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United Nations and Crisis Managment

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United Nations and Crisis Management
Chapter · June 2017
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_850-1
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United Nations and Crisis Management
Bok G. Jeong
Department of Public Administration
Kean University
bjeong@kean.edu
Jungwon Yeo
Department of Public Administration
University of Central Florida
jungwon.yeo@ucf.edu
Synonyms: International Organizations and Crisis Management; Inter-governmental
Organizations and Crisis Management; Transnational Organizations and Crisis
Management
Definition: The United Nations is an international organization, made up of its member
states, and founded in 1945 as a replacement for the League of Nations after World War
II. The purposes of the UN include maintaining international peace and security and
achieving international cooperation in in solving international problems of political,
economic, social, cultural, human rights, and humanitarian issues.
Introduction
The United Nations (UN) has been involved in crisis management in a comprehensive
range of fields and at multiple stages in disaster responses through its principal
organizations and subsidiary entities including programs, funds, commissions, and
specialized agencies. Crisis management cannot be defined by a single dimension or by a
single UN agency’s activities because of the exigency, multiplicity and complexity of
humanitarian crises, including human-caused and natural disasters. Crisis management
affects the health, safety, and well-being of a community or a country. The geographical
coverage of humanitarian crisis varies. It could be local, national, and international. The
duration of the emergencies and the time required to cope with the damage of disasters
cover a wide spectrum of time scales, ranging from weeks, to months, to years, and to
decades. Examples of humanitarian crises include natural disasters (such as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, droughts, wildfires), humancaused disasters (such as armed conflicts, oil spills), combined consequences (such as
forced migration, famines) and other emergencies (such as epidemics).
UN’s approach to crisis management
The UN’s crisis management system focuses on humanitarian crises. The UN defines
humanitarian crisis as “an event or series of events that represents a critical threat to the
health, safety, security, or well-being of a community or other large group of people
usually over a wider area (UNISDR, 2009).” Traditionally, the UN identified crises
caused by hazardous events, such as natural disasters or conflicts. However, the UN has
recently been including diverse vulnerable social conditions— e.g., health, energy,
security, water security, food security, urbanization, population growth, poverty,
inequality, and climate change— as emerging drivers of crises, and has taken account of
complex interactions among these new causes in improving and adapting its crisis
management systems.
The UN approach to crisis management shifted from “disaster management” to
“disaster risk management’. The UN’s ultimate goals of risk management are to enhance
“a) resilience–the ability of people, societies and countries to recover from negative
shocks, and b) prosperity–derived from successfully managing positive shocks that create
opportunities for development (UNISDR, 2009).” This indicates that the UN’s risk
management approach is not limited to providing disaster relief services to the victims
during post-disaster situations, but includes “assessing the risks of crises, reducing the
probability and size of loses, preparing for them coping with their effects (UNOCHA,
2015).” Along the functional lines, UN agencies have engaged in the risk management
through various activities, including developing multi-hazard contingency plans, creating
goods stockpiles and administering vaccinations. In addition, with its member nations,
the UN has developed and adopted the disaster risk management framework, “Sendai
Framework, and its several global targets and four priorities of actions, which have been
endorsed by the UN general assembly. The framework aims to provide international
stakeholders across sectors and jurisdictions a further impetus to global disaster risk
reductions.
UN system for crisis management
The most comprehensive humanitarian relief and emergency responses of the UN system
are centered on the Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). The UN
Security Council is mainly in charge of maintaining international peace and security,
especially when threats to peace are brought to their attention, such as armed conflicts,
wars, and epidemic crises. UN subsidiary bodies and specialized agencies, such as the
International Organization for Migration (IOM), United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP), World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations
International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), UN Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO), and The World Food Programme (WFP) are responsible for
addressing crises related to their specialized areas or sub-population groups.
Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)
The OCHA is the main office for humanitarian relief and emergency responses in the UN
Secretariat. OCHA’s main responsibility is to make sure that all humanitarian efforts by
various actors are coordinated in a coherent and unified platform . The main missions of
OCHA include: 1) mobilizing and coordinating humanitarian actions in response to
disasters and emergencies in collaboration with multi-level actors, including national and
international ones, 2) advocating the rights of needy people, 3) preparing for and
preventing emergency situations, and 4) developing and implementing sustainable
solutions.
