Загрузил Olga Syaglo

Романова Englich for plarmaceutics and biotechnoogy

Unit I. Classification of medicine
1
Учреждение образования
«БЕЛОРУССКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ
ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»
А. М. Романова, Г. Н. Лесневская
ENGLISH
FOR PHARMACEUTICS
AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Рекомендовано
учебно-методическим объединением по химико-технологическому
образованию в качестве учебно-методического пособия
для студентов учреждений высшего образования
по специальностям 1-48 02 01 «Биотехнология»,
1-48 02 02 «Технология лекарственных препаратов»
Минск 2014
2
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК i81.2Англя73
iiР56
Рецензенты:
кафедра современных языков ГУО
«Командно-инженерный институт МЧС Республики Беларусь»
(кандидат филологических наук, доцент, заведующая кафедрой
Т. Г. Ковалева);
кандидат филологических наук, доцент, заведующая кафедрой
интенсивного обучения иностранным языкам № 2
УО «Минский государственный лингвистический университет»
Т. Г. Дементьева
Все права на данное издание защищены. Воспроизведение всей книги или
ее части не может быть осуществлено без разрешения учреждения образования «Белорусский государственный технологический университет».
Романова, А. М.
English for Pharmaceutics and Biotechnology : учеб.-метод.
Р56
пособие для студентов специальностей 1-48 02 01 «Биотехнология», 1-48 02 02 «Технология лекарственных препаратов» / А. М. Романова, Г. Н. Лесневская. – Минск : БГТУ,
2014. – 202 с. : цв. ил.
ISBN 978-985-530-327-6.
Учебно-методическое пособие рассчитано на студентов и магистрантов неязыковых вузов специальностей «Биотехнология», «Технология лекарственных препаратов» и представляет собой комплекс адаптированных
текстов по биотехнологической и фармацевтической тематике из оригинальных англоязычных источников. Пособие имеет целью развитие и совершенствование навыков научно-технического перевода, использования
специальных терминов в устной речи, аннотирования и реферирования.
Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено как для аудиторных
занятий, так и для организации самостоятельной работы студентов.
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англя73
ISBN 978-985-530-327-6
© УО «Белорусский государственный
технологический университет», 2014
© Романова А. М., Лесневская Г. Н., 2014
Unit I. Classification of medicine
3
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Учебно-методическое пособие представляет собой комплекс
текстов и упражнений по технологии лекарственных препаратов,
биотехнологии и биоэкологии из оригинальных англоязычных источников. Цель его – развивать и совершенствовать у студентов
навыки работы с профессионально-ориентированной лексикой,
научно-технического перевода литературы и употребления специальных терминов в устной речи, а также обучать составлению аннотаций и рефератов.
Пособие состоит из трех частей и двенадцати разделов. Первая часть «Technology of Medicines» включает четыре раздела,
в которых рассматривается классификация лекарственных
средств. Вторая часть «Biotechnology» содержит шесть разделов,
посвященных биотехнологии, классификации микроорганизмов,
технологии протеинов и биологически активных веществ. Третья
часть «Bioесоlogy» включает два раздела, охватывающих технологии очистки промышленных и бытовых отходов. Содержание текстового материала соответствует действующей программе
по английскому языку для неязыковых вузов. Каждый раздел заканчивается блоком лексических заданий, направленных на закрепление полученных навыков работы с профессионально-ориентированным тестом по специальности, его анализа и изложения.
Кроме того, в состав данного учебно-методического пособия
включен терминологический англо-русский словарь по материалу
трех частей.
В разделе «Appendix» приведены тексты для самостоятельной
работы студентов, тематика которых отвечает основному материалу разделов: списки лекарственных растений и трав, токсикология и перечень эфирных и косметических масел.
Текстовый материал данного пособия отражает связь изучаемого материала с лекционными курсами «Pharmaceuticals», «Biological Background of Herbal Medicine», «Application of Biotechnology», «Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Products», «Classification
and Structure of Microorganisms» выпускающих кафедр.
4
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Лексический материал этих разделов подобран и скомпонован
таким образом, чтобы способствовать развитию навыков говорения по научным темам, что дает возможность проводить «круглые
столы», дискуссии и интервью.
В состав учебно-методического пособия включены тематические цветные вкладки с изображением систем организма человека (желудочно-кишечный тракт, коронарно-сосудистая система, система нервных окончаний); сопоставительных схем
влияния на организм человека бактериальных и вирусных заболеваний, схем воздействия на человека загрязненной окружающей среды, таблиц по классификации микроорганизмов, по
промышленной биотехнологии, по основам биотехнологического производства и ферментации; с фотографиями лекарственных растений, которые наиболее распространены на территории нашей страны.
Пособие может быть использовано не только для аудиторных,
но и для факультативных занятий со студентами III и IV курсов.
Unit I. Classification of medicine
5
PART I
TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
UNIT I
CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINE
TEXT A. ANTIPYRETICS
Antipyretics comes from the Greek anti (against), and pyreticus
(pertaining to fever). Antipyretics are drugs or herbs that reduce fever.
Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override an interleukin-induced
increase in temperature. The body then works to lower the temperature,
resulting in a reduction in fever.
Most antipyretic medications have other purposes. The most common antipyretics are ibuprofen and aspirin, which are used primarily as
pain relievers. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are
antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and pain relievers. There is some debate
over the appropriate use of such medications, as fever is part of the
body’s immune response to infection.
Non-pharmacological Treatment
Bathing or sponging with lukewarm or cool water can effectively
reduce body temperature in those with heat illness but not usually in
those with fever. The use of alcohol baths is not an appropriate cooling
method, because there have been reported adverse events associated
with systemic absorption of alcohol.
Medications
Many medications have antipyretic effects and thus are useful for
fever but not heat illness, including: 1) NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, and nimesulide; 2) aspirin, and related salicylates
like choline salicylate, magnesium salicylate, and sodium salicylate;
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
3) paracetamol; 4) metamizole, banned in over 30 countries for causing
agranulocytosis; 5) nabumetone; 6) phenazone, also known as antipyrine, available in combination with benzocaine; and 7) quinine.
