerals were composed by adding –þa to the root ending in the vowel or voiced consonant and by –ta to the root ending in voiceless consonant, e.g. twelfta – 12-й, seofoþa – 7- й (-n before –þa was lost). 3. Development of the national literary English language. The formation of the national literary English language covers the Early NE period (c.1475— 1660). There were at least two major external factors which favoured the rise of the national language and the literary standards: the unification of the country and the progress of culture. Other historical events, such as increased foreign contacts, affected the language in a less general way: they influenced the growth of the vocabulary. Introduction of Printing The invention of printing had the most immediate effect on the development of the language, its written form in particular. "Artificial writing", as printing was then called, was invented in Germany in 1438 (by Johann Gutenberg); the first printer of English books was William Caxton. Written Standard Its growth and recognition as the correct or "prestige" form of the language of writing had been brought about by the factors: the economic and political unification of the country, the progress of culture and education, the flourishing of literature. Early New English (15th – beginning of the 18th century) – the establishment of the literary norm. The language that was used in England at that time is reflected in the famous translation of the Bible called the King James Bible (published in 1611). Although the language of the Bible is Early Modern English, the author tried to use a more solemn and grand style and more archaic expressions. A great influence was also connected with the magazine by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele called The Spectator (1711 – 1714), the authors of which discussed various questions of the language, including its syntax and the use of words. Growth of the Spoken Standard. The Written Standard had probably been fixed and recognised by the beginning of the 17th c. The next stage in the growth of the national literary language was the development of the Spoken Standard. The dating of this event appears to be more problematic. It seems obvious that in the 18th c. the speech of educated people differed from that of common, uneducated people — in pronunciation, in the choice of words and in grammatical construction. The number of educated people was growing and their way of speaking was regarded as correct. Thus by the end of the 18th c. the formation of the national literary English language may be regarded as completed, for now it possessed both a Written and a Spoken Standard. The formation of the national literary English language covers the Early NE period (c. 1475— 1660). There were at least two major external factors which favoured the rise of the national language and the literary standards: the unification of the country and the progress of culture. The term "national" language embraces allthe varieties ofthe language used by thenation including dialects; the ''national literary language"applies only to recognized standard forms of the language, both written and spoken. The end of the Middle English period and the beginning of New English is marked by the following events in the life of the English people: 1) The end of the war between the White and the Red Rose (1485) and the establishment of an absolute monarchy on the British soil with Henry Tudor as the first absolute monarch – the political expression of the English nation. The War of the Roses (1455 – 1485) was the most important event of the 15th century which marked the decay of feudalism and the birth of a new social order. It signified the rise of an absolute monarchy in England and a political centralisation, and consequently a linguistic centralisation leading to a predominance of the national language over local dialects. 2) The introduction of printing (1477) by William Caxton (1422— 1490). Printing was invented in Germany by Johann Gutenberg in 1438. It quickly spread to other countries and England was among them. The first English printing office was founded in 1476 by William Caxton.The appearance of a considerable number of printed books contributed to the normalisation of spelling and grammar forms fostering the choice of a single variant over others. Caxton, a native of Kent, acquired the London dialect and made a conscious choice from among competing variants. Since that time – the end of the 15th century the English language began its development as the language of the English nation, whereas up to that time, beginning with the Germanic conquest of Britain in the 5th century and up to the 15thcentury, the English language was no more than a conglomerate of dialects, first tribal and then local. Indeed, a notable feature of the Middle English period is the dialectical variety that finds expression in the written documents. It was only late in the 14thcentury that the London dialect, itself a mixture of the southern and southeastern dialects, began to emerge as the dominant type. In New English there emerged one nation and one national language. But the English literary norm was formed only at the end of the 17th century, when the first scientific English dictionaries and the first scientific English grammar appeared. In the 17th and 18th centuries there appeared a great number of grammar books whose authors tried to stabilise the use of the language. The grammars and dictionaries of the 18th c. succeeded in formulating the rules of usage, partly from observation but largely from the "doctrine of correctness", and laid them down as norms to be taught as patterns of correct English. Codification of norms of usage by means of conscious effort on the part of man helped in standardising the language and in fixing its written and spoken standards. The next stage in the growth of the national literary language was the development of the Spoken Standard. The dating of this event appears to be problematic. Naturally, we possess no direct evidence of the existence of oral norms, since all evidence comes from written sources. Nevertheless, valuable information has been found in private letters as compared to more official papers, in the speech of various characters in 17th and 18th c. drama, and in direct references to different types of oral speech made by contemporaries. It seems obvious that in the 18th c. the speech of educated people differed from that of common, uneducated people — in pronunciation, in the choice of words and in grammatical construction. The number of educated people was growing and their way of speaking was regarded as correct. Compositions on language gave diverse recommendations aimed at improving the forms of written and oral discourse. Some authors advised people to model their speech on Latin patterns; others banned borrowing mannerisms and vulgar pronunciation. These recommendations could only be made if their authors were — or considered themselves to be — in a position to distinguish between different forms of speech and label them as “good” or “bad”. Indirectly they testify to the existence of recognised norms of educated spoken English. The earliest feasible date for the emergence of the Spoken Standard suggested by historians is the late 17th c. Some authorities refer it to the end of the normalisation period, that is about a hundred years later — the end of the 18th c.The latter date seems to be more realistic, as by that time current usage had been subjected to conscious regulation and had become more uniform. The rules formulated in the prescriptive grammars and dictionaries must have had their effect not only on the written but also on the spoken forms of the language. The concept of Spoken Standard does not imply absolute uniformity of speech throughout the speech community — a uniformity which, in fact, can never be achieved; it merely implies a more or less uniform type of speech used by educated people and taught as “correct English” at schools and universities. The spoken forms of the language, even when standardised, were never as stable and fixed as the Written Standard. Oral speech changed under the influence of sub- standard forms of the language, more easily than the written forms. Many new features coming from professional jargons, lower social dialects or local dialects first entered the Spoken Standard, and through its medium passed into the language of writing. The Written Standard, in its turn, tended to restrict the colloquial innovations labelling them as vulgar and incorrect and was enriched by elements coming from various functional and literary styles, e.g. poetry, scientific style, official documents. Between all these conflicting tendencies the national literary language, both in its written and spoken forms, continued to change during the entire New English period. The geographical and social origins of the Spoken Standard were in the main the same as those of the Written Standard some two-hundred years before: the tongue of London and the Universities, which in the turbulent 17th c. — the age of the English Revolution, further economic progress and geographical expansion — had assimilated many new features from a variety of sources. Intermixture of people belonging to different social groups was reflected in speech, though the rate of changes was slowed down when the norms of usage had been fixed. The nourishing of literature enriched the language and at the same time had a stabilising effect on linguistic change. Thus by the end of the 18th c. the formation of the national literary English language may be regarded as completed, for now it possessed both a Written and a Spoken Standard. 4. Evolution of the sound system in ME and NE. Sound changes, particularly vowel changes, took place in Eng¬lish at every period of history. The development of vowels in Early OE consisted of the modifica¬tion of separate vowels, and also of the modification of entire sets of vowels. It should be borne in mind that the mechanism of all phonetic changes strictly conforms with the general pattern (see § 26). The change begins with growing variation in pronunciation, which manifests itself in the appearance of numerous allophones: after the stage of increased variation, some allophones prevail over the others and a replacement lakes place. It may result in the splitting of phonemes and their numer¬ical growth, which fills in the "empty boxes" of the system or introduces new distinctive features. It may also lead to the merging of old pho¬nemes, as their new prevailing allophones can fall together. Most fre¬quently the change will involve both types of replacement, splitting and merging, so that we have to deal both with the rise of new phonemes and with the redistribution of new allophones among the existing pho¬nemes. For the sake of brevity, the description of most changes below is restricted to the initial and final stages. The sound changes are grouped into two main stages: Early ME changes, which show the transition from Written OE to Late ME — the age of literary flourishing or “the age of Chaucer” — and Early NE changes, which show the transition from ME to later NE — the language of the 18th and 19th c. The Great vowel shift was a series of consistent changes of long vowels accounting for many features of the ME vowel system and also of the modern spelling system. During this period all the long vowels became closer or were diphthongised. Some of the vowels occupied the place of the next vowel; [e:] > [i:], [o:] > [u:], while the latter changed to [au]. The regular qualitative changes of all the long vowels between the 14th and the 17th centuries are known in the history of the English language as the Great vowel shift. In ME a great change affected the entire system of vowel phonemes. OE had both short and long vowel phonemes, which were absolutely independent and could occur in any phonetic environment. In the 10th-12th c. quantity of vowels becomes dependent on their environment: in some phonetic environment only short vowels can appear, while in other – only long due to a number of changes: shortening: Long vowels occurring before two consonants are shortened; though they remain long before “lengthening” consonant groups “ld, nd, md” and before clusters belonging to the following syllable. They are also shortened before one consonant in some three-syllable words: lengthening: Short vowels were lengthened in open syllables and affected short vowels “a, e, o”. The vowels “i, u” remained unaffected though sometimes were also lengthened in open syllables, “i” became “ē”, “u” – “ō”: monophthongization of OE diphthongs: All OE diphthongs became monophthongs in ME: rise of new diphthongs: New diphthongs arise in ME different from the OE ones and originated from groups consisting of a vowel and either a palatal or velar fricative: leveling of unstressed vowels: All unstressed vowels were weakened and reduced to a neutral vowel which was denoted by the letter “e”: Vowels in the unstressed position already reduced in Middle English to the vowel of the [a] type are dropped in New English if they are found in the endings of words. The vowel in the endings is sometimes preserved — mainly for phonetic reason: wanted, dresses — without the intermediate vowel it would be very difficult to pronounce the endings of such words. Among many cases of quantitative changes of vowels in New English one should pay particular attention to the lengthening of the vowel, when it was followed by the consonant [r]. Short vow¬els followed by the consonant [r] became long after the disap¬pearance of the given consonant at the end of the word or before another consonant. When the consonant [r] stood after the vowels [e], [i], [u], the resulting vowel was different from the initial vowel not only in quantity but also in quality. The regular qualitative changes of all the long vowels between the 14th and the 17th centuries are known in the history of the English language as the Great vowel shift. The Great Vowel Shift. Due to this change the vowels became more narrow and more front. Two short monophthongs changed their quality in NE (17th c.), the monophthong [a] becoming [æ] and the monophthong [u] becoming [˄] Changes of two diphthongs: [ai] > [ei], [au] > [o:]. Lengthening of vowels before [r] – due to the vocalization of consonants. In the history of the English language the consonants were far more stable than the vowels. A large number of consonants have remained unchanged since the OE period. One of the most important consonant changes in the history of English was the appearance of fricative consonant [∫] and affricates [t∫] and [dз], lacking in the OE period. During the ME period the consonants lost their quantitative distinctions, as the long or double consonants disappeared. The number of consonant phonemes was reduced and one of their principal phonemic distinctive feature – opposition through quantity – was lost. Some consonant clusters were simplified. One of the consonants, usually the first, was dropped. E.g. kn> n, gn >n, hw> w. Appearance of a new consonant in the system of English phonemes — [Ʒ] and the development of the consonants [d3] and [tʃ] from palatal consonants. Thus Middle English [sj], [zj], [tj], [dj] gave in New English the sounds [ʃ], [Ʒ], [tʃ], [dƷ]. Certain consonants disappeared at the end of the word or before another consonant, the most important change of the kind affecting the consonant [r] The fricative consonants [s], [Ɵ] and [f] were voiced after unstressed vowels or in words having no sentence stress — the