Guiding principles
The General Assembly of the United Nations places emphasis on humanitarian assistance
as the cardinal task for assisting the victims of natural disasters and other emergencies
(UN, 1991, A/RES/46/182, Section I. Article 1). Humanity, neutrality, and impartiality
are the main principles in the UN’s humanitarian assistance. The UN’s humanitarian
assistance work is provided on the fundamental ground of sovereignty, territorial
integrity, and national unity of states. The UN understands that management of natural
disasters and emergencies falls under the affected state’s responsibility. Therefore, UN’s
humanitarian assistance is only implemented with the consent of and appeal by the
affected country. The initiation, organization, coordination, and implementation of
humanitarian assistance are deemed as the primary role of affected states (A/RES/46/182,
Section I. Article 4). The reasoning behind international cooperation led by UN in
emergency management is that the magnitude and duration of emergencies are in many
cases beyond a single country’s capacity for response and resolution. The UN’s
emergency measures aim to ensure transition from relief to rehabilitation and
development (A/RES/46/182, Section I. Article 9).
Organizational arrangement and responsibilities
1) The Under-Secretary-General and Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC) is in
charge of the oversight of humanitarian assistance by the United Nations. The ERC
serves as the central focal point for governmental, intergovernmental and nongovernmental relief activities.
2) The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) is the inter-agency forum that aims
to coordinate and develop policies, and make decisions on humanitarian assistance in
collaboration with the United Nations and Non-United Nations actors (UN, 1991,
A/RES/46/182, Section VI. Article 33). The IASC was established in June 1992 in
response to resolution 46/182. By the General Assembly resolution 48/57, the IASC was
affirmed as the primary mechanism for the inter-agency coordination of humanitarian
assistance of the UN.
The IASC is under the leadership of the Emergency Relief Coordinator. Primary
objectives include: i) to develop system-wide humanitarian policies; ii) to allocate
responsibilities amongst agencies in humanitarian programmes; iii) to develop a common
ethical framework for all humanitarian activities; iv) to advocate common humanitarian
principles to parties outside the IASC; v) to advocate for the full respect for the rights of
the individual in accordance with laws including international human rights law,
international humanitarian law and refugee law; vi) to identify lack of operational
capacity in disaster management; and vii) to resolve disputes or disagreements about and
amongst humanitarian agencies on system-wide humanitarian issues.
The IASC members are comprised of the heads or their designated representatives
of the UN operational agencies including United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations World Food Programme (WFP),
Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO), United
Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), and OCHA. In accordance
with the UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182, standing invitees include
International Organization for Migration (IOM), International Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC), International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC), the Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), United Nations Population
Fund (UNFPA), the Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of IDPs, and the World
Bank. Additional invitees on a permanent basis include the NGO consortia ICVA,
InterAction and The Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response (SCHR).
UN Security Council
The Security Council is the organizational body in the UN system that takes actions when
a threat to peace exists. Main functions and powers of the Security Council include
maintaining international peace and security in accordance with the principles and
purposes of the United Nations. The UN Security Council investigates disputes and
situations that lead to international friction and determine the existence of a threat to
peace or acts of aggression and to recommend actions. The UN Security Council has the
authority to take military action to prevent or stop aggression. The Security Council
collaborates with regional and sub-regional organizations in maintaining international
peace and security.
When a threat to peace is brought to its attention, the Security Council makes an
attempt to bring about an agreement by affiliated parties. The Security Council sets forth
principles for these agreements, undertakes investigation, dispatches a mission, appoints
special envoys, and requests the Secretary-General to make efforts for a peaceful
settlement of the dispute. When a dispute leads to hostilities, the Security Council tries to
bring the hostile situation to an end by issuing ceasefire directives or dispatching military
observers or a peacekeeping force. The Council may consider enforcing measures such as
economic sanctions, arms embargoes, financial penalties, severance of diplomatic
relations, blockade or even collective military action.
UN Security Council Resolutions address the following issues or incidences:
refugee crisis including Syria (Resolution 2254 (2015)), cross-border trafficking
(Resolution 2195 (2014)), sexual violence in conflict (Resolution 2106 (2013)), response
to terrorist attacks (Resolution 2309 (2016)), response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in
Africa (Resolution 1308 (2000)), response to the Ebola outbreak in Africa (Resolution
2177 (2014)), and impact of armed conflict on children (Resolution 2143 (2014)).
UN ECOSOC
The UN Economic and Social Council adopted a resolution (E/RES/2012/3) that
reaffirms the principles of neutrality, humanity, impartiality and independence for the
provision of humanitarian assistance. In this resolution, building and strengthening
resilience at the local, national and regional levels is emphasized as a critical element in
reducing the impact of disasters. This resolution also stresses the need for continued
investment in preparedness, prevention, mitigation and response capacity. The ECOSOC
Resolution reaffirms the significance of ensuring a smooth transition from relief to
rehabilitation, reconstruction and development.