Plants
Traditional use of higher plants with antipyretic properties is
a common worldwide feature of many ethnobotanical cultural systems.
In ethnobotany, plants with naturally occurring antipyretic properties
are commonly referred to as febrifuges.
TEXT B. ANALGESICS
An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve
analgesia, relief from pain. The word analgesic derives from Greek for
“without pain”.
Commonly known as painkillers, analgesic drugs act in various
ways on the central nervous systems. They are distinct from anesthetics, which reversibly eliminate sensation, and include paracetamol, the
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and opioid drugs. Analgesic
choice is also determined by the type of pain: for neuropathic pain, traditional analgesics are less effective. And there is often benefit from
classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as
anticonvulsants.
Major Classes of Analgesics
Paracetamol and NSAIDs. The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol or acetaminophen is uncertain but appears to act centrally in
the brain rather than peripherally in nerve endings. Paracetamol has
few side effects and is regarded as generally safe, although excess or
sustained use can lead to liver and kidney damage. NSAIDs predispose
to peptic ulcers, renal failure, allergic reactions, and occasionally hearing loss. In contrast to paracetamol and the opioids, aspirin and the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) lead to a decrease
in prostaglandin production resulting in reduction of both pain and inflammation. The use of aspirin by children under 16 suffering from viral illness can lead to a rare but severe liver disorder.
Cyclooxygenase enzyme (COX-2) inhibitors. These drugs have
been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by
Unit I. Classification of medicine
7
NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions: the COX-1
(constitutive) enzyme and the COX-2 (inducible) enzyme. Research
suggested that most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs were mediated
by blocking the COX-1 enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX-2 enzyme. These drugs are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal
hemorrhage in particular. After widespread adoption of the COX-2 inhibitors, it was discovered that most of the drugs in this class increased
the risk of cardiovascular events by 40% on average.
Opiates and Morphinomimetics
Morphine, the archetypal opioid, and various other substances (e.g.
codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, dihydromorphine, pethidine) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid receptor system. Dosing
of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, respiratory
depression, myoclonic jerks and pinpoint pupils), seizures (tramadol),
but there is no dose ceiling in patients who accumulate tolerance.
Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant
side-effects. Patients starting morphine may experience nausea and vomiting. Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxatives are typically
co-prescribed. When used appropriately, opioids and similar narcotic analgesics are otherwise safe and effective, however risks such as addiction and
the body tolerance can occur. The effect of tolerance means that frequent
use of the drug may result in its diminished effect so, when safe to do so,
the dosage may need to be increased to maintain effectiveness. This may be
of particular concern regarding patients suffering with chronic pain.
Flupirtine is used in Europe as a moderate to strong pain and migraine and its muscle relaxant properties. It has no anticholinergic
properties and is believed to be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin or histamine receptors. It is not addictive and tolerance usually
does not develop.
Specific Forms and Uses
Combinations. Analgesics are frequently used in combination,
such as the paracetamol and codeine preparations found in many nonprescription pain relievers. While the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen and other NSAIDS has been said to show beneficial
synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action, several
combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy
8
PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due
to confusion which arises from the multiple (and often non-acting)
components of these combinations.
Topical or systemic analgesia. Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example,
may be treated with an ibuprofen-containing gel. Lidocaine, an anesthetic, and steroids may be injected into painful joints for longer-term
pain relief. Lidocaine is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb
areas for dental work and minor medical procedures.
Psychotropic agents. Some cannabinoids, either from the Cannabis
sativa plant or synthetic, have analgesic properties, although the use of
cannabis derivatives is currently illegal in many countries. Inhaled cannabis is effective in alleviating neuropathy and pain resulting from spinal
injury and multiple sclerosis. Other psychotropic analgesic agents include clonidine, mexiletine and other local anaesthetic analogues.
Atypical, adjuvant analgesics, and potentiators. Drugs which have
been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain
management. Both first-generation and newer anti-depressants are used
alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and
similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid
analgesic. Adjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include
many drugs with CNS actions. These drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate and/or modify the action of opioids when used
against pain, especially of neuropathic origin. The use of adjuvant
analgesics is an important and growing part of the pain-control field
and new discoveries are made practically every year. Many of these
drugs combat the side effects of opioid analgesics, an added bonus.
Stimulants such as caffeine work against heavy sedation and may elevate mood in distressed patients as do the antidepressants. The use of
medicinal cannabis remains a debated issue.
TEXT C. ANTIBACTERIALS
An antibacterial is an agent that inhibits bacterial growth or kills
bacteria. The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic(s).
Today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of
Unit I. Classification of medicine
9
various infectious diseases, antibiotic(s) has come to denote a broader
range of antimicrobial compounds, including anti-fungal and other
compounds.
The term antibiotic was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman
and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other
microorganisms in high dilution. This definition excluded substances
that kill bacteria, but are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less
than 2000 atomic mass units.
Chemically most of modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include the beta-lactam
antibacterials, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the
genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials (the sulfonamides and the quinolones) are produced solely by chemical synthesis. In accordance with
this, many antibacterial compounds are classified on the basis of chemical or biosynthetic origin into natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic.
Another classification system is based on biological activity. In this
classification, antibacterials are divided into two broad groups according to their biological effect on microorganisms: bactericidal agents kill
bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents slow down or stall bacterial growth.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT I
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What term was first used by Selman Waksman to describe any
substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the
growth of other microorganisms in high dilution?
10
PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
2. What compounds are classified on the basis of chemical/biosynthetic origin into natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic?
3. In accordance with what effect on microorganisms many antibacterial compounds are divided into two broad groups: bactericidal
agents kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents slow down or stall bacterial growth?
4. What drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate the action of opioids when used against pain, especially of neuropathic origin?
5. What major classes of analgesics do you know?
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. Drugs or herbs that reduce fever, cause the hypothalamus to
override an interleukin-induced increase in temperature, and make the
body work to lower the temperature.
2. Pain relievers, e.g. ibuprofen and aspirin.
3. It has weak NMDA antagonist and no anticholinergic properties, and is used for moderate to strong pain.
4. It is effective in alleviating neuropathy and pain resulting from
spinal injury and multiple sclerosis.