so-called "Verner's Law in New English" 5. The role of the foreign element at different stages of the English language development. Native Old English words can be subdivided into a number of etymological layers from different historical periods. The three main layers in the native OE words are: a) common Indo-European words; names of some natural phenomena, plants and animals, agricultural terms, names of parts of the human body, terms of kinship, b) common Germanic words - connected with nature, with the sea and everyday life. c) specifically OE words- layer of native words which do not occur in other Germanic or nonGermanic languages. Although borrowed words constituted only a small portion of the OE vocabulary — all in all about six hundred words. OE borrowings come from two sources: Celtic and Latin. Abundant borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in place-names. The role of the Latin language in Medieval Britain is clearly manifest; it was determined by such historical events as the Roman occupation of Britain, the influence of the Roman civilisation and the introduction of Christianity. Early OE borrowings from Latin indicate the new things and con¬cepts which the Teutons had learnt from the Romans; as seen from the examples below they pertain to war, trade, agriculture, building and home life. Units of measurement and containers were adopted with their Lat¬in names Christianity in the late 6th c. and lasted to the end of OE. Numerous Latin words which found their way into the English lan¬guage during these five hundred years clearly fall into two main groups: (1) words pertaining to religion, (2) words connected with learning. The rest are miscellaneous words denoting various objects and concepts which the English learned from Latin books and from closer acquaint¬ance with Roman culture. The Latin impact on the OE vocabulary was not restricted to borrowing of words. There were also other aspects of influence. The most important of them is the appearance of the so-called "translation-loans" ─ words and phrases created on the pattern of Latin words as their literal translations. As mentioned before, the presence of the Scandinavians in the English population is indicated by a large number of place-names in the northern and eastern areas The fusion of the English and of the Scandinavian settlers progressed rapidly; in many districts people became bilingual, which was an easy accomplishment since many of the commonest words in the two OG languages were very much alike. The total number of Scandinavian borrowings in English is estimated at about 900 words; about 700 of them belong to Standard English. It is difficult to define the semantic spheres of Scandinavian borrowings: they mostly pertain to everyday life and do not differ from native words. Only the earliest loan-words deal with military and legal matters and reflect the relations of the people during the Danish raids and Danish rule. Vocabulary changes due to Scandinavian influence proceeded in different ways: a Scandinavian word could enter the language as an innovation, without replacing any other lexical item; sometimes the Scandinavian parallel modified the meaning of the native word without being borrowed. Since both languages, O Scand and OE, were closely related, Scandinavian words were very much like native words. Therefore, assimilation of loan-words was easy. The only criteria that can be applied are some phonetic features of borrowed words: the consonant cluster [sk] is a frequent mark of Scandinavian loan-words, [sk] does not occur in native words, as OE [sk] had been palatalised and modified to [∫]: The effect of these successive and overlapping waves was seen first and foremost in a large number of lexical borrowings in ME. At the initial stages of penetration French words were restricted to some varieties of English: the speech of the aristocracy at the king’s court; the speech of the middle class, who came into contact both with the rulers and with the ruled; the speech of educated people and the population of South-Eastern towns. On the whole, prior to the 13th c. no more than one thousand words entered the English language, whereas by 1400 their number had risen to 10,000 (75% of them are still in common use). To this day nearly all the words relating to the government and administration of the country are French by origin the feudal system and words indicating titles and ranks of the nobility: The host of military terms A still greater number of words belong to the domain of law and jurisdiction, A large number of French words pertain to the Church and religion, From the loan-words referring to house, furniture and architecture Some words are connected with art: Another group includes names of garments: Many French loan-words belong to the domain of entertainment, We can also single out words relating to different aspects of the life of the upper classes and of the town life: forms of address); names of some meals and dishes. The extraordinary surge of interest in the classics in the age of the Renaissance opened the gates to a new wave of borrowings from Latin and — to a lesser extent — from Greek Some borrowings have a more specialised meaning and belong to scientific terminology distinct semantic group of Greek loan-words pertains to theatre, literature and rhetoric The vast body of international terms continued to grow in the 18th— 19th c. A new impetus for their creation was given by the great technical progress of the 20th c, which is reflected in hundreds of newly coined terms or Latin and Greek words applied in new meanings, The foreign influence on the English vocabulary in the age of the Renaissance and in the succeeding centuries was not restricted to Latin and Greek. The influx of French words continued and reached new peaks in the late 15th and in the late 17th c. French borrowings of the later periods mainly pertain to diplomatic relations, social life, art and fashions. Next to French, Latin and Scandinavian, English owes the greatest number of foreign words to Italian, though many of them, like Latin loan-words, entered the English language through French. A few early borrowings pertain to commercial and military affairs while the vast majority of words are related to art, music and literature, which is a natural consequence of the fact that Italy was the birthplace of the Renaissance movement and of the revival of interest in art. Borrowings from Spanish came as a result of contacts with Spain in the military, commercial and political fields, due to the rivalry of England and Spain in foreign trade and colonial expansion. Dutch made abundant contribution to English, particularly in the 15th and 16th c, when commercial relations between England and the Netherlands were at their peak. Dutch artisans came to England to practise their trade, and sell their goods. Loan-words from German reflect the scientific and cultural achievements of Germany at different dates of the New period. Mineralogical terms are connected with the employment of German specialists in the English mining industry, The advance of philosophy in the 18th and 19th c. accounts for philosophical terms The earliest Russian loan-words entered the English language as far back as the 16th c, when the English trade company (the Moskovy Company) established the first trade relations with Russia. English borrowings adopted from the 16th till the 19th c. indicate articles of trade and specific features of life in Russia, observed by the English: The loan-words adopted after 1917 reflect the new social relations and political institutions in the USSR: In the recent decades many technical terms came from Russian, indicating the achievements in different branches of science THEORETICAL PHONETICS 6. The English consonants and vowels as units of the phonological system. Their articulatory transitions in speech. The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination of these movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds is called articulatory phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the way speech sounds are produced by the organs of speech, in other words the mechanisms of speech production. There are two major classes of sounds traditionally distinguished in any language - consonants and vowels. The opposition "vowels vs. consonants" is a linguistic universal. The distinction is based mainly on auditory effect. Consonants are known to have voice and noise combined, while vowels are sounds consisting of voice only. From the articulatory point of view the difference is due to the work of speech organs. In case of vowels no obstruction is made, so on the perception level their integral characteristic is tone, not noise. Russian phoneticians classify consonants according to the following principles: i) degree of noise; ii) place of articulation; iii) manner of articulation; iv) position of the soft palate; v) force of articulation. Another point of view is shared by a group of Russian phoneticians. They suggest that the first and basic principle of classification should be the degree of noise. Such consideration leads to dividing English consonants into two general kinds: a) noise consonants; b) sonorants. The term "degree of noise" belongs to auditory level of analysis. But there is an intrinsic connection between articulatory and auditory aspects of describing speech sounds. In this case the term of auditory aspect defines the characteristic more adequately. There are no sonorants in the classifications suggested by British and American scholars. Daniel Jones and Henry A. Gleason, for example, give separate groups of nasals [m, n, η], the lateral [1] and semi-vowels, or glides [w, r, j (y)]. Bernard Bloch and George Trager besides nasals and lateral give trilled [r]. According to Russian phoneticians sonorants are considered to be consonants from articulatory, acoustic and phonological point of view. (II) The place of articulation. This principle of consonant classification is rather universal. The only difference is that V.A. Vassilyev, G.P. Torsuev, O.I. Dikushina, A.C. Gimson give more detailed and precise enumerations of active organs of speech than H.A. Gleason, B. Bloch, G. Trager and others. There is, however, controversy about terming the active organs of speech. Thus, Russian phoneticians divide the tongue into the following parts: (1) front with the tip, (2) middle, and (3) back. Following L.V. Shcherba's terminology the front part of the tongue is subdivided into: (a) apical, (b) dorsal, (c) cacuminal and (d) retroflexed according to the position of the tip and the blade of the tongue in relation to the teeth ridge. А.С. Gimson's terms differ from those used by Russian phoneticians: apical is equivalent to forelingual; frontal is equivalent to mediolingual; dorsum is the whole upper area of the tongue. H.A. Gleason's terms in respect to the bulk of the tongue are: apex - the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the alveoli; front - the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the fore part of the palate; back, or dorsum the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the velum or the back part of the palate. (III) A.L. Trakhterov, G.P. Torsyev, V.A. Vassilyev and other Russian scholars consider the principle of classification according to the manner of articulation to be one of the most important and classify consonants very accurately, logically and thoroughly. They suggest a classification from the point of view of the closure. It may be: (1) complete closure, then occlusive (stop or plosive) consonants are produced; (2) incomplete closure, then constrictive consonants are produced; (3) the combination of the two closures, then occlusive- constrictive consonants, or affricates, are produced; (4) intermittent closure, then rolled, or trilled consonants are produced. (IV) According to the position of the soft palate all consonants are subdivided into oral and nasal. When the soft palate is raised oral consonants are produced; when the soft palate is lowered nasal consonants are produced. (V) According to the force of articulation consonants may be fortis and lenis. This characteristic is connected with the work of the vocal cords: voiceless consonants are strong and voiced are weak. C. are classified according to the main principles: To the type of obstruction Occlusive – produce with the complete obstruction to the air stream they may be noise (plosives) [p, b, t, k, g] and affricates and sonorants [m, n, ŋ] Constructive – produced with an incomplete obstruction and may be noise or fricatives [v, f, s, z, h, g] and sonorant median [w,, r, j] and lateral one [l]. In pronunciation of which the air passage is rather wide, the air passing through the mouth doesn’t produce audible friction and tone prevails over noise. To the manner of production the noise Plosives – the organs of speech form a complete obstruction, which is than quickly released with plosion [p, b, t, d, k, g] Affricates – the speech organs forms a complete obstruction, which is than released so slowly, that considerable friction accursed at the point of articulation [ch, dz] Fricatives - the speech organs forms a incomplete obstruction and the air passes producing audible friction [b, f, ð, Ө, s, z, h, g] Sonorance: 1)occlusive the speech organs forms a complete obstruction, which is not released. The soft palate is lowed and the air escapes through the nasal cavity [m, n, ŋ] 2) constrictive: a) median – the air escapes without audible friction over the central part of the tongue the sides of the tongue being raised [w, r, j] b) lateral – the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge or the teeth and the sides of the tongue are lowed, leaving the air passage open between tem [l]. To the active organs of speech Labial – 1) bilabial - articulated by the 2 lips [p,b] 2) labial-dental – articulated with the low lip, against the upper teeth [v,f] Lingual – 1) fore lingual – articulated by the blade of the tip or by the tip against the upper teeth or alveolar ridge: a) apical [ð, Ө, t, d, l, n, s, z] b) cacuminal [r] 2) medium lingual –articulated with the front of the tongue against the hard palate [j] 3) back lingual – articulated by the front of the tongue against the soft palate. [k, g, ŋ] Glottal – produced in the glottis [h] To the point of articulation Dental Alveolar Palatal-alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar To the work of the vocal cords Voiced Voiceless To the force of articulation Relatively strong (forties) Relatively weak (lenis) English voiced care lenis, English voiceless are forties The first who tried to describe and classify vowels irrespective of the mother tongue was Daniel Johnes. He worked out a system of 8 cardinal vowels. This system is an international standard which presents a set of artificial vowels and which contains all the vowel types existing in different languages of the world. In reference to this system the vowel sounds of any real language of the world may be described and classified and sometimes this system is called the vocalic Esperanto. FrontBack close i u half-close e o half-open ə ɔ open a ɑ The tongue can move horizontally and vertically and according to these movements Daniel Johnes represented his 8 cardinal vowels. The system of cardinal vowels has a great theoretical value and it is used as a basis for classification of vowels in different languages. Russian phoneticians suggest classifying vowels according to the following principle: 1) position of the lips; 2) position of the tongue; 3) degree of tenseness; 4) length; 5) stability of articulation. 