UN Subsidiary Bodies and Specialized Agencies
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) is committed to assisting in meeting
the growing operational challenges of migration management and upholding the human
dignity and well-being of migrants. IOM intends to provide solutions to migration
problems and humanitarian assistance to migrants in need (e.g. refugees or displaced
persons). IOM’s activities mainly include non-emergency situation duties, promotion of
international migration law, policy debate and guidance, protection of migrants’ rights,
migration health and the gender dimension of migration.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) aims to protect refugees
who have fled their homes due to violence, conflicts and persecution. UNHCR provides
shelter, food, water, medical care, and other life-saving assistance to refugees. UNHCR
sends relief supplies and deploys its trained staff as a response to emergency needs. The
number of emergency missions carried out by UNHCR specialists totaled 441 in 2014.
In terms of health and sanitation, UNCHR, in collaboration with its partner organizations,
provides clean water, nutritious food, sets up sanitation programs, and ensures that
refugees have access to basic health care services. The vaccination campaigns to protect
refugees from polio and measles conducted by UNHCR are exemplary projects in the
health area. UNHCR is committed to ensuring the rights of displaced civilians before and
after emergencies. UNHCR provides legal and protection assistance to minimize threats
of violence, including sexual assault, exploitation, persecution, and other human rights
abuses.
In addition to emergency relief efforts, UNHCR has also been focused on
empowering refugees from a long-term livelihood and capability perspective. UNHCR
works on improving access to learning for young refugees by supporting teacher training
and funding education supplies. It also supports distance-learning programs and ensures
academic degrees obtained in host countries are recognized in their home country after
their return.
UNHCR also supports marginalized women (e.g. unaccompanied women, single
mothers, victims of gender violence, and pregnant, disabled or older women) for their
empowerment by providing them equal access to humanitarian assistance, and training
them with new skills. The special programs—aiming at increasing young women’s
enrollment in secondary education and building their leadership, life, and vocational
skills—have been operated by UNHCR.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has the Emergency Response
Division as its operational responsibility for this task. UNDP utilizes its extensive
country office network, including offices in all crisis countries, for United Nations-led
crisis-prevention and recovery activities. In carrying out these activities, UNDP mobilizes
partnerships within and beyond the United Nations system, including the Department for
Political Affairs, the Department of Peace-keeping Operations, the Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, and Bretton Woods institutions (UNDP, 2002).
The main focus of UNDP’s projects is to build resilience to conflicts and
disasters. Compared to other agencies’ work, UNDP’s projects have longer-term
development objectives, including, but not limited to, helping countries prevent armed
conflict, alleviating the risk and effects of disasters from natural hazards, and rebuilding
the community. UNDP and its partner agencies address the underlying causes of
violence; reinforce governance and the rule of law; support livelihoods; and empower
local people to rebuild infrastructure after disasters. UNDP established the Thematic
Trust Fund for Crisis Prevention and Recovery that was intended for UNDP’s effective
and timely response to crisis prevention and recovery needs.
United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)
UNEP has been working on emergency preparedness and response. It has also focused on
facilitating the transfer of knowledge for sustainable development. UNEP undertakes
environmental causes and consequences of natural hazards and environmental
emergencies and attempts to reduce their impacts on vulnerable communities and
countries. UNEP’s work on prevention aims at reducing ecosystem degradation and
utilizing ecosystem services in a sustainable manner for risk and vulnerability reduction.
UNEP project have encompassed both natural and technological hazards, as well
as environmental emergencies. UNEP’s emergency responses are also aligned with its
efforts to implement ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) measures. EBA measures intend
to reduce vulnerability and build ecological and social resilience to climate change risks.
UNEP has also implemented the Sustainable Buildings and Climate Initiative in which
the UNEP has developed sustainable building guidelines. UNEP’s work on Disaster Risk
Reduction has focused on early warning, risk and vulnerability assessments, disaster
preparedness and contingency planning for environmental emergencies, disaster
prevention, sustainable recovery and adaptation to climate change-related risks.
The Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit (JEU) was created to address the
environmental impacts of disasters and accidents by coordinating international efforts and
mobilizing response partners. It mobilizes over 15 different networks and partnerships as
well as regional organizations and member states. Although this partnership encompasses
the private sector, industry groups, academic and research institutions are also well
represented among JEU partners. The JEU aims at enhancing the preparedness of
communities, disaster responders, governments, and industries against the potential risks
and impacts of environmental emergencies.
World Health Organization (WHO)
WHO is the principal actor that helps member states in their emergency responses with
regards to public health issues. WHO also serves as the Health Cluster Lead Agency in
the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC). WHO established a Global Emergency
Management Team (GEMT) to provide overall strategy and management guidance for
WHO`s emergency response tasks. This team developed the Emergency Response
Framework (ERF) in order to clarify WHO’s roles and tasks in emergency responses.