5. Sulfonamides and quinolones produced solely by chemical synthesis.
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. Many medications have antipyretic effects and thus are useful
for fever but not … illness.
2. Rofecoxib, celecoxib and etoricoxib are equally effective …
when compared with …, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in
particular.
3. Compounds, isolated from living organisms, are the …
4. … are produced solely by chemical synthesis.
5. Most of modern antibacterials chemically are semisynthetic
modifications of various …
6. Combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse
events, including …, most often due to confusion which arises from the
non-acting components of these combinations.
Antibacterials, natural compounds, heat, analgesics, aminoglycosides, accidental overdoses, NSAIDs.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) antibiotic(s)
a) stimulant that works against heavy sedation;
2) opioids
b) drug that may elevate mood in distressed patients;
Unit I. Classification of medicine
3) caffeine
11
c) drug denoting a broader range of antimicrobial
compounds, including anti-fungal;
4) anesthetics
d) very effective analgesics with some unpleasant
side-effects;
5) antidepressant e) painkillers acting on the peripheral and central
nervous systems;
6) analgesics
f) the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
Ex. V. Get meaningful sentences:
1. Also, pain, the, is, choice, of, analgesic, determined, type, by.
2. Are, antibacterial, small, many, relatively, molecules, compounds.
3. Natural, chemically, in, chemistry, advances, most, semisynthetic, modern, antibacterials, medicinal, compounds, modifications, of,
various, with, of, are.
4. Plants, in, referred, with, ethnobotany, as, naturally, commonly,
febrifuges, occurring, antipyretic, properties, are, to.
5. Fever, or, bathing, with, heat, cool, those, water, illness, can, effectively, reduce, usually, body, in, with, sponging, but, not, in, temperature, with, those.
Ex. VI. Topics for discussion. Look through the list of plants that
have been used as herbal medicine (Appendix B) and speak on their
application.
Ex. VII. Translate into English paying attention on the etymology of medicinal herbs and plants.
Лекарственные растения (лат. Plantae medicinalis) – обширная группа растений, органы или части которых являются сырьем
для получения средств, используемых в народной, медицинской
или ветеринарной практике в лечебных или профилактических
целях. Наиболее широко лекарственные растения представлены
в народной медицине. В качестве лекарственных растений в начале XXI века широко используются аир обыкновенный, алоэ,
брусника, девясил, зверобой, календула, каллизия, клюква, малина, мать-и-мачеха, мята, облепиха, подорожник, ромашка, солодка, тысячелистник, шалфей, шиповник и многие другие. На начало 2013 года по данным Международного союза охраны природы
(IUCN), было описано около 320 тысяч видов растений, из них
лишь небольшая часть (21 тысяча видов) активно используется
в медицине.
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
UNIT II
PHARMACEUTICALS
TEXT A. HISTORY OF PHARMACOLOGY
Ancient pharmacology. Using plants and plant substances to treat
all kinds of diseases and medical conditions is believed to date back to
prehistoric medicine.
The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, the oldest known medical
text of any kind, dates to about 1800 BC and represents the first documented use of any kind of medication. It and other medical papyri describe Ancient Egyptian medical practices, such as using honey to treat
infections.
Ancient Babylonian medicines demonstrate the use of prescriptions in the first half of the second millennium BC. Medicinal creams
and pills were employed as treatments.
On the Indian subcontinent, the Atharvaveda, a sacred text of Hinduism whose core dates from the 2nd millennium BC, although the
hymns recorded in it are believed to be older, is the first Indic text dealing with medicine. It describes plant-based medications to counter diseases. The earliest foundations of Ayurveda were built on a synthesis
of selected ancient herbal practices, together with a massive addition of
theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating from about 400 BC onwards. The student of Ayurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and
application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis.
The Hippocratic Oath for physicians, attributed to 5th century BC
Greece, refers to the existence of “deadly drugs”, and ancient Greek
physicians imported medications from Egypt and elsewhere.
Medieval Pharmacology
Medieval medicine saw advances in surgery, but few truly effective drugs existed, beyond opium and quinine. Folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments.
Unit II. Pharmaceuticals
13
Theodoric Borgognoni (1205–1296), one of the most significant surgeons of the medieval period, was responsible for introducing and promoting important surgical advances including basic antiseptic practice
and the use of anaesthetics.
Modern Pharmacology
For most of the 19th century, drugs were not highly effective, leading Oliver Wendell Holmes to the famous comment in 1842 that “if all
medicines in the world were thrown into the sea, it would be all the better for mankind and all the worse for the fishes”.
During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with irrigation,
Dakin’s solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene.
In the inter-war period, the first anti-bacterial agents such as the
sulpha antibiotics were developed. The Second World War saw the introduction of widespread and effective antimicrobial therapy with the
development and mass production of penicillin antibiotics, made possible by the pressures of the war and the collaboration of British scientists with the American pharmaceutical industry.
Medicines commonly used by the late 1920s included aspirin,
codeine, and morphine for pain; digitalis, nitroglycerin, and quinine for
heart disorders, and insulin for diabetes. Other drugs included antitoxins, a few biological vaccines, and a few synthetic drugs. In the 1930s
antibiotics emerged: first sulfa drugs, then penicillin and other antibiotics. Drugs increasingly became the center of medical practice. In
the 1950s other drugs emerged including corticosteroids for inflammation, antihistamines for nasal allergies, xanthines for asthma, and
typical antipsychotics for psychosis. By 2012 thousands of approved
drugs have been developed. Increasingly, biotechnology is used to
discover biopharmaceuticals. Recently, multi-disciplinary approaches
have yielded a wealth of new data on the development of novel antibiotics and antibacterials and on the use of biological agents for antibacterial therapy.
In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic
chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into
preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways,
there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or
stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control.
14
PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
Governments have been heavily involved in the regulation of drug
development and drug sales. Until the 1970s, drug prices were not
a major concern for doctors and patients. As more drugs became prescribed for chronic illnesses, however, costs became burdensome, and
by the 1970s nearly every state required or encouraged the substitution
of generic drugs for higher-priced brand names.