1) position of the lips. According to this principle vowels are classified into rounded [ɔ, ɔ:, u, u:]and unrounded. 2) Position of the tongue. The bulk of the tongue conditions the production of different vowels most of all its horizontal and vertical movement forms vowels of a particular language. According to the horizontal movement English vowels are classified into the following groups: 1) front vowels [i:, e, æ], nucleus of the diphthongs[eɪ, ɑɪ, ɛə]; 2) front retracted [ɪ], nucleus of the diphthong [ɪə]; 3) mixed vowels [ə, ə:], the term mixed is used by the Russian phoneticians because in the production of this group of vowels the tongue is raised towards the junctions between the soft and hard palates. British phoneticians call these vowels central, because the central part of the tongue is raised highest in their pronunciation; 4) back advanced [u,ɔ, ʌ], the nucleus of the diphthongs [əʊ, ʊə]; 5) back vowels , [u:,ɔ:,ɑ], diphthongs [ɔɪ, ɛə]. According to the vertical movement of the tongue English vowels have been traditionally subdivided into 3 groups: 1) high (close) vowels [ɪ,i:,u,u:]; 2) mid-vowels [e,ə,ə:,a], nucleus of [əu,ɛə]; 3) low (open) vowels [ʌ, ɔ, ɔ:, ɑ:], nucleus [aɪ, au]. 3) The degree of muscular tension. Classified into tense and lax.All long vowels are tense, short vowels are lax. 4) Length of vowels. English vowels are historically subdivided into long and short. Vowels length depends on a number of linguistic factors. Firstly, position of the vowel in a word [si: si:d – si:t] - [si: - si· – si]. For the voiceless consonants the length of a long vowel is the shortest. Word accent. In the stressed syllable the vowel has the maximum length. 'forecast [ɔ:], fore'cast [ ɔ·,ɑ:]. The number of syllables in a word, e.g. verse, university. In a mono-syllabic word the vowel is longer, than in a poly-syllabic one. The character of the syllabic structure. In the words with open types of syllable vowels are longer than in words with closed types. Articulatory transitions of vowel and cons phonemes. In the process of speech, that is in the process of transition from the articulatory work of one sound to the articulatory work of the neighbouring one, sounds are modified. These modifications can be conditioned: a) by the complementary distribution of phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes backadvanced under the influence of the preceding mediolingual sonorant /j/ in the words tune, nude. In the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is advanced under (be influence of the fully front /i;/ which follows it: b) by the contextual variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words, e. g. the alveolar phoneme /n/ in the combination in the is assimilated to the dental variant under the influence of /ð/ which follows it; c) by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial. E. g. hot muffins may turn into Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring consonant. When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, e. g. tune, keen, lea, cool. When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision, e. g. a box of matches may be pronounced without [v]. Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living. Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical. Assimilation can be: 1progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the second sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks the sounds /k/ make the plural inflection s similar to the voiceless /k/. 2regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combination at the the alveolar /t/ becomes dental, assimilated to the interdental / ð / which follows it; 3double, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other, e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the influence of /w/ and /w/ is partly devoiced under (he influence of the voiceless /t/. When the two neighbouring sounds arc affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production. l)Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent соседний consonants; becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless — under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant. In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r; j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, ay. This assimilation is not observed in the most careful styles of speech. 2) The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of a) lateral plosion and b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion. The lateral plosion takes place, when a plosive is followed by /1/. In this case the closure for the plosive is not released till the off-glide for the second [l]. Incomplete plosion takes place in the clusters a) of two similar plosives like /pp,pb, tt, td, kk, kg/, or b) of two plosives with different points of articulation like:/kt/,/dg/, /db/, /tb/. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. +3) Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /tl is followed by the post-alveolar /r/. For example, in the word trip alveolar 1t1 becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release. 7. The system of phonological oppositions in English. Minimal pairs are useful for establishing the phonemes of the language. Thus, a phoneme can only perform its distinctive function if it is opposed to another phoneme in the same position. Such an opposition is called phonological. Let us consider the classification of phonological oppositions worked out by N.S. Trubetskoy. It is based on the number of distinctive articulatory features underlying the opposition. 1. If the opposition is based on a single difference in the articulation of two speech sounds, it is a single phonological opposition, e.g. [p] – [t], as in [pen]-[ten]; bilabial vs. forelingual, all the other features are the same. 2. If the sounds in distinctive opposition have two differences in their articulation, the opposition is double one, or a sum of two single oppositions, e.g. [p] – [d], as in [pen] – [den], 1) bilabial vs. forelingual 2) voiceless – fortis vs. voiced – lenis. 3. If there are three articulatory differences, the opposition is triple one, or a sum of three single oppositions, e.g. [p] – [ð], as in [p‡] – [ ð‡]: 1) bilabial vs. forelingual, 2) occlusive vs. constrictive, 3) voiceless – fortis vs. voiced – lenis. Classificatory principles of English vowel and consonant phonemes provide the basis for establishing the distinctive oppositions. Distinctive oppositions of English consonants Classificatory principles and subclasses of phonemes 1. Work of the vocal cords: voiced [b, d, g, v, z, ð,3, d3, l, m, n, j, w, r, ŋ]; - voiceless [p, t, k, f, s, θ, ∫, t∫, h]. Types of oppositions Examples voiced – voiceless The English consonants [l, m, n, j, w, r, ŋ, h] do not enter this opposition. gum – come dear – tear bat – pat jin – chin thy – thigh 2. Position of the soft palate: nasal [m, n, ŋ]; - oral (all the rest). 3. Active organ of speech and the place of articulation: a) labial: bilabial [p, b, w, m]; - labio-dental [f, v]; b) lingual: - forelingual [ð, θ, t, d, s, z, n, l, ∫, 3, d3, t∫]; mediolingual [j]; - backlingual [k, g, ŋ]; c) glottal [h]. 4. Manner of the production of noise: a) occlusive: - plosive [p, t, k, b, d, g] - sonorant [m, n, ŋ]; b) constrictive: - fricative [s, f, z, ð, θ, ∫, v,3, h]; - sonorant [w, r, j, l]; c) occlusive-constrictive (affricates) [t∫, d3]. Distinctive oppositions of English vowels Classificatory principles and subclasses of phonemes 1. Position of the lips: - rounded [o, o:, u, u:]; - unrounded (all the rest). 2. Stability of articulation: monophthongs [i, i:, u, u:, o, o:, e, ə, Λ, α:, æ, з:]; - diphthongs [ai, oi, ei, au, əu, εə, uə, iə]. 3. Degree of tenseness, character of the end and length: - tense, free and long [i:, u:, o:, α:, з:]; - lax, checked and short [i, u, o, æ, e, ə, Λ]. 4. Position of the tongue: a) horizontal: - front [i:, e, æ]; - frontretracted [i]; - central [з:, ə, Λ]; back-advanced [u, α:]; - back [o, o:, u:]; b) vertical: – high: - narrow [i:, u:]; - broad [i, u]; – mid: narrow [ə]; - broad [e, o:, з:]; – low: - narrow [Λ]; - broad [æ, α:, o:]. oral – nasal labial – lingual lingual – glottal labial – glottal bilabial – labio-dental forelingual – mediolingual forelingual – backlingual mediolingual – backlingual pit – pin seek – seen sick – sing pain – cane this – hiss foam – home wear – fair jet – yet thing – king yes – guess occlusive – constrictive affricate – constrictive affricate – occlusive occlusive: plosive – sonorant constrictive: fricative – sonorant bat – that fair – chair chin – pin pine – mine same – lame Types of oppositions Examples rounded – unrounded monophthong – diphthong tense lax free — checked long short front – central back – central front – back front – frontretracted back – backadvanced high – mid low – mid high – low high narrow – high broad mid narrow – mid broad low narrow – low broad pot – pat bit – bait but – bite debt – doubt bird – beard peel – pill cab – curb pull – pearl read – rod bet – bit card – cord week – work lack – lurk big – bag pool – pull foreword – forward bad – bard 8. Phoneme and allophone. Types of allophones. First of all, the phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words (L.V. Shcherba). Oral realization of the phoneme called allophone. For example let, talk, try, stay, This aspect is reflected in this part of the definition: “realized in speech in the form of speech sounds”. In other words, each phoneme is realized as a set of predictable speech sounds, which are called allophones. Allophones of the same phoneme generally meet the following requirements: 1. they possess similar articulatory features, but at the same time they may show considerable phonetic differences; 2. they never occur in the same phonetic context 3. they can’t be opposed to one another, they are not able to differentiate the meaning. The difference between allophones is the result of the influence of the neighbouring sounds, or the phonetic context. We distinguish two types of allophones; principal and subsidiary. The allophones which don’t undergo any changes in the chain of speech are called principal. They are closest to the sound pronounced in isolation. In the articulation of subsidiary allophones we observe predictable changes under the influence of the phonetic context. The actually pronounced sound that we hear reflects phonostylistic, regional, occasional and individual peculiarities, it is called the phone. The behavior of allophones in phonetic context, their ability to occur in certain definite positions – distribution. There are 3 types of distribution: 1. constrastive/parallel/overlapping – in this position these types of distribution are typical: [n] – [ŋ] 2. complementary – allophones of one and the same phoneme. Never in the same position: [k] – [k] (aspirated – non-aspirated). 3. free variation – allophones of one and the same phoneme that allocate in the same position. They aren’t able to differentiate the meaning: Good night with glottal stop and without it. Functions of phoneme: 1. constituetive – phoneme constitutes words, word combinations etc. Phonemes have no meaning of their own, linguistically important for in the material form of their allophones they serve as a building material for words and morphemes; 2. distinctive – phonemes help to distinguish the meanings of words, morphemes; 3. identificatory (recognitive) – phoneme makes up gr-l forms of words, sentences, so the right use of allophones. Some phonologists single out delimiting function. The function of phonemes is to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words. So the phoneme is an abstract linguistic unit, it is an abstraction from actual speech sounds, that is allophonic modifications. THEORY OF GRAMMAR 9. General characteristics of MnE structure. The English language is said to be more analytical than synthetical or “mainly” analytical. The choice of word-order is seldom relevant gram. in Russian, it is only relevant stylistically. Modern English has comparatively few gram. inflexions it is characterized by a certain “scarcily” or “poverty” of inflexions and in a great number of cases by the absence of synthetic forms of word-changing. There are two different ways of inflexion: synthetic (affixation, morphophonemic alternation, supplexion) and analytical. The word order plays a very important role in expressing gram. relations in an English sentence. It is fixed to a greater degree than in inflected language. The rigid word order and scarcity of inflexion result in a very peculiar English sentence structure: it tends to be completed. Hence, the use of a special set of words employed as structural substitutes (prop-words) for a certain part of speech: the noun substitutes (one, that), the verb substitutes (do, to), the adverb and adjective substitutes (so). Practically any word or a group of words preceding the head-word is automatically felt to be attributive, i.e. it becomes its attribute, its premodifier (films festivals). The tendency towards heavy premodification, i.e. the use of complex group premodifiers, i.e. spreading in English (round-the-clock service). To revoid the repetition of the head word in a phrase, we use a substitute word. Thus preserving a usual structure and completeness of an English sentence (She is a teacher and a good one). Possessing such a poorly developed system of word changing, Modern English widely uses function words for connecting words and phrases and for expressing various grammatical meanings of words and their syntactic functions in the sentence. Function words include prepositions, conjunctions, articles. Their role in expressing syntactical relations in Modern English can hardly be overestimated, without function words the English language wouldn’t simply work. The status of function words is to a certain extent contradictory: being words by the form, by their function they belong to the grammatical structure. Though the number of function words is very limited, they enjoy the high frequency of occurrence, especially the article “the”, the conjunction “and” and the preposition “of”. Among the distinctive features characterizing Modern English we should also point out the existence of the so-called secondary or potential predication, resulting in rapid spread and wide use of predicate complexes or constructions, which are directly related to certain types of subordinate clauses. The predicative complex, including a nominal and a verbal components, is not self-dependent in a predicative sense. It normally exists only as a part of a sentence, which is built up by means of a primary predicative constructions that has a finite verb as its backbone. Some foreign linguists, mainly those, who shared the reactionary theory of the supremacy of one language over another tried to make people believe that such phenomena as “heavy premodification” or “secondary predication” directly reflected racial and political supremacy of the English nation. O. Jespersen, being a Dane himself and a prominent anglicist, was an ardent admirer of the English language. In his book “Growth and Structure of the English Language” he wrote: “Although such combinations as the last mentioned are only found in more or less jocular style, they show the possibilities of the language, and some expressions of a similar order belong permanently to the language…Such things – and they might be easily multiplied – are inconceivable in such a language as French, where everything is condemned that does not conform to a definite set of rules laid down by grammarians. The French language is like the stiff French garden of Louis XIV, while the English language is like an English park, which is laid out seemingly without any definite plan (order), and in which you are allowed to walk everywhere according to your own fancy without having to fear a stern keeper enforcing rigorous regulations. The English language would not have been what it is if the English had not been for centuries great respecters of the liberties of each individual and if everybody had not been free to strike out new paths for himself”. 