WHO has identified its main obligations associated with emergency response as
follows: i) develop an evidence-based health sector response strategy, plan and appeal; ii)
ensure adapted disease surveillance, early warning and response systems; iii) provide upto-date information on the health situation and health sector performance; iv) promote
and monitor the application of standards and best practices; and v) provide relevant
technical expertise to affected Member States and all relevant stakeholders.
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
UNICEF is in charge of humanitarian and developmental assistance to children and
mothers in developing countries. UNICEF was originally created as the focal point to
provide humanitarian assistance to children living in war-torn countries after the Second
World War.
UNICEF’s humanitarian actions encompass not only immediate relief
responses to save lives, but also efforts to cope with underlying causes of vulnerability to
disasters, fragility and conflict. For example, health, nutrition, hygiene, child protection,
education, and HIV/AIDS prevention and response are approached both from short-term
emergency response and long-term remedy to address their underlying causes.
The focal point for emergency assistance of UNICEF is the Office of Emergency
Programmes (EMOPS). EMOPS is in charge of humanitarian assistance and policies, as
well as strategic coordination with external humanitarian partners both within and outside
the United Nations system. It externally supports inter-agency early warning and
preparedness activities. It internally develops UNICEF’s own warning system, enhances
preparedness tools, and operationalizes preparedness plans at country, regional, and
headquarters.
UN Food and Agricultural Organization (UN FAO)
UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) focuses on reducing people’s
vulnerability to hazards by incorporating risk assessment, risk reduction, emergency
response and rehabilitation. FAO’s work contributes to recovery and rehabilitation with
an emphasis on the resilience of livelihoods. Through longer-term interventions, FAO
intends to facilitate transition from relief to development.
FAO’s approach incorporates emergency response and post-disaster recovery
strategies. This integrated approach was reflected in the FAO’s Regional Framework for
Disaster Risk Management (DRM). The objective of the Regional DRM Framework is to
reduce the impacts of hazards and enhance community resilience, with a focus on
establishing food security and developing sustainable food and agriculture systems. The
Regional DRM Programme has two main aspects: internally within FAO and externally
with all involved stakeholders and partners (such as NGOs, FAO, UN agencies, research
institutes, ministries).
The World Food Programme (WFP)
In the early days of an emergency, Emergency Assessment teams measure the demand
for food assistance and work out a delivery plan, followed by drafting of an Emergency
Operation (EMOP), which includes a plan of action and a budget. As a next step, an
Appeal to the international community for funds and food aid is launched by WFP. As
funds and food flow in, WFP's logistics team works to transport food to emergency areas.
Partnering with governments and non-governmental organizations, WFP delivers food to
the needy.
WFP has one of the most comprehensive Early Warning Systems, collecting and
analyzing information on natural and human-caused hazards. WFP aims to feed more
than 90 million people annually. WFP’s scientific partners produce a Rapid Impact
Analysis when disaster occurs. Satellite imageries are used to demonstrate the situation
on the ground, and computerized modelling is employed to predict change. WFP’s
mapping specialists add information to create a multi-layered picture of the disaster
situation.
Current challenges and future direction for the UN’s crisis management
In spite of the dedication to risk reduction and active involvement in humanitarian crisis
management around the world, the UN and its special agencies have faced problems.
The UN agencies have been confronted with intra-organizational coordination issues. The
challenge includes lack of formal leadership and monitoring systems among UN
organizations involved; functional divisions without proper coordination among the
agencies, lack of secure internal funds for crisis management, and continuing interagency
rivalries focused on institutional survival .These problems may impede the effectiveness
of a UN disaster relief operation in practice. The separated system confused their
international and local NGO partners that deliver direct relief services to affected
communities, and contributed to a series of delays and ultimate failures in overall relief
operations in practice.
Existing challenges provide future directions for the UN organizations to improve
in their crises management system. One of the major needs is to build an intracoordination and communication system among the UN agencies involved in disaster
relief. This will improve information and resource exchanges among the agencies,
identify common goals, prevent unnecessary redundancies and waste of resources, build
trust relationships, and ultimately strengthen the UN’s disaster response capacity. In
addition, the UN organizations can establish a unified decision making authority. The
leadership can monitor, counsel, and support both individual and collaborative efforts
across UN relief organizations. Through the roles, the unified authorities will be able to
facilitate both intra-UN coordination, and support their extended partnership with
external organizations, and ultimately contribute to improvement of overall UN crises
relief operation.
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