As of 2008, the United States is the leader in medical research, including pharmaceutical development. U.S. drug prices are among the
highest in the world, and drug innovation is correspondingly high. In
2000 U.S. based firms developed 29 of the 75 top-selling drugs; firms
from the second-largest market, Japan, developed eight, and the United
Kingdom contributed 10. France, which imposes price controls, developed three. Throughout the 1990s outcomes were similar.
TEXT B. PHARMACEUTICAL DRUGS
A pharmaceutical drug, also referred to as a medicine or medication, can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended for use
in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease. The
word pharmaceutical comes from the Greek word Pharmakeia. The
modern transliteration of Pharmakeia is Pharmacia.
Administration is the delivery of a pharmaceutical drug to
a patient. There are three major categories of drug administration: enteral (taking medication orally), parenteral (introducing the medication
directly to the circulatory system), and other (which includes introducing medication through intranasal, topical, inhalation, and rectal
means). It can be performed in various dosage forms such as pills, tablets, or capsules. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous (into the blood through a vein) and oral administration (through the mouth).
Legal considerations. Depending upon the jurisdiction, medications may be divided into over-the-counter drugs (OTC), which may be
available without special restrictions, and prescription only medicine
(POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical practitioner.
The precise distinction between OTC and prescription depends on the
legal jurisdiction. A third category, behind-the-counter medications
(BTMs), is implemented in some jurisdictions. BTMs do not require
a prescription, but must be kept in the dispensary, not visible to the
Unit II. Pharmaceuticals
15
public, and only be sold by a pharmacist or pharmacy technician. Doctors may also prescribe prescription drugs for off-label use – purposes
which the drugs were not originally approved for by the regulatory
agency. The Classification of Pharmacotherapeutic Referrals helps
guide the referral process between pharmacists and doctors.
The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations
imposes a world law of prohibition of certain medications. They publish a lengthy list of chemicals and plants whose trade and consumption
(where applicable) is forbidden. OTC medications are sold without restriction as they are considered safe enough that most people will not
hurt themselves accidentally by taking it as instructed. Many countries,
such as the United Kingdom have a third category of pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the
supervision of a pharmacist.
For patented medications, countries may have certain mandatory
licensing programs which compel, in certain situations, a medication’s
owner to contract with other agents to manufacture the drug. Such programs may deal with the contingency of a lack of medication in the
event of a serious epidemic of disease, or may be part of efforts to ensure that disease treating drugs, such as AIDS drugs, are available to
countries which cannot afford the drug owner’s price.
Prescription practice. Drugs which are prescription only are regulated as such because they can impose adverse effects and should not
be used unless necessary. Medical guidelines and clinical trials required for approval are used to help inform doctors’ prescription of
these drugs, but errors can happen. Reasons to not prescribe drugs such
as interactions or side effects are called contraindications. Errors include overprescription and polypharmacy, misprescription, contraindication and lack of detail in dosage and administrations instructions.
Drug development. Drug development is the process by which
a drug is created. Drugs can be extracted from natural products (pharmacognosy) or synthesized through chemical processes. The drug’s active ingredient will be combined with a “vehicle” such as a capsule,
cream, or liquid which will be administered through a particular route
of administration. Child-resistant packaging will likely be used in the
ultimate package sold to the consumer.
Blockbuster drug. A blockbuster drug is a drug generating more
than $1 billion of revenue for its owner each year. Cimetidine was the
first drug ever to reach more than $1 billion a year in sales, thus making
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
it the first blockbuster drug. In the pharmaceutical industry,
a blockbuster drug is one that achieves acceptance by prescribing physicians as a therapeutic standard for, most commonly, a highly prevalent chronic (rather than acute) condition. Patients often take the medicines for long periods. The birth control pill Enovid was the first modern drug taken by those not ill for a highly prevalent chronic condition.
The focus on highly profitable drugs for chronic conditions and resulting de-emphasis of one-time acute treatment drugs has led to occasional shortages of antibiotics or vaccines, such as the influenza vaccine
shortage.
TEXT C. TYPES OF MEDICATIONS
Medications can be classified in various ways, such as by chemical
properties, mode or route of administration, biological system affected,
or therapeutic effects. An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
(ATC system). The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential
medicines. A sampling of classes of medicine includes: 1) antipyretics:
reducing fever (pyrexia/pyresis); 2) analgesics: reducing pain (painkillers); 3) antimalarial drugs: treating malaria; 4) antibiotics: inhibiting
germ growth; and 5) antiseptics: prevention of germ growth near burns,
cuts and wounds. And more than 20 types of pharmacotherapy are
known according to their indication. These are listed below.
Medications affecting gastrointestinal tract (digestive system) include those for: 1) upper digestive tract (antacids, reflux suppressants,
antiflatulents, proton pump inhibitors); 2) lower digestive tract (laxatives, antispasmodics, antidiarrhoeals, bile acid sequestrants, and opioid).
Medications affecting the cardiovascular system include those for:
1) general (β-receptor blockers (“beta blockers”), calcium channel
blockers, diuretics, cardiac glycosides, antiarrhythmics, nitrate, antianginals, vasoconstrictors, vasodilators, peripheral activators); 2) affecting blood pressure, i.e. antihypertensive drugs; 3) coagulation (anticoagulants, heparin, antiplatelet drugs, haemostatic drugs); and 4) atherosclerosis/cholesterol inhibitors: hypolipidaemic agents, statins.
Medications affecting central nervous system include: psychedelics, hypnotics, anaesthetics, antipsychotics, antidepressants (including
tricyclic antidepressants, lithium salts), antiemetics, anticonvulsants or
Unit II. Pharmaceuticals
17
antiepileptics, anxiolytics, barbiturates, movement disorder (e.g. Parkinson’s disease) drugs, stimulants (including amphetamines), antihistamines, and emetics.
Medications affecting pain and consciousness (analgesic drugs).
The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and paracetamol.
Anesthetic medication can also be used to reduce pain or numb
a person’s feeling to it.