10. The English noun, its semantic and grammatical peculiarities. The noun is the central lexical unit of language. It is the main nominative unit of speech. As any other part of speech, the noun can be characterised by three criteria: semantic (the meaning), morphological (the form and grammatical catrgories) and syntactical (functions, distribution). The noun denotes substance or thingness. It is considered to be the main nominative part of the speech. Nouns name things, living creatures, qualities, places, materials, states, abstract notions. The noun has the power by way of nomination, to isolate different properties of substances and present them as corresponding self-depended substances. Practically any part of speech can be substantivized. Semantic features of the noun. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness, substantiality. According to different principles of classification nouns fall into several subclasses: 1. According to the type of nomination they may be proper and common; 2. According to the form of existence they may be animate and inanimate. Animate nouns in their turn fall into human and non-human. 3. According to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable and uncountable. This set of subclasses cannot be put together into one table because of the different principles of classification. Semantically nouns fall into proper and common. Common nouns are subdivided into count and non-count. The former are inflected for number where the latter are not. Further distinction is into concrete, abstract and material. Concrete Countable Abstract Common Nouns Non-countable Material Proper Abstract Concrete nouns fall into three subclasses: 1. Nouns denoting animate beings (living beings) – persons and animals. 2. Nouns denoting inanimate objects. 3. Collective nouns denoting a group of persons. These may be further subdivided into: a) collective nouns proper denoting both a group consisting of separate individuals and at the same time considered as a single body. e.g. The family were on friendly but guarded terms. Our family is neither large nor small. b) nouns of multitude which are always associated with the idea of plurality, they denote a group of separate individuals: police, clergy, cattle, etc. e.g. The police here are efficient. According to their morphological composition nouns can be divided into simple, derived, compound. Simple nouns consist of only one root-morpheme: dog, chair, room, roof, tree, etc. Derived nouns are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes (prefixes or suffixes). The main noun-forming suffixes are those building up abstract nouns and those building up concrete, personal nouns. The categorial functional properties of the noun are determined by its semantic properties. The most characteristic substantive functions of the noun are those of the subject and the object. Other syntactic functions – attributive, adverbial, predicative – are not immediately characteristic of the substantive quality of the noun. It is to be noted that, while performing these nonsubstantive functions, the noun essentially differs from other parts of speech used in similar sentence positions. This may be clearly shown by transformations shifting the noun from various non-subject syntactic positions into subject syntactic positions of the same general semantic value, which is impossible with other parts of speech. Besides countability, nouns can be described by four other important grammatical characteristics: gender, number, person, and case. These grammatical characteristics are reflected in the choice of pronouns, the choice of number endings on the noun (singular or plural), and the choice of subject-verb agreement endings when the noun is a subject. Gender plays a relatively minor part in the grammar of English by comparison with its role in many other languages. There is no gender concord, and the reference of the pronouns he, she, it is very largely determined by what is sometimes referred to as ‘natural’ gender for English, it depends upon the classification of persons and objects as male, female or inanimate. Thus, the recognition of gender as a grammatical category is logically independent of any particular semantic association. Case expresses the relation of a word to another word in the word-group or sentence (my sister’s coat). The category of case correlates with the objective category of possession. The case category in English is realized through the opposition: The Common Case: The Possessive Case (sister – sister’s). However, in modern linguistics the term “genitive case” is used instead of the “possessive case” because the meanings rendered by the “`s” sign are not only those of possession. The scope of meanings rendered by the Genitive Case is the following: 1. Possessive Genitive : Mary’s father – Mary has a father, 2. Subjective Genitive: The doctor’s arrival – The doctor has arrived, 3. Objective Genitive : The man’s release – The man was released, 4. Adverbial Genitive : Two hour’s work – X worked for two hours, 5. Equation Genitive : a mile’s distance – the distance is a mile, 6. Genitive of destination: children’s books – books for children, 7. Mixed Group: yesterday’s paper. The grammatical category of number is the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity. The number category is realized through the opposition of two form-classes: the plural form :: the singular form. The category of number in English is restricted in its realization because of the dependent implicit grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness. The number category is realized only within subclass of countable nouns. 11. The English verb, its semantic and grammatical properties. The general categorial meaning of the verb is “action”, “process”, presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time. This general meaning is characteristic of all the verbs, including those that denote states, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc., rather than actions. Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality. The complexity of the verb is inherent not only in the intricate structure of its grammatical categories, but also in its various subclass divi-sions, as well as in its falling into two sets of forms profoundly different from each other: the finite set and the non-finite set. Semantically verbs are divided into notional and semi-notional verbs. The majority of English verbs are notional, i.e. possessing full lexical meaning. Connected with it is their isolability, i.e. the ability to make a sentence alone: Come! Read it! Semi-notional and functional verbs have very general “faded” lexical meanings as in be, have, become, seem, can, may, must, etc. or structural meaning as with do, shall, will, where the meaning of “action” is almost obliterated. Semi-notional and functional verbs are hardly isolatable. Their combinability is usually bilateral as they serve to connect words in speech. They are comparatively few in number but they are of very frequent occurrence and include such groups as: - auxiliaries - link-verbs (copulas) - modal verbs - semi-notionalverbid introducer verbs (M.Y. Blokh’s classification) Auxiliary verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorial forms of the verb: be, have, do, shall, will. They serve to build up analytical forms in the conjugation of the English verb. Some grammarians treat link-verbs as altogether devoid of all lexical meaning (meaningful content). If it were so there would be no difference between: He is old. He becomes old. A linkverb is followed by a predicative or in other words it introduces the nominal part of the predicate which is commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective, or a phrase of a similar semanticogrammatical character. The linking function in the purest form is, perhaps, expressed by the verb “be” – a pure link-verb. All the other link-verbs express some specification of this general predicative – linking semantics. They can be subdivided into 2 groups of verbs: - those expressing perceptions (seem, appear, look, feel, taste) - those expressing non-perceptional or “factual” link-verb connection (become, get, grow, remain, keep). In modern English an ever greater number of notional verbs are used with a linking function, so that they may be called notional links: Modal verbs are characterized: 1) by their peculiar modal meanings; the meaning of “action, process” common to all verbs is scarcely felt, being suppressed by the modal meanings: ability, permission, doubt, supposition, necessity, etc. to perform an action denoted by a notional verb; 2) by their peculiar combinability, which is also bilateral like that of link-verbs, but unlike link-verbs which can attach different parts of speech, modal verbs are followed only by infinitives; 3) by their syntactic function; having no non-finite forms, they are used only as predicates. Semi-notional verbid introducer verbs are distributed among the verbal sets: seem, happen, turn out, try, manage, fail, begin, continue, stop. The predicator verbs should be strictly distinguished from their grammatical homonyms in the subclasses of notional verbs: From the point of view of their outward structure verbs are characterized by specific forms of word-building as well as by the formal features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories. The verb stems may be simple, sound (stress) – replacive, expanded, composite and phrasal (M.Y. Blokh’s classification). The original simple verb stems are not numerous: to go, to take, to read, etc. But conversion (zerosuffixation or hypostasis) as a means of word-building in English especially of the noun →verb type greatly enlarges the simple stem set of verbs: to cloud (N→V), to house (N→V). The sound-replacive type of word-building and the stress-replacive type of derivation are unproductive: food – to feed, blood – to bleed, import – to import, contact – to contact, etc. The typical suffixes expanding the stem of the verbs are: to cultivate, to broaden, to clarify, to normalize, etc. The verb-deriving prefixes of the inter-class type are: to befriend, to belittle, to embed, etc. Some other characteristic verbal prefixes are: to remake, to undergo, to overestimate, to misunderstand, to undo, etc. The composite (compound) verb stems correspond to the composite non-verb stems from which they are etymologically derived. Here belong the compounds of the conversion type: to blackmail, to broadcast, to whitewash. The phrasal verb stems occupy an intermediary position between analytical forms of the verb and syntactic word combinations. Among such stems 2 specific constructions should be mentioned. The first is a combination of the head-verb have, give, take and occasionally some others with a noun; the combination has as its equivalent an ordinary verb: to have a smoke – to smoke, to give a smile – to smile, to take a stroll – to stroll, etc. The second is a combination of a head-verb with a verbal postposition. Some grammarians call them “verb-adverb combinations”. They have also been called “separable verbs”, “multi-word (poly-word) verbs”, “compound verbs”, “merged verbs”. Their peculiar features are as follows: a) they function as single parts of speech; b) their 2 parts may be separated from each other by intervening elements. Such verbs, though often colloquial, add an idiomatic power to the language and enable it to express various subtle distinctions of thought and meaning: bring up, come in, get over, make out, make up, etc. It is to be noted that they are more picturesque and forcible than their neutral counterparts: The number of phrasal verbs in the language has grown remarkably especially in the XX century, and constitute one of the most distinctive features of English. The grammatical categories which find formal expression in the outward structure of the verb are closely connected with the division of all the verbs into finite and non-finite forms. The grammatical nature of the finite forms may be characterized by the following seven oppositions with reference to: a) Person (1st person ::3rd person) I read :: He reads b) Number (Singular :: Plural) c) Time (Non-Past :: Past Non-Future :: Future) d) Mood (Indicative :: Subjunctive Non-Imperative :: Imperative) e) The Aspective Character of the verb (Continuous :: Non-Continuous) f) Voice distinctions (Active :: Passive) She reads :: They read She was :: They were I write :: I wrote I write :: I shall write If he knows it now :: If he knew it now She was dancing for half an hour :: She danced gracefully We invited him :: He was invited I asked :: I was asked g) Time correlation (Order, Phase) I am writing :: I have written (Non-Perfect :: Perfect) When I came :: He had already got up Out of the above mentioned categories 3 are found not only in the finites but in the non-finites as well: Voice, Aspect, Phase. Combinability of the verb is closely connected with its lexico-grammatical (categorical) meaning. Denoting an action the verb is naturally associated 1) with nouns and noun – equivalents: either the doer of the action or the recipient of the action, 2) with adverbs and their equivalents qualifying an action. The most typical function of the finite verb in the sentence is the predicate. The nonfinite forms have other functions but they can perform the function of secondary predicates in secondary predications: 12. Non-finite forms of the English verb, and their use in predicative complexes. On the upper level of classification the finite forms are opposed to the non-finites: the Participle, the Infinitive and the Gerund. This grammatical opposition is based on the notion "finitude" which was introduced by Barbara Strang in her book "Modern English Structure" (London). The opposition between the finite and the non-finite forms of the verb creates a special grammatical category. The differential feature of the opposition is constituted by the expression of verbal time and mood, i.e. the ability of a finite verb to express the time-mood categorial meaning underlies its finite predicate function (it is the strong member). The non-finite forms of the verb have no immediate means of expressing time-mood categorial meaning and thus present a weak member of the opposition. It's possible to say that the opposition between the finite verbs and the non-finite verbs is based on the expression of the function of full predication and semipredication. The non-finites are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-grammatical features between the verb and the non-processual parts of speech (the noun, the adjective). They combine verbal and nominal (or adjectival) features. The mixed features of these forms are revealed in the principal spheres of the part-of-speech classification, i.e. in their meaning, structural marking, combinability, syntactic functions. Their categorial (lexico-grammatical) meaning is of dual nature. The verbal meaning