Medications affecting the eye include: 1) general (adrenergic neurone blocker, astringent, ocular lubricant); 2) diagnostic (topical anesthetics, sympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, mydriatics, cycloplegics); 3) antibacterial (antibiotics, topical antibiotics, sulfa drugs, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones); 4) antiviral drugs: anti-fungal
(imidazoles, polyenes), anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs, corticosteroids),
anti-allergy (mast cell inhibitors), and anti-glaucoma (adrenergic agonists, beta-blockers, and nitroglycerin).
Medications affecting the ear, nose and oropharynx include: antihistamines, NSAIDs, steroids, antiseptics, local anesthetics, and antifungals.
Medications affecting the respiratory system include: bronchodilators, NSAIDs, anti-allergics, antitussives, mucolytics, decongestants
corticosteroids, and steroids.
Medications reducing endocrine problems include: androgens, antiandrogens, gonadotropin, corticosteroids, human growth hormone,
insulin, antidiabetics (sulfonylureas, biguanides or metformin, insulin),
thyroid hormones, antithyroid drugs, calcitonin, diphosponate, and vasopressin analogues.
Medications for the reproductive system or urinary system treatment include: antifungal, alkalising agents, quinolones, antibiotics,
cholinergics, anticholinergics, anticholinesterases, antispasmodics, sildenafils, and fertility medications.
Medications for the skin treatment include: emollients, antipruritics, antifungals, disinfectants, scabicides, pediculicides, tar products, vitamin A derivatives, vitamin D analogues, keratolytics, abrasives, systemic antibiotics, topical antibiotics, hormones, desloughing agents, exudate absorbents, sunscreens, antiperspirants, and corticosteroids.
Medications for infections and infestations treatment include: antibiotics, antifungals, antileprotics, antituberculous drugs, antimalarials,
anthelmintics, amoebicides, antivirals, and antiprotozoals.
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
Medications affecting the immune system include: vaccines, immunoglobulins, immunosuppressants, interferons, monoclonal antibodies.
Medications affecting allergic disorders include: anti-allergics, antihistamines, and NSAIDs.
Medications for nutrition treatment include: tonics, electrolytes
and mineral preparations (including iron preparations and magnesium
preparations), parental nutritional supplements, vitamins, anti-obesity
drugs, anabolic drugs, haematopoietic drugs, and food product drugs.
TEXT D. PHARMACEUTICALS AND PERSONAL CARE
PRODUCTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Since the 1990s water contamination by pharmaceuticals has been
an environmental issue of concern. Most pharmaceuticals are deposited
in the environment through human consumption and excretion, and are
often filtered ineffectively by wastewater treatment plants which are
not designed to manage them. Once in the water they can have diverse,
subtle effects on organisms, although research is limited. Pharmaceuticals may also be deposited in the environment through improper disposal, runoff from sludge fertilizer and reclaimed wastewater irrigation,
and leaky sewage.
Pharmacoenvironmentology is a branch of pharmacology and
a form of pharmacovigilance which deals entry of chemicals or drugs
into the environment after elimination from humans and animals posttherapy. It deals specifically with those pharmacological agents that
have impact on the environment via elimination through living organisms subsequent to pharmacotherapy, while Ecopharmacology is concerned with the entry of chemicals or drugs into the environment
through any route and at any concentration disturbing the balance of
ecology (ecosystem), as a consequence. Ecopharmacology is a broad
term that includes studies of “PPCPs” irrespective of doses and route of
entry into environment.
Ecopharmacovigilance is the science and activities associated with
the detection, evaluation, understanding and prevention of adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment. This is close to the WHO
definition of pharmacovigilance, the science aiming to capture any adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in humans after use. The term Envi-
Unit II. Pharmaceuticals
19
ronmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants (EPPP) was suggested
in the 2010 nomination of pharmaceuticals and environment as an
emerging issue to Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) by the International Society of Doctors for the Environment (ISDE). Throughout the 1990s outcomes were similar.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT II
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What nine arts, except distillation, were indispensable in the
preparation and application of medicines in ancient times?
2. What medicines were commonly used for pain in the beginning
of the XXth century?
3. What popular medieval treatments can you name?
4. What antibiotics emerged in the 1930s?
5. Do you share a famous comment of 1842 that “if all medicines
in the world were thrown into the sea, it would be all the better for
mankind and all the worse for the fishes”? State your point.
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. Type of drugs regulated as such because they can impose adverse effects and should not be used unless necessary.
2. Reasons to not prescribe drugs such as interactions or side
effects.
3. Prescription practice says that these documents, required for
approval, are used to help inform doctors’ prescription of these drugs,
but errors can happen.
4. The science and activities associated with the detection, evaluation, understanding and prevention of adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment.
5. Most of them are deposited in the environment through human
consumption and excretion.
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. Until the 1970s, … were not a major concern for doctors and
patients.
2. Depending upon the jurisdiction, may be divided into over-thecounter drugs.
3. A … can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended
for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease.
4. … may be available without special restrictions, while must be
prescribed by a licensed medical practitioner.
5. The World Health Organization keeps a list of …
Medications, prescription only medicine, pharmaceutical drug, essential medicines, drug prices.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) digitalis, nitroglycerin, a) one of ten arts indispensable in the
and quinine
preparation and application of medicines that the student of Ayurveda was
expected to know;
2) analysis and separation b) medicines used by the late 1920s for
of minerals
heart disorders;
3) administration
c) the delivery of a pharmaceutical drug
to a patient;
4) errors of prescription d) a branch of pharmacology and a form
practice
of pharmacovigilance which deals
with entry of chemicals or drugs into
the environment after elimination from
humans and animals post-therapy;
5) pharmacoenvironmen- e) misprescription, contraindication and
tology
lack of detail in dosage and administrations instructions.
Ex. V. Translate into English paying attention on the classification of medicinal herbs and plants.
Официальные лекарственные растения – растения, сырье которых разрешено для производства лекарственных средств
в стране. Эти виды лекарственного растительного сырья указаны
в Государственном реестре лекарственных средств. Фармакопейные лекарственные растения – официальные растения, требования к качеству лекарственного растительного сырья которых изложены в соответствующей статье Государственной фармакопеи
Unit II. Pharmaceuticals
21
или международных фармакопей. Фармакогнозия – это одно
из направлений фармацевтической науки, которое изучает лекарственные растения и лекарственное растительное сырье. Лекарственные растения народной медицины – наиболее широкая категория. Большинство растений в ней относительно плохо описано,
и сведения об эффективности их применения не прошли необходимой проверки средствами современной фармакологии. Тем
не менее многие растения этой группы активно используются
в странах, где медицинская помощь недоступна или слишком дорога.
Ex. VI. Read the text below and give it a title.
Modern pharmaceutical manufacturing techniques frequently rely
upon biotechnology. Amongst the earliest uses of biotechnology in
pharmaceutical manufacturing is the use of recombinant DNA technology to modify Escherichia coli bacteria to produce human insulin,
which was performed at Genentech in 1978. Prior to the development
of this technique, insulin was extracted from the pancreas glands of cattle, pigs, and other farm animals. While generally efficacious in the
treatment of diabetes, animal-derived insulin is not indistinguishable
from human insulin, and may therefore produce allergic reactions. Genentech researchers produced artificial genes for each of the two protein chains that comprise the insulin molecule. The artificial genes were
then inserted... into plasmids... among a group of genes that were activated by lactose. Thus, the insulin-producing genes were also activated
by lactose. The recombinant plasmids were inserted into Escherichia
coli bacteria, which were induced to produce 100,000 molecules of either chain A or chain B human insulin. The two protein chains were
then combined to produce insulin molecules.
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
UNIT III
MEDICAL PLANTS
TEXT A. HISTORY OF HERBAL MEDICINE
Herbal medicine (or herbalism) is the study and use of medicinal
properties of plants. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells
and certain animal parts. Pharmacognosy is the study of all medicines
that are derived from natural sources.
The bark of willow trees contains large amounts of salicylic acid,
which is the active metabolite of aspirin. Willow bark has been used for
millennia as an effective pain reliever and fever reducer.
Plants have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical
compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and
to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals. Many of these phytochemicals have beneficial effects on long-term health when consumed by humans, and can be used
to effectively treat human diseases. At least 12,000 such compounds
have been isolated so far; a number estimated to be less than 10% of
the total. Chemical compounds in plants mediate their effects on the
human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical compounds in conventional drugs; thus herbal
medicines do not differ greatly from conventional drugs in terms of
how they work. This enables herbal medicines to be as effective as
conventional medicines, but also gives them the same potential to cause
harmful side effects.
The use of plants as medicines predates written human history.
Ethnobotany (the study of traditional human uses of plants) is recognized as an effective way to discover future medicines. In 2001, researchers identified 122 compounds used in modern medicine which
were derived from “ethnomedical” plant sources; 80% of these have
had an ethnomedical use identical or related to the current use of the
active elements of the plant. Many of the pharmaceuticals currently
available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies,
including aspirin, digitalis, quinine, and opium.
Unit III. Medical plants
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The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among nonindustrialized societies, and is often more affordable than purchasing
expensive modern pharmaceuticals. The World Health Organization
(WHO) estimates that presently the majority of population of some
Asian and African countries use herbal medicine for some aspect of
primary health care. Studies in Europe have shown that their use is less
common in clinical settings, but has become increasingly more in recent years as scientific evidence about the effectiveness of herbal medicine has become more widely available.
The use of plants as medicines predates written human history.
Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food also yield
useful medicinal compounds. The use of herbs and spices in cuisine
developed in part as a response to the threat of food-borne pathogens.
Studies show that in tropical climates where pathogens are the most
abundant, recipes are the most highly spiced. Further, the spices with
the most potent antimicrobial activity tend to be selected. In all cultures
vegetables are spiced less than meat, presumably because they are more
resistant to spoilage. Many of the common weeds that populate human
settlements, such as nettle, dandelion and chickweed, also have medicinal properties.
Modern herbal medicine. Digoxin is a purified cardiac glycoside
that is extracted from the foxglove plant, Digitalis lanata. Digoxin is
widely used in the treatment of various heart conditions, namely atrial
fibrillation, atrial flutter and sometimes heart failure that cannot be controlled by other medication.
The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among nonindustrialized societies.
Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians
have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin,
digitalis, and quinine. The use of, and search for, drugs and dietary
supplements derived from plants have accelerated in recent years.
Pharmacologists, microbiologists, botanists, and natural-products
chemists are combing the Earth for phytochemicals and leads that
could be developed for treatment of various diseases. In fact, according
to the World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs
used in the United States have been derived from plants.
Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the
higher plants and widely used in modern medicine today, 80% show
a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use and the
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
traditional use of the plants from which they are derived. More than
two thirds of the world’s plant species – at least 35,000 of which are
estimated to have medicinal value – come from the developing countries. At least 7000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia
are derived from plants.
In many medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) significant variations of plants characteristics have been ascertained with varying soil
traits, and the selective recovery and subsequent release in food of certain elements have been demonstrated. Great attention must be paid to
choose soil and cropping strategies, to obtain satisfactory yields of high
quality and best-priced products, respecting their safety and nutritional
value.
TEXT B. BIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF HERBAL MEDICINE
The carotenoids in primrose produce bright red, yellow and orange
shades. People consuming diets rich in carotenoids from natural foods,
such as fruits and vegetables, are healthier and have lower mortality
from a number of chronic illnesses.
All plants produce chemical compounds as part of their normal
metabolic activities. These phytochemicals are divided into: 1) primary
metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found in all plants; and
2) secondary metabolites – compounds which are found in a smaller
range of plants, serving a more specific function. For example, some
secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation and others are
pheromones used to attract insects for pollination. It is these secondary
metabolites and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans
and which can be refined to produce drugs – examples are inulin from
the roots of dahlias, quinine from the cinchona, morphine and codeine
from the poppy, and digoxin from the foxglove.
Plants synthesize a bewildering variety of phytochemicals but
most are derivatives of a few biochemical motifs.