of action (process) is presented as some kind of substance (Gerund, Infinitive) or quality (Participle). The nominal features can be best traced in their syntactic functions. Thus, for instance, in accordance with its adjectival nature the Participle can be used in the function of an attribute, both in preposition and postposition, a predicative and adverbial modifiers. The infinitive and the Gerund, in their turn, may be used in all the syntactic positions which are typical of a noun, i.e. as subject, object, predicate, attribute (mostly in postposition). The non-finites are formed by special morphemic elements which do not express either grammatical time or mood (the most specific verb categories): -ing (Gerund and Participle I), (e)d, -(e)n (Participle II) and to (Infinitive). Unlike the finite forms which possess 7grammatical categories the non-finite forms have only 3 grammatical categories – Aspect, Voice, Time Correlation. There's also duality in their combinability. They form combinations with adverbs, nouns, pronouns (denoting objects or circumstances of actions) and thus perform verbal functions in the sentence. On the other hand, they can be combined with finite verbs like nouns or adverbs, thus performing non-verbal functions in the sentence. As has been stated above, their syntactic functions are quite different from those of the finite verbs. They are very rarely used as predicates )except secondary ones) but they are employed for almost any other function in the sentence. The non-finites unable to express the predicative meanings of time and mood still express the socalled secondary or potential predication, forming syntactic complexes directly related to certain types of subordinate clauses. The complex is not self-dependent in a predicative sense. It normally exists only as a part of a sentence which is built up by means of primary predicative constructions that have a finite verb as their backbone. The system of the non-finites in English is represented by 3categorial forms: the Infinitive, the ing form (Participle I and the Gerund), Participle II. The Infinitive has 2 variants marked and unmarked. The marked Infinitive is an analytical form, characterized by the morpheme to + Inf. , i.e. it is a combination of a special formal word, the marker of the Infinitive to, with the base (stem) of a verb having a zero ending. The unmarked Infinitive, contrariwise, is a bare infinitive, i.e. the one having a zero ending Inf. . As stated by L. S. Barkhudarov, the difference between the marked Infinitive and the unmarked Infinitive is syntactical (functional) rather than morphological: the unmarked form of the Infinitive is combined with modal verbs. These forms are the two variants of one and the same categorical form. The difference between them depends on the syntactical construction in which the Infinitive occurs, there being a regular parallelism in their usage. The –ing form is characterized by the morpheme -ing , which is represented by the only allomorph the suffix i . Traditional grammar distinguishes between two different sets of homonymous forms with the suffix -ing Participle I (Present Simple) and the Gerund. As there is no external difference between the two sets the question may arise whether there is enough reason to say that there are two sets of forms or there is only one set of forms ( the –ing form) which in different contexts acquire different shades of meaning and perform different syntactic functions. This view was put forward by Dutch scholar E. Kruisinga. Using the term Participle I and the Gerund one should bear in mind that they are but 2 types of the syntactical functioning of one and the same form. Note: Apart from the inflexional morpheme ‘’-ing’’ there are 2 more homonymous derivational (word forming) morphemes that of a noun and that of an adjective: the reading of the bill the comings and goings in the house an interesting man. Participle II is characterized by the morpheme {-en} represented by a greater number of allomorphs than the morphemes of the Infinitive and the -ing form. Most productive are the three phonologically conditioned allomorphs /d/, /t/, /id/. Others are the suffix (-en), e.g. taken, fallen; simply in , e.g. known; a zero morph, e.g. put, set; etc. As the Participle has only one form, it does not possess any of the grammatical categories of the Infinitives and the —ing form. The grammatical meaning of the Participle is closely connected with the lexical character of the verb. The participle is, in the main, formed from transitive verbs and has passive meaning. e.g. It was a question put down by one of the correspondents. The number of participles formed from intransitive verbs is very limited. They have active meaning and usually denote an action preceding that of the predicative verb. e.g. The house was made of unpainted plank, gone grey now. One of the most striking peculiarities of Modem English structure is the existence of the socalled “complex parts” in the sentence. Complex parts of the sentence are often expressed by specific syntactic structures which are traditionally called “Predicative Complexes” in English Grammar. A predicative complex comprises a nominal and a verbal components, which function as one syntactic whole, as a complex part of the sentence. The relations between the nominal and the verbal components in a predicative complex are similar to those between the subject and the predicate in a sentence: the nominal component denotes the doer of the action and the verbal component denotes the action itself. These relations are also known as secondary predication. The difference between the subject and the predicate of the sentence, on the one hand, and the nominal and the verbal components of the predicative complex, on the other hand, lies in the form. In contrast to the morphologically agreed subject and predicate, the nominal and the verbal components of a complex do not agree in person and number. It should be also stressed that the nominal element of the complex is always different from the subject of the sentence. Each non-finite form of the verb can form a predicative complex, thus, we distinguish Infinitive, Participial and Gerundial Complexes. The Infinitive builds up the following complexes: the Subjective-with-the Infinitive Construction the Objective-with-the Infinitive Construction the For-to-Infinitive Construction The Subjective-with-the Infinitive Construction consists of a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the nominative case and an infinitive. As is shown by the name of this predicative construction, its parts are the subject of the sentence and the Infinitive, which stand in predicate relation to each other. Such sentences can be transformed into complex ones with the indefinite-personal subject in the principal clause: The peculiarity of this complex is that the subject of the sentence coincides with the nominal component of the complex itself. It is mostly used after verbs in the Passive form and after certain verbs (happen, chance, appear, turn out, prove, seem) in the active form and performs the function of the Complex Subject Sentences with this construction are usually translated into Russian by means of an impersonal principal clause and a subordinate one. The Objective-with-the Infinitive Construction consists of a noun (or a noun- pronoun) in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case and an infinitive. It functions as a Complex Object and is used after a wide range of verbs, taking both a direct and an indirect nonrecipient object. This construction is usually translated into Russian by means of a subordinate clause: The For-to-Infinitive Construction is expressed by a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case and an infinitive with the particle to. It is introduced by the preposition for. The construction may function as different parts of the sentence: subject predicative object attribute adverbial modifier of purpose. adverbial modifier of consequence Participle builds up the following complexes: the Subjective Participial Construction the Objective Participial Construction the Absolute Nominative Construction The Subjective Participial Construction consists of a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the nominative case serving as the subject of the sentence and a participle. The subject of the sentence and the Participle stand in predicate relation to each other. e.g. The children were left playing on the floor. The car was last seen parked at the hotel. He was heard singing aloud. This construction is parallel to the Subjective Infinitive Construction. The Objective Participial Construction consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case and participle, forming a syntactical complex, the two main components of which are in predicative relationship. In comparison with the Infinitive in this function Participle I shows more clearly the durative character of the action. The construction functions as a complex object. The Absolute Nominative Construction consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case and Participle I or Participle II. The nominal and the verbal components make a syntactical complex functioning as a detached adverbial modifier. The position of the construction varies: it can either open the sentence or close it. The Absolute Nominative Participial Construction is generally used as an adverbial modifier of reason or attendant circumstances, although sometimes it is an adverbial of time. Occasionally, especially with the verbs to permit and to fail, it is an adverbial of condition. This construction is often used with the preposition “with”: e.g. I can't write with you standing there. He went into the house, with a curious sadness pressing upon him. She stand with her arms folded, staring thoughtfully. The Gerund builds up the following complex: The Gerundial Construction The Gerundial Construction is a predicative complex in which the nominal part is generally expressed by a noun in the possessive case or a possessive pronoun. Sometimes, however, the nominal component may be a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case (it is called a half-gerundial construction). The construction may function as different parts of the sentence: subject e.g. Your doing nothing won’t help anybody. predicative e.g. The only way out will be his taking the job. object e.g. She liked his worrying about his wife. attribute e.g He had a sudden idea of going to the South in winter. adverbial modifier of time, attendant circumstances or concession. e.g. After his being away for some time the crisis came. LEXICOLOGY 13. Etymological survey of the English vocabulary. Etymology is the branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words. From the point of view of etymology, English vocabulary can be divided into 2 parts: 70% of borrowings in English language, 30% of native words. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, besides, this word is found in Old English. Native words are words brought by Anglo-Saxons from the continent and have cognates from other European languages but cannot be traced to any particular language. The importance of native words in the English vocabulary is often overlooked because of a multitude of foreign words in Modern English Native words in the English vocabulary are very often simple in their structure, but serve as a basis for word-formation. The peculiar feature of native words in the language is their stability. They live for centuries. But in the course of time a certain number of Old English words have fallen out of the vocabulary. Words of native origin are divide into 3 groups: IE, common Germanic, English proper element. IE: auxilaries, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, natural phenomena,animals family relations; parts of human body; numerous verbs: stand, sit; numerals. common Germanic include words which have parallels in such languages as german, French, etc. 3 groups” common nouns: room; Common Adj:, common V: learn English element proper.: bird, boy, girl, woman, lord, always, call, daisy. The three main layers in the native words are: a) common Indo-European words; names of some natural phenomena, plants and animals, agricultural terms, names of parts of the human body, terms of kinship, b) common Germanic words - connected with nature, with the sea and everyday life. c) specifically OE words- layer of native words which do not occur in other Germanic or nonGermanic languages. The history of words throws light on the history of the speaking community and its contacts with other people. A loan word, borrowed word or borrowing is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonetic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language. 70% of the English vocabulary consists of borrowings due to specific conditions of the English language development. The role played by borrowings is conditioned by direct and indirect linguistic contacts, the English language system absorbed and remodeled the majority of borrowings to its own standards but in spite of the changes they have undergone we can recognize them and trace their origin. The English language happened to come in long and close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (Scandinavian). The great influx of borrowings from these sources can be accounted for by a number of historical causes. Due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse was the language of the conquerors who were on the same level of social and cultural development and who merged rather easily with the local population in the 9th, 10th and the first half of 11th century. French, (to be more exact its Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social systemdeveloped feudalism, it was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century. The borrowings from French refer to various fields of social-political, scientific and cultural life. Also a large portion of borrowings is scientific and technical terms. Yet more than half of the vocabulary of English is of Latin origin, implanted either directly during the four centuries or indirectly by eclectic borrowings in later epochs from Mn French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. Through the centuries it has borrowed so profusely from all other languages on earth and has assimilated words so successfully that today only professional scholars are aware of the national origins of many words in daily use. Here are some examples: From Italian: balcony, brigade, colonel, piano, umbrella. From Persian: check, chess, divan, lemon, lilac, shawl. From Greek: acrobat, Bible, catastrophe, idiot, tactics. From Spanish: alligator, canyon, sherry, rodeo. Arabic : admiral, alcohol, algebra, camel, coffee, harem, lemon, massage; Turkish : Altai, ataman; Portuguese : breeze, caramel, cobra; Norwegian : bag, kidnap, slalom; Italian : bronze, dome, mascara, concert, opera, piano; Dutch : boom, boss, cookie, easel, landscape; Russian : babushka, balalayka, samovar, sputnik, duma, banya. Latin borrowings: they are divided into 3 periods: 1) 5 century, words are connected with trade (pound, inch, kitchen, wall, port); 2) The time of Christianity, words are connected with religion (Latin words: alter, cross, dean; Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem); 3) Time of renaissance, words were borrowed after great vowel shift (17 century) (item, superior, zoology, memorandum, vice versa, AM, PM). French: the largest group of borrowings is French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman Conquest. Normans belong to the race of scand. origin but during their residence in Normandy they had given up the native language and adopted the French dialect. During 3 centuries after the Norman Conquest French was the language of the court, of the nobility. There are following semantic groups of French borrowings: 1) words relating to government (administer, empire, state); 2) ~military affairs (army, war, battle); 3) ~jurisprudence (advocate, petition, sentence); 4) ~fashion (luxury, coat, collar); 5)~jewelry (topaz, pearl); 6)~ food and cooking (lunch, cuisine, menu); 7)~literature and music (pirouette, ballet). Italian: cultural and trade relations between England and Italy in the epoch of renaissance brought in many Italian words: 1) musical terms: concert, solo, opera, piano, trio; 2) political terms: manifesto; 3) geological terms: volcano, lava. Among the 20th century Italian borrowings, we can mention: incognito, fiasco, and graffiti. Spanish: a large number of such words was penetrated in English vocabulary in 1588 when Phillip 2 sent a fleet of armed ships against England (armada, ambuscade); trade terms: cargo, embargo; names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, guitar; names of vegetables and fruits: tomato, tobacco, banana, ananas. GERMANIC BORROWINGS: Scandinavian: By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. As a result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English (pronouns: they, them, their; verbs: to call, to want, to die; adj: flat, ill, happy; noun: cake, egg, knife, window. German: in the period of Second World War such words were borrowed as: luftwaffe (возд. авиация); bundeswehr (вооруженные силы ФРГ). After the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Volkswagen, berufsverbot (запрет на профессию (в ФРГ)), and some other words (cobalt, wolfram, iceberg, rucksack). Dutch: Holland and England have had constant interrelations for many centuries and more then 2000 Dutch words were borrowed into English. Many of them are nautical terms and were mainly borrowed in the 14th century, such as: skipper, pump, keel, dock; and some words from everyday life: luck, brandy, and boss. Russian: Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as: rubble, kopeck, sterlet, vodka, and words relating to nature: taiga, tundra, steppe. After the October revolution many new words appeared in Russia, connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into English: collectivization, udarnik, Komsomol and also translation loans: five-year plan, collective farm. One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, suck as: glasnost, nomenclature, and apparatchik. 14. Homonymy in English: sources of homonymy; classification of English homonyms. Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning.(bank, n. -a shore, an institution for receiving money; ball, n.- a sphere; a large dancing party)In the process of communication they lead sometimes to confusion and misunderstanding. Yet it is this very characteristic which makes them one of the most important sources of popular humour. Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling. The term “homonymy” is derived from Greek homos – “similar” and onoma – “name”, and thus expresses the sameness of name combined with the difference in meaning. E.g.: bank, n. – a shore; bank, n. – an institution for receiving, lending, exchanging money. Ball, n. – a sphere, any spherical body; ball, n. – a large dancing party. Smirnitsky classified homonyms into 2 classes: I. full, II. partial Full lexical homonyms are words which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm. match-a game, match- a short piece of wood. Partial homonyms: A. Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words which belong to the same category of parts of speech.(to) found-found ( find) B.Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech.rose-rose, maid-made, left-left, bean-been, one-won C.Partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms.to lie (lay, lain), v. to lie (lied, lied), v.to hang (hung, hung), v.to hang (hanged, hanged), v.to can (canned, canned) (I) can (could) Sources: 1) phonetic changes-historical development of words(knight-night), 2) borrowing-a borrowed word may dublicate in form(rite-to write-right. rite here is a Latin borrowing) 3)conversion (comb-to comb) 4)shortening(fan-from fanatic, fan-an implement to make a current of air) 5)sound imitation (bang звук расческа) There are several classifications of homonyms. One of them is based on the type of meaning and according to it homonyms may be classified into lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical. Lexical homonyms belong to one and the same part of speech and the grammatical meanings of all their forms are identical, but they are different in their lexical meaning. E.g., ball1 – a round object used in games, ball2 – a gathering of people for dancing; Ukrainian: 6paк — spoilage and 6paк — marriage, ключ, — source, spring, fountain and ключ — key. Lexico-grammatical homonyms differ both in lexical and grammatical meanings, they belong to different parts of speech. E.g., bear1 – animal, bear2 – to carry; seal1 – a sea animal, seal2 – to close tightly, Ukrainian: ніс (на обличчі) - ніс (минулий час від нести). Grammatical homonyms differ in grammatical meaning only. It is the homonymy of different word-forms of one and the same word. E.g., stopped1 – the Past Indefinite, stopped2 – Participle II. Ukrainian: відносно — prp., відносно — adverb; точно— c j., точно— adverb. The following examples are highly illustrative: provided – Participle II from provide, provided – коли, з умовою; regarding – Participle I from regard, regarding – відносно; owing – Participle I from owe, owing (to) – навпаки; just — adverb, just — particle of emphatic precision. The second classification is based not only on the meaning, but all the three aspects (sound-form, graphic form and meaning) are taken into account. Here we distinguish homonyms proper, homophones and homographs. Homonyms proper (perfect) are words identical both in sound-form and in graphic form but different in meaning. (back-back,pit дыра-косточка) The important point is that homonyms are distinct words: not different meanings within one word. Homophones are words identical in sound-form but different both in spelling and meaning. E.g., son (син) — sun (сонце), pair (пара) — pear (груша), Homographs are words identical in spelling but different both in their sound-form and in meaning. E.g., tear /tiə/, /tεə/, lead /li:d/, /led/, wind /wind/, /waind/, bow (поклін) — bow (лук), row (ряд) — row (шум, ґвалт) 15. The problem of semantic change in English: its causes, nature and results To understand the development of word meaning it is necessary to investigate the causes of semantic change, to find out the nature of various changes of meaning and to describe the results. The Causes of Semantic Change. Word-meaning is liable to change in the course of historical development. The word fond diachronically meant foolish, glad had the meaning of bright, shining. There are two main causes accounting for the change of meaning. They are extra-linguisticand linguistic. The extralinguistic causes are mainly determined by the social nature of the language, by the appearance of new notions and things. The influence of various life changes is illustrated as follows: the word car goes back to Latin carrus which meant a four-wheeled wagon but now that other means of transport are used it denotes a motor-car, a railway carriage (USA), antenna meant tendrils of insects. Some changes of meaning are due to purely linguistic causes - factors acting within the language system. The commonest linguistic causes are differentiation (discrimination) of synonyms; ellipsis; linguistic analysis. Semantic change due to the discrimination of synonyms is a process which is often observed when English and French or Latin synonyms come into coalition. The word land in OE meant both solid part of earth’s surface and the territory of a nation. Then the word country was borrowed from Old French and the meaning of the word land was altered and the territory of a nation came to be denoted by the borrowed word country. A vivid example of ellipsis is the verb to starve. In Old English steorfan had the meaning to die and was used in collocation with the word hunger. But in the 16th century the word itself acquired the meaning to die of hunger. Similar changes may be seen in Modern English when the meaning of one word is transferred to another because they habitually occur together in speech. Linguistic analysis shows that if one of the members of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning, other members of the synonymic set change their meanings too, e.g., after the verb to catch had acquired the meaning of «to understand», its synonyms to grasp, to get came into usage with the same meaning. The Nature of Semantic Change. The process of development of a new meaning or a change of meaning is traditionally termed transference as in any case of semantic change the word is transferred from one referent onto another. In any language there are some associations involved in semantic changes between the old meaning and the new known as either metaphor (transference based on resembles or similarity) or metonymy(transference based on contiguity). Metaphor can be described as a semanticprocess of associating two referents one of which in some way resembles the other. Metaphor is based on the perception of similarities, so when an analogy is obvious, it should give rise to a metaphorical meaning (the hand of the clock, the foot of the hill, the leg of the table; warm (cold) voice). There are two kinds of metaphor. The first is poetic metaphor ormetaphor as a literary device that doesn’t impart the word with a new meaning outside the given context (an army of shoes). Linguistic metaphor imparts the word with the new meaning registered by dictionaries (the white of the eye). Metaphors may be based on different types of similarity: * similarity of shape (a head of cabbage, a tongue of a bell, an eye of a needle); * similarity of function (the head of the army, the head of the school); * similarity of position (the foot of a page, arms and the mouth of a river); * similarity of out-word appearance (to saw the air (жестикулировать), egg (бомба), claret). There are other types of similarity, too. As we can see from the examples mentioned words most liable to adopt metaphoric meaning are words denoting parts of a human body. Such metaphors are called anthropometaphic metaphors. Another group of words liable to adopt metaphoric meaning is presented by words denoting animals or fruits. Such metaphors are often used to describe people (a fox [a cunning person], a goose [a silly person], a cow [if a person is awkward or boring], [an older woman can be called] a hen; a peach [a beautiful woman], a lemon [an ugly girl]). One more group of words comprises transitions of proper names into common ones (an Apollo, a Cicero, a Don Juan, a Venus). A contemporary English linguist M. McCarthy offers his division of metaphors into conventional and creative. Metaphor, as a device for creating and extending meaning, is very important in the study of vocabulary. Two writers on the subject, G. Lakoff and M. Johnson argue that metaphor is all-pervasive in language, and that whole cognitive domains can be the subject of metaphor. E.g., if we take the metaphor argument is war, English offers a range of conventional metaphors to verbalize features of argument [He made a vicious attack on my position. She won’t retreat from her position. They bombarded me with objections. I came under fire from all directions]. We can equally use metaphors of animal behavior and animal noises to describe people’s postures, human speech, attitudes in argument [He snapped at her. «I won’t have it», he barked. I fell prey to his persuasiveness.] Temperature is used as metaphors for degrees of friendliness, a person may be cold or cool towards another, or may be considered to have a warm personality. McCarthy insists on treating conventional metaphors as other multi-word (phraseological) units. Creative metaphors are those constructed by speakers themselves, their tolerance limits are crucial, and shift from context to context [The government has microwaved, rather than cooked up, its new economic policy. He simply toothached all our proposals.] Metonymy may be described as the semantic process of associating two referents one of which makes part of the other. The transfer may be conditioned by spatial (the House - dwelling and members of the House of Parliament; bench - a place to sit and judges; the chair - a piece of furniture and a teaching staff), symbolic (the crown - monarchy, from the cradle to the grave - from birth till death),and other connections.Speaking about metonymy we can see that common names may be derived from proper [people’s names, geographical ones] (diesel, vat, ohm, ampere; twig; china; raglan, mackintosh) The Results of Semantic Change. The results of semantic change can be observed in the changes in the denotational meaning of the word or in the changes of its connotational component. Semantic changes in the denotational component may bring about the extension (application of the word to a wider range of referents -camp was used to denote only the place where troops are lodged in tents, now temporary quarters)or the restriction (restriction of the type or range of referents denoted by the word - hound denoted a dog of any breed now only a dog used in the chase) of meaning. The change in connotational component may result in the pejorative (acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive charge) or ameliorative (the improvement of the connotational component of meaning - minister denoted a servant and now a civil servant of higher rank) development of meaning. 16. Semantic similarity and polarity of words within the lexical system of Modern English. Synonyms The traditional initial category of words that can be singled out on the basis of proximity is synonyms. The degree of proximity varies from semantic equivalence to partial semantic similarity. The classes of full synonyms are very rare and limited mainly two terms. The greatest degree of similarity is found in those words that are identical in their denotational aspect of meaning and differ in connotational one (e.g. father- dad; imitate – monkey). Such synonyms are called stylistic synonyms. However, in the major of cases the change in the connotational aspect of meaning affects in some way the denotational aspect. These synonyms of the kind are called ideographic synonyms (e.g. clever – bright, smell – odor). Differ in their denotational aspect ideographic synonyms (kill-murder, power – strength, etc.) – these synonyms are most common. It is obvious that synonyms cannot be completely interchangeable in all contexts. Synonyms are words different in their sound-form but similar in their denotational aspect of meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts. Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element. This synonymic dominant is general term which has no additional connotation (e.g. famous, celebrated, distinguished; leave, depart, quit, retire, clear out). Syntactic dominants have high frequency of usage, vast combinability and lack connotation. Antonyms The semantic relations of opposition are the basis for grouping antonyms. The term "antonym" is of Greek origin and means “opposite name”. It is used to describe words different in some form and characterised by different types of semantic contrast of denotational meaning and interchangeability at least in some contexts. Structurally, all antonyms can be subdivided into absolute (having different roots) and derivational (of the same root), (e.g. "right"- "wrong"; "to arrive"- "to leave" are absolute antonyms; but "to fit" - "to unfit" are derivational). Semantically, all antonyms can be divided in at least 3 groups: a) Contradictories. They express contradictory notions which are mutually opposed and deny each other. Their relations can be described by the formula "A versus NOT A": alive vs. dead (not alive); patient vs. impatient (not patient). Contradictories may be polar or relative (to hate- to love [not to love doesn't mean "hate"]). b) Contraries are also mutually opposed, but they admit some possibility between themselves because they are gradable (e.g. cold – hot, warm; hot – cold, cool). This group also includes words opposed by the presence of such components of meaning as SEX and AGE (man -woman; man - boy etc.). c) Incompatibles. The relations between them are not of contradiction but of exclusion. They exclude possibilities of other words from the same semantic set (e.g. "red"- doesn't mean that it is opposed to white it means all other colors; the same is true to such words as "morning", "day", "night" etc.). There is another type of opposition which is formed with reversive antonyms. They imply the denotation of the same referent, but viewed from different points (e.g. to buy – to sell, to give – to receive, to cause – to suffer) A polysemantic word may have as many antonyms as it has meanings. But not all words and meanings have antonyms!!! (e.g. "a table"- it's difficult to find an antonym, "a book"). Relations of antonymy are limited to a certain context + they serve to differentiate meanings of a polysemantic word (e.g. slice of bread - "thick" vs. "thin" BUT: person - "fat" vs. "thin"). Semantic classific of words.Semantic similarity or polarity of words mb observed in the similarity of their denotational or connotational mean. Similarity or polarity of the denotational component of lex mean is to be found in lex groups of synonyms & antonyms. Synonymy & antonymy are usually felt to be correlative notions: firstly b/c the criterion of synonymy is semantic similarity which is in exact opposition to the criterion of antonymy – semantic polarity. Secondly, b/c synonymy & antonymy seem to overlap in a number of cases (daddy-parent denotational mean is similar but their styl reference is opposite). Synonyms, classific. Synonyms are words different in sound-form but similar in their denotational meaning. Synonymous relationship is observed only btw similar denotational means of phonemically different words. Similarity of denotaional mean of all members of the synonymic set is combined with a certain difference in the mean of each other. In Engl there are a lot of syn b/c there are many borrowings. After a word is borrowed it undergoes desynonymization, b/c absolute syn are unnecessary for a lang. The only existing classification of syn was established by Vinogradov: ideographic(words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of mean), stylistic(differing in st characteristics), absolute(coinciding in all their shades of mean and in all their st characteristics). Total syn are vary rare(scarlet fever-scarlatina;motherland-fatherland;noun-substantative); ideographic syn bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content (happen-occure-befallchance); dialectal (queue-line,autumn-fall,lift-elevator); contextual syn – words with different mean can become syn in certain context (clever-bright-brainy-intelligent); stylistic syn belong to different styles (child-neutral,infant-elevated,kid-colloquial); terminological syn (concept-notion, borrowing- loanword). Criteria and sources of synonyms.Recently attempts have been made to introduce into definition of synonymy the criterion of interchangeability in linguistic context. It is argued that for the linguistic similarity of meaning implies that the words are synonymous if either of them can occur in the same context. A more acceptable definition of synonyms seems to be the following: synonyms are words different in their sound form, but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least at some context. One of the sources is borrowing. Synonymy has its characteristic PATTERNS IN EACH LANGUAGE. ITS PECULIAR FEATURE IN ENGL IS THE CONTRAST BTW SIMPLE NATIVE WORDS stylistically neutral, literary words borrowed from Fr and learned words of Greco- Latin origin. There are also words that came from the dialects, in the last 100 years from American English ( radio AM- wireless BR). Synonyms are also created by means of all word-forming processes productive In the language ( assimilation and dissimilation). Many words are now marked as archaic or obsolete which have dropped out of the language in the competition of synonyms, others survived with a meaning more or less different from the original one. This process is called synonymic differentiation and is so current that is regarded as an inherent law of language development. +Antonyms. Classification. Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style, expressing contrary or contradictory notions. Mb class into 2 groups: absolute or root antonyms (lateearly) and derivational ant (to please- to displease). Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational ant have the same roots but different afiixes. Antonyms are formed with the help of such suffixes: un, dis, non, ful, less. Absolute and derivational antonyms also differ in semantics. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other (active- inactive). Absolute express contrary notions. Like synonyms, perfect and complete antonyms are rare. Interchangeability is typical of antonyms as well. In a context where one member of the antonymous pair can be used, it is interchangeable with the other member. It is also observed that in certain antonymic pair one of the members has a more generalized or abstract denotational meaning and in some contexts cannot be replaced by the other members of the antonymic pair. 17. Major or minor ways of word-formation in Modern English According to Смирницкий word-formation is a system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic patterns. The main two types are: word-derivation and word-composition (compounding). The basic ways of forming words in word-derivation are affixation and conversion (the formation of a new word by bringing a stem of this word into a different formal paradigm, e.g. a fall from to fall). There exist other types: semantic word-building (homonymy, polysemy), sound and stress interchange (e.g. blood – bleed; increase), acronymy (e.g. NATO), blending (e.g. smog = smoke + fog) and shortening of words (e.g. lab, maths). But they are different in principle from derivation and compound because they show the result but not the process. W-b is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. Word formation is the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. Semantic change is not the type of w-b as it does not lead to the introduction of a new word into the vocabulary. The appearance of homonyms is not a means of creating new words either. There are 4 main ways of w-b in modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation. Affixation– is the creation of a word by modifying its root with an affix. It is a very productive type of word formation. In conformity with the division or derivational affixes into suffixes and prefixes affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation. In modern English suffixation is characteristic of noun and adjective formation. Prefixation is typical of verb formation. Etymological classification: 1. Native: Noun-forming (er, ness, ing, dom, hood, ship) Adjective-forming (ful, less,y,ish,ly,en,some) Verb-forming (en) Adverb-forming (ly) 2. Borrowed affixes: tion, ate, able, ent, ment, age Affixes can also be classified into producrive and non-productive type. By productive affixation we mean those, which take part in deriving new words in the particular period of language development. Suffixation. The main function of suffixes in modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech (“educate” is a verb, “educate” is a noun, “music” is a noun, “musicdom” is also a noun). There are different classifications of suffixes: part-of-speech classification, semantic classification, lexico-grammatical classification, classification according to the origin of suffixes, according to their productivity. Classification of suffixes: Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Noun-forming suffixes: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism) Adjective-forming: -able (breathable), -less (sympthomless), -ous (prestigious) Verb-forming suffixes: ize (computerize), -ify (micrify) Adverbforming: -ly (singly), -ward (tableward) Numeral-forming: -teen, -ty Semantic classification.Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixas can denote: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The agent of the action: -er, -est, -ent :experimenter, taxist, srudent Nationality: ian, -ese, -ish: Russina, Japanese, English Collectivity: dom, -ry, -ship, ati: moviedom, peasantry, readership, literati Diminutiveness: -ie, -let, -ling, ette: horsie, booklet, gooseling, kitchenette Equality: -ness, -ity : copelessness, answerability Lexico-grammatical character of the stem.Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into: 1. Suffixes added to verbal stems : er(commuter), ing (suffering), able (flyable), ment (involvement), ation 2. Suffixes added to noun stems: less, ful, ism, ster, nik, ish 3. Suffixes added to adjective stems: en, ly, ish, ness. Origin of suffixes. 1. 2. 3. 4. Native Germanic):er, ful, less, ly Romance: tion, ment, able, eer Greek: ist, ism, ize Russian: nik Productivity: 1. Productive: er, ize, ly, ness 2. Semi-productive: eer, ette, ward 3. Non-productive: ard (drunkard), th(length) Prefixationis the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semibound morphemes because they are met in the languages as words, e.g. over- (overhead). The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about 25 prefixes in modern English from one part of speech from another (interfamily, postcollege). Prefixes can be classified according to different principles (semantic classification, origin of prefixes). Semantic classification. 1. Prefixes of negative meaning: in (invaluable), non (nonformals), un (unfree) 2. Prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions: de (decolonize), re (revegetation), dis (disconnect) 3. Prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations: inter, hyper, es, pre, over. Origin of prefixes 1. Native (Germanic): un, over, under 2. Romance: in, de, ex, re 3. Greek: sym, hyper Compositionis the way of w-b when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon: 1) the unity of stress, 2) solid or hyphenated spelling, 3) semantic unity, 4) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component) e.g. hard-cover, best seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood-vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stress, e.g. snow-white. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphenated spelling. Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well, because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt solidly and with a break. All the more so that there has appeared in modern English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.g. air piracy, penguin suit. The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. ghostwrite, brain-drain. In nonidiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e.g. airbus, astrodynamics. English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically. According to the parts of speech: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Noun: baby-moon, globe-trotter Adjectives: power-happy, free-for-all Verbs: honeymoon Adverbs: headfirst Prepositions: within 6. Numerals: 55 According to the way components are joined together: 1. Neutral, which are formed by joining together 2 stems without any joining morpheme: windowshop 2. Morphological where components are joined by a linking element: handicraft, sportsman 3. Syntactical, where the components are joined by means of form-word stems: here-andnow, do-or-die. According to their structure 1. Compound words proper which consist of 2 stems: jobhunt, go-go, tip-top 2. Derivational compounds, where besides stems we have affixes: ear-minded, hydroskimmer 3. Compound words consisting of 3 or more stems:eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter 4. Compoundshortened words: motocross, intervision. According to the relations between the components: 1. Subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic and the structural centre and the second component is subordinative. 2. Coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. Here belong such compounds when one person/object has 2 functions: woman-doctor, and words formed by means of reduplication fifty-fifty, no-no, and compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems criss-cross. According to the order of the components compounds: 1. Compounds with direct order: kill-joy 2. Compounds with indirect order: rope-ripe. Conversionis a characteristic feature of the English w-b system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation. The term “conversion” first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet “New English Grammar” in 1891. Conversion is treated differently by different scientists, e.g. Smirntitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when one part of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm, e.g. to form the verb “to dial” from the noun “dial” we change the paradigm of the noun for the paradigm of a regular verb. Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in modern English. Abbreviation. In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extralinguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time. There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other languages are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. Latin borrowing “fanaticus” is shortened to “fan” on the analogy with native words: man, pan, tan, etc. There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical. There are also secondary ways of w-b: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends and back formation. Blending - formation that combines 2 words and include the letters or sounds they have in common as a connecting element (neutopia, bionic, smog) Back-formationdenotes the derivation of new words by subtracing a real or supposed affix from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure. (beggar from burglar, to butle from butler, to baby-sit from babysitter). +Sound and stress interchange may be defined as an opposition in which word or words forms are differentiated due to an alternation in the phonemic composition of the root ( speak-speech, life-live, food-feed). 