Alkaloids are a class of chemical compounds containing a nitrogen
ring. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including
bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are part of the group of natural
products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be
purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids
are toxic to other organisms. They often have pharmacological effects
Unit III. Medical plants
25
and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in entheogenic
rituals. Examples are the local anesthetic and stimulant cocaine; the
psychedelic psilocin; the stimulant caffeine; nicotine; the analgesic
morphine; the antibacterial berberine; the anticancer compound vincristine; the antihypertension agent reserpine; the cholinomimeric galatamine; the spasmolysis agent atropine; the vasodilator vincamine; the
anti-arhythmia compound quinidine; the anti-asthma therapeutic ephedrine; and the antimalarial drug quinine. Although alkaloids act on
a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly invoke a bitter taste.
Polyphenols
Polyphenols (also known as phenolics) are compounds contain
phenol rings. The anthocyanins that give grapes their purple color, the
isoflavones, the phytoestrogens from soy and the tannins that give tea
its astringency are phenolics.
Glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to a noncarbohydrate moiety, usually a small organic molecule. Glycosides
play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store
chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by
enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used
as medications. In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to
sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body. An example
is the cyanoglycosides in cherry pits that release toxins only when bitten by a herbivore.
Terpenes are a large and diverse class of organic compounds, produced by a variety of plants, particularly conifers, which are often
strong smelling and thus may have had a protective function. They are
the major components of resin, and of turpentine produced from resin.
(The name “terpene” is derived from the word “turpentine”.) Terpenes
are major biosynthetic building blocks within nearly every living creature. Steroids, for example, are derivatives of the triterpene squalene.
When terpenes are modified chemically (such as by oxidation or rearrangement of the carbon skeleton) the resulting compounds are generally referred to as terpenoids. Terpenes and terpenoids are the primary
constituents of the essential oils of many types of plants and flowers.
Essential oils are used widely as natural flavor additives for food, as
fragrances in perfumery, and in traditional and alternative medicines
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
such as aromatherapy. Synthetic variations and derivatives of natural
terpenes and terpenoids also greatly expand the variety of aromas used
in perfumery and flavors used in food additives. Vitamin A is an example of a terpene. The fragrance of rose and lavender is due to monoterpenes. The carotenoids produce the reds, yellows and oranges of
pumpkin, corn and tomatoes.
Prevalence of Use
A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM), what was used, and why it
was used. The survey was limited to adults, aged 18 years and over
during 2002, living in the United States. According to this survey, herbal therapy, or use of natural products other than vitamins and minerals, was the most commonly used CAM therapy (18.9%) when all use
of prayer was excluded.
Herbal remedies are very common in Europe. In Germany, herbal
medications are dispensed by apothecaries. Prescription drugs are sold
alongside essential oils, herbal extracts, or tisanes. Herbal remedies are
seen by some as a treatment to be preferred to pure medical compounds
which have been industrially produced.
Herbal Preparations
There are many forms in which herbs can be administered, the
most common of which is in the form of a liquid that is drunk by the
patient – either a tisane or a (possibly diluted) plant extract. Whole
herb consumption is also practiced either fresh, in dried form or as
fresh juice.
Several methods of standardization may be determining the
amount of herbs used. One is the ratio of raw materials to solvent.
However different specimens of even the same plant species may vary
in chemical content. For this reason, thin layer chromatography is
sometimes used by growers to assess the content of their products before use. Another method is standardization on a signal chemical.
Tisanes, or herbal teas, are the resultant liquid of extracting herbs
into water, though they are made in a few different ways. Infusions are
hot water extracts of herbs, such as chamomile or mint, through steeping. Decoctions are the long-term boiled extracts, usually of harder
substances like roots or bark. Maceration is the old infusion of plants
Unit III. Medical plants
27
with high mucilage-content, such as sage, thyme, etc. To make macerates, plants are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left to
stand for 7 to 12 hours (depending on herb used). For most macerates
10 hours is used.
Tinctures are alcoholic extracts of herbs, which are generally
stronger than tisanes. They are usually obtained by combining 100%
pure ethanol (or a mixture of 100% ethanol with water) with the herb.
A completed tincture has an ethanol percentage of at least 25% (sometimes up to 90%). Herbal wine and elixirs are alcoholic extract of
herbs; usually with an ethanol percentage of 12–38%. Herbal wine is
a maceration of herbs in wine, while an elixir is a maceration of herbs
in spirits. Extracts include liquid extracts, dry extracts and nebulisates.
Liquid extracts are liquids with a lower ethanol percentage than tinctures. They can (and are usually) made by vacuum distilling tinctures.
Dry extracts are extracts of plant material which are evaporated into
a dry mass. They can then be further refined to a capsule or tablet. A nebulisate is a dry extract created by freeze-drying. Vinegars are prepared
at the same way as tinctures, except using a solution of acetic acid as
the solvent. Syrups are extracts of herbs made with syrup or honey.
Sixty five parts of sugar are mixed with 35 parts of water and herb. The
whole is then boiled and macerated for three weeks.
The exact composition of a herbal product is influenced by the
method of extraction. A tea will be rich in polar components because
water is a polar solvent. Oil, on the other hand, is a non-polar solvent
and it will absorb non-polar compounds. Alcohol lies somewhere in
between.
Many herbs are applied topically to the skin in a variety of
forms. Essential oil extracts can be applied to the skin, usually diluted in a carrier oil (many essential oils can burn the skin or are
simply too high dose used straight – diluting in olive oil or another
food grade oil such as almond oil can allow these to be used safely
as a topical). Salves, oils, balms, creams and lotions are other forms
of topical delivery mechanisms. Most topical applications are oil extractions of herbs. Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for
anywhere from weeks to months allows certain phytochemicals to be
extracted into the oil. This oil can then be made into salves, creams,
lotions, or simply used as oil for topical application. Any massage
oils, antibacterial salves and wound healing compounds are made
this way.
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
Inhalation as in aromatherapy can be used as a mood changing
treatment to fight a sinus infection or cough, or to cleanse the skin on
a deeper level (steam rather than direct inhalation here).
Safety
Datura stramonium is a highly effective treatment for asthma
symptoms when smoked, because it contains atropine, which acts as an
antispasmodic in the lungs.