18. English phraseology: structural and semantic peculiarities of phraseological units; different approaches to their classification. The term "phraseological unit" was introduced by Soviet linguist (Виноградов) and it's generally accepted in this country. It is aimed at avoiding ambiguity with other terms, which are generated by different approaches, are partially motivated and non-motivated. The first classification of phraseological units was advanced for the Russian language by a famous Russian linguist Виноградов. According to the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units can be classified into three big groups: phraseological collocations (сочетания), phraseological unities (единства) and phraseological fusions (сращения). Phraseological collocations are not motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically (e.g. to break the news, to attain success). Phraseological unities are completely motivated as their meaning is transparent though it is transferred (e.g. to shoe one’s teeth, the last drop, to bend the knee). Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated and stable (e.g. a mare’s nest (путаница, неразбериха; nonsense), tit-for-tat – revenge, white elephant – expensive but useless). But this classification doesn’t take into account the structural characteristic, besides it is rather subjective. Prof. Смирнитский treats phraseological units as word’s equivalents and groups them into: (a) onesummit units => they have one meaningful component (to be tied, to make out); (b) multi-summit units => have two or more meaningful components (black art, to fish in troubled waters). Within each of these groups he classifies phraseological units according to the part of speech of the summit constituent. He also distinguishes proper phraseological units or units with non-figurative meaning and idioms that have transferred meaning based on metaphor (e.g. to fall in love; to wash one’s dirty linen in public). This classification was criticized as inconsistent, because it contradicts the principle of idiomaticity advanced by the linguist himself. The inclusion of phrasal verbs into phraseology wasn't supported by any convincing argument. Prof. Амазова worked out the so-called contextual approach. She believes that if 3 word groups make up a variable context. Phraseological units make up the so-called fixed context and they are subdivided into phrases and idioms. The main features of A.V.Koonin’s approach to phraseology Phraseology is regarded as a self-contained branch of linguistics and not as a part of lexicology. His classification is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and also considers the level of stability of phraseological units. Кунин subdivides set-expressions into: phraseological units or idioms(e.g. red tape, mare's nest, etc.), semi-idioms and phraseomatic units(e.g. win a victory, launch a campaign, etc.). Phraseological units are structurally separable language units with completely or partially transferred meanings (e.g. to kill two birds with one stone, to be in a brown stubby – to be in low spirits). Semiidioms have both literal and transferred meanings. The first meaning is usually terminological or professional and the second one is transferred (e.g. to lay down one’s arms). Phraseomatic units have literal or phraseomatically bound meanings (e.g. to pay attention to smth; safe and sound). Кунин assumes that all types of set expressions are characterized by the following aspects of stability: stability of usage (not created in speech and are reproduced ready-made); lexical stability (components are irreplaceable (e.g. red tape, mare's nest) or partly irreplaceable within the limits of lexical meaning, (e.g. to dance to smb tune/pipe; a skeleton in the cupboard/closet; to be in deep water/waters)); semantic complexity (despite all occasional changes the meaning is preserved); syntactic fixity. Idioms and semi-idioms are much more complex in structure than phraseological units. They have a broad stylistic range and they admit of more complex occasional changes. An integral part of this approach is a method of phraseological identification which helps to single out set expressions in Modern English. PUs are defined as non-motivated word-grous that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units. The essential features of PUs are stability of the lexical components & lack of motivation. Vinogradov’s thematic classification (based on the principle of semantic cohesion btw the components of the PU): 1) phraseological combinations have partially changed meaning. They are motivated & contain 1 component used in its direct meaning (bossom friends); 2) phraseological unities have completely changed meaning. They are motivated. The metaphor on which the shift of meaning is based is clear (to play the 1st fiddle); 3) phraseological fusions have completely changed meaning. They are non-motivated, specific for every l-ge & don’t lend themselves to literal translation (to dance attendance). Arnold’s structural principle of classification is based on the ability to perform the same syntactic functions as words: 1) verbal: to see how the land lies; 2) substantive (functioning like nouns): skeleton in the cupboard; 3) adjectival: safe & sound; 4) adverbial: once in a blue moon; 5) interjectional: bless my soul; 6) set expressions (functioning like prepositions): on the ground. Classification by Smirnitskiy combines the structural & semantic principles. PUs are grouped according to the number & semantic significance of their constituent parts: 1)one-summit units which have 1 meaningful constituent (to give up); 2)two-summit or multisummit which have 2 or more (common sense). Koonin’s structural-semantic principle according to the function in communication: 1)nominative (the root of the trouble); 2) nominative-communicative (to break the ice); 3) interjectional (a pretty kettle of fish); 4) communicative which are represented by proverbs & sayings. Koonin’s classification according to the way of formation: +1) primary ways are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word group: a) by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word group (to link up – познайомитися); b) free word groups formed by transforming the meaning (granny farm – дім пристарілих); c) alliteration (a sad sack – нещасний випадок); d) by using archaisms (in brown study – невеселі думки); e) by means of distorting a word group (odds & ends); f) by using a sentence in a different sphere of life (that cat won’t jump); g) using an unreal image (to have green fingers); h) using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life (the wind of change). 2) secondary ways are those when a PU is formed on the basis of another PU & the are: conversion, changing the grammar form, analogy, contrast, shortening of proverbs & sayings, borrowing of PUs from another l-ges. STYLISTICS 19. Lexical stylistic devices in MnE. A stylistic device may be defined as a pattern according to which the peculiarities of the language may be materialized. Lexical stylistic devices reveal (раскрывают) the following patterns: Interplay of different types of lex. meaning; Intensification (усиление) of characteristic traits of the phenomena described; Intentional (намеренно) mixing of word of different stylistic aspects. Metaphor is transfer of the name of the object to another object on the basis of similarity, likeness of 2 objects. Metaphor has no formal limitations: it can be a word, a phrase, any part of the sentence or a whole, even a part of the text or a whole text (Алиса в стране чудес). A metaphor can exist only with in a context. The metaphor brings to the surface, the reader to have a new fresh look at the object. The chief function is to create images. E.g. England has 2 eyes: Oxford & Cambridge. Stylistic metaphors can be classified semantically and structurally. Semantically: In genuine metaphor the clash of two meanings results in to something Imedgenery. genuine metaphor to be found in poetry and emotive prose. In tricked metaphor it s vaguely (едва заметно) felt. Ex/ a leg of the chair, a ray of hope. tricked metaphor used in newspaper articles. Structurally metaphors can be classified as simple (realized in one word and creating one image) and sustained (развернутая) (realized in a number of a logically connected words sentences) Metaphor may be based on similarity (сходство): Appearance or farm – nut – орех, голова. Temperature – boiling hot – кипяток, вспыльчивый характер. Similarity of color – violet – фиолетовый, фиалка. Similarity of function of use – hand – рука, стрелка часов. The names of animals – ass – осёл, упрямый, глупый. Metonymy –it’s a semantic process of associating 2 objects, one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it. It is a deliberate use of words in 2 lexical meanings (dictionary and context). Metonymy is a transference of meaning based on contiguity. The metonymy based on the types of possible association^\: 1. part for the whole (a flit of fifty sails). 2. a symbol for a thing symbolized (skinheads). 3. the container instead of the thing contained (the hall applauded). 4. the material for the thing made of (glasses). 5. the author for his work. 6. the instrument for the agent of the action performed (his pen knows no compromise). Metonymy is expressed by nouns. Irony is based on interplay of 2 logical meanings: dictionary & contextual which stand in opposition to each other. Irony doesn’t exist outside the context. E.g.: She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. Irony must not be confused with humour. They have much in common. The effect of irony in such cases is created by a number of statesmnts or by whole ot the text. This type of irony is sustained irony. Epithet expresses a characteristic of an object existing or imaginary. It’s basic feature is emotiveness & subjectivity: the characteristic attached to the object to qualify it is always chosen by the speaker himself. Thus epithet is based on interplay(взаимосвязи) of logical & emotive meaning. The later is born in context & prevails over the logical meaning. Logical attributes (which are not stylistic devices) are objective and non-evaluative. E.g.: a pretty young girl – logical attribute, a care and radiant maiden - epithet. Epithets can be classified semantically (cold-blooded murder) and structurally (a lip sticky smile). Richard the Lion Heart. Oxymoron is a variety of epithet. It is also an attributive or an adverbial word joined with an antonymic word in one combination. E.g.: crowded loneliness, An ugly beauty, To shout silently. Antonomasia it is lexical stylistic devices based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings of the same words. In antonomasia a proper name is used instead of common noun or vice a versa (наоборот). The specific type of antonomasia is so called speaking name - Miss Simplicity – сама простота). Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns more seldom by attributive combinations or phrases. Zeugma is a combination of one verb with 2 nouns with different semantic meanings. the semantic relation being on the one hand literal & on the other – metaphorical. Zeugma is a figure of speech, using a verb or adj. with 2 nouns, to one of which it is strictly applicable, while the word appropriate to the other is not used. E. g.: & the boys took their places & their books. With wiping eyes & hearts. Pun is a figure, which consists in a humorous use of words identical in sound, but different in meaning or the use of different meanings of the same word. E.g.: Have you been seen any spirit? Or taken any? Did you hit a woman with a child? – No, I hit her with a stick. Hyperbole is a SD in which emphasis is active through deliberate exaggeration; the feelings & emotions of the speaker are so concentrated that the resorts in his speech to intensifying the quantitative or the qualitative aspect of the object. (e.g. My love should grow faster that empires). Hyperbole is one of the most expressive means of our everyday speech. It may be the final effect of another SD: metaphor, simile, irony like as: (e.g. he had the tread of an elephant (metaphor). The man was like the Rock of Gibraltar (simile)). (e.g. She was all angles &-bones). Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. There are words which are used in the stylistic devices more often than others. They are such pronounce as all, every, everybody and so on (She was both angler and bones). Also numerical nouns and adverbs of time: a million, a thousand, ever, never. Hyperbole is used at exaggerating of quantity or quality when it is directly the opposite way, when the size, shape, demotions, characteristic features of an object are not overrated but underrated we deal with understatement or meiosis. e.g. This woman of a pocket size (understatement). I was scared to death when I came into the room (H). She was a sparrow of a woman. 20. Syntactical stylistic devices SSDs deal with the syntactical arrangement of the utterance, which creates the emphasis of the letter irrespective of the lexical meanings of the employed units. SSD dealing with the length&structure of the sentence: 1. Patens of Inversion is based on the violation of traditional word-order of the sentence, only giving it an additional logical impact or emotional coloring. Complete – displacement of the predicate; Partial – displacement of the secondary members. 2. Rhetorical question is based on the statement expressed in the interrogative form. SSD dealing with the completeness of the sentence: 1. Ellipsis is a deliberate omission of at least one member of a sentence (different connectivity’s). I went to London, she – to NY. 2. Break the narration (aposiopesis) - (incomplete representation) the sudden intonational breaking off in speech, without completing a thought - is a stopping short for rhetorical effect (treat, hesitation etc). Just come home or I’ll. 3. Apokoinu is the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) which create a blend of the main&subordinate clauses. It is asyndeton connection of 2 clauses where one word has 2 syntactical functions. He was the man (that) killed that deer. SSD dealing with the arrangement of the sentence: 1. Parallelism – the similarity of the syntactical structure of successive phrases, clauses or sentences. Partial p. is the p. of the structure of some parts of sensitive sentence or clause. Complete p. represents identity of structure throughout the correspondent sentences. Reversed p. (chiasmus) is the repetition of syntactical pattern with a reversed word-order. 2. Repetition (word, word-combination, phrase) – a reiteration of the same word or phrases with the view of expressiveness. Anaphora (a…, a…). Epiphora (…a, …a). Simple (one and the same member of phrase without any strong regularity). Framing (the beginning of the sentence is repeated at the end). Catch (anadiplosis: …a, a…). Chain (several catch r.) Successive (is a stream of closely following each other repeated units). 3. Detachment is separating a secondary part of a sentence with aims of emphasizing it; it singles out with the help of punctuation. 4. Parenthesis is an explanatory of qualifying sentence, phrase or word which is inserted in longer passage without being grammatically connected with it, marked off by brackets, dashes. 5. Suspense – device to produce a state of uncertainty, usually with anxiety or expection - is a deliberate postponement of the completing of the sentence. SSD dealing with different types of connection: 1. Asyndeton: connection without any formal sign; the deliberate avoidance of conjunctions. - (“bounding together”) the deliberate avoidance of conjunctions. 2. Polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions in close connection. 3. Attachment: is a deliberate separation of the second part of the utterance from the first one by a full-stop. The second part appears as an afterthought.