A number of herbs are thought to be likely to cause adverse effects. Furthermore, adulteration, inappropriate formulation, or lack of
understanding of plant and drug interactions have led to adverse reactions that are sometimes life threatening or lethal. Proper double-blind
clinical trials are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of each
plant before they can be recommended for medical use. Although
many consumers believe that herbal medicines are safe because they
are “natural”, herbal medicines and synthetic drugs may interact,
causing toxicity to the patient. Herbal remedies can also be dangerously contaminated, and herbal medicines without established efficacy,
may unknowingly be used to replace medicines that do have corroborated efficacy.
Standardization of purity and dosage is not mandated in the United
States, but even products made to the same specification may differ as
a result of biochemical variations within a species of plant. Plants have
chemical defense mechanisms against predators that can have adverse
or lethal effects on humans. Examples of highly toxic herbs include
poison hemlock and nightshade. They are not marketed to the public as
herbs, because the risks are well known, partly due to a long and colorful history in Europe, associated with “sorcery”, “magic” and intrigue.
Although not frequent, adverse reactions have been reported for herbs
in widespread use. On occasion serious untoward outcomes have been
linked to herb consumption. A case of major potassium depletion has
been attributed to chronic licorice ingestion, and consequently professional herbalists avoid the use of licorice where they recognise that this
may be a risk. Black cohosh has been implicated in a case of liver failure. Few studies are available on the safety of herbs for pregnant women, and one study found that use of complementary and alternative
medicines are associated with a 30% lower ongoing pregnancy and live
birth rate during fertility treatment.
Unit III. Medical plants
29
Examples of herbal treatments with likely cause-effect relationships with adverse events include: chaparral, Chinese herb mixtures,
comfrey, germander, liquorice root, and pennyroyal.
Examples of herbs with asserted risk of long term adverse effects
include: ginseng (unpopular among herbalists for this reason), goldenseal, milk thistle (against which herbalists generally advise and rarely
use), aloe vera juice, buckthorn bark and berry, and valerian.
There is also concern with respect to the numerous wellestablished interactions of herbs and drugs. In consultation with
a physician, usage of herbal remedies should be clarified, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse drug interactions when
used in combination with various prescription and over-the-counter
pharmaceuticals, just as a patient should inform a herbalist of their consumption of orthodox prescription and other medication.
For example, dangerously low blood pressure may result from the
combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood pressure together with
prescription medicine that has the same effect. Some herbs may amplify
the effects of anticoagulants. Certain herbs as well as common fruit interfere with cytochrome P450, an enzyme critical to much drug metabolism.
Practitioners
Herbalist is a person whose life is dedicated to the economic or
medicinal uses of plants.
On the other hand, he is skilled in the harvesting and collection of
medicinal plants.
Traditional Chinese herbalist is one who is trained or skilled in the
dispensing of herbal prescriptions; traditional Chinese herb doctor.
Herbalists must learn many skills, including the wild crafting or cultivation of herbs, diagnosis and treatment of conditions or dispensing herbal
medication, and preparations of herbal medications. Education of herbalists varies considerably in different areas of the world. Lay herbalists and
traditional indigenous medicine people generally rely upon apprenticeship
and recognition from their communities in lieu of formal schooling.
In some countries formalized training and minimum education
standards exist, although these are not necessarily uniform within or
between countries. For example, in Australia the currently selfregulated status of the profession results in different associations setting
different educational standards, and subsequently recognizing an educational institution or course of training.
30
PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
The National Herbalists Association of Australia is generally recognized as having the most rigorous professional standard within Australia. In the United Kingdom, the training of medical herbalists is done
by state funded Universities. For example, Bachelor of Science degrees
in herbal medicine are offered at Universities such as University of
East London, Middlesex University, University of Central Lancashire,
University of Westminster, University of Lincoln and Napier University in Edinburgh at the present.
TEXT C. MODERN HERBAL MEDICINE
The World Health Organization (WHO), the specialized agency of
the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with international public
health, published Quality control methods for medicinal plant materials
in 1998 in order to support WHO Member States in establishing quality
standards and specifications for herbal materials, within the overall
context of quality assurance and control of herbal medicines.
In the European Union (EU), herbal medicines are now regulated
under the European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products.
Some herbs, such as cannabis and coca, are outright banned in
most countries. Sales of ephedrine as a dietary supplement are prohibited in the United States by the Traditional Herbal Medicine Systems.
Some researchers trained in both western and traditional Chinese
medicine have attempted to deconstruct ancient medical texts in the
light of modern science. One idea is that the yin-yang balance, at least
with regard to herbs, corresponds to the pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant
balance.
Herbal Philosophy and Spiritual Practices
Alternative medical systems Acupuncture, Chiropractic medicine,
Massage Therapy, Naturopathic medicine, Osteopathy
Traditional medicine
Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan, Unani,
Siddha, Ayurveda
NCCAM classifications
Whole medical systems, Mind-body interventions, Biologically based therapies,
Manipulative therapy, Energy therapies
Unit III. Medical plants
31
Eisenburg states in his book “The Chinese and Western medical
models are like two frames of reference in which identical phenomena
are studied. Neither frame of reference provides an unobstructed view
of health and illness. Each is incomplete and in need of refinement”.
Specifically, the traditional Chinese medical model could effect change
on the recognized, and expected, phenomena of detachment to patients as people and estrangement unique to the clinical and impersonal relationships between patient and physician of the Western school
of medicine.
Four approaches to the use of plants as medicine include:
1. The magical/shamanic. Almost all non-modern societies recognize this kind of use. The practitioner is regarded as endowed with gifts
or powers that allow him/her to use herbs in a way that is hidden from
the average person, and the herbs are said to affect the spirit or soul of
the person.
2. The energetic. This approach includes the major systems of
Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, and Unani. Herbs are regarded as having actions in terms of their energies and affecting the
energies of the body. The practitioner may have extensive training,
and ideally be sensitive to energy, but need not have supernatural
powers.
3. The functional dynamic. This approach was used by early physiomedical practitioners, whose doctrine forms the basis of contemporary practice in the UK. Herbs have a functional action, which is not
necessarily linked to a physical compound, although often to
a physiological function, but there is no explicit recourse to concepts
involving energy.
4. The chemical. Modern practitioners call it Phytotherapists – attempt to explain herb actions in terms of their chemical constituents. It
is generally assumed that the specific combination of secondary metabolites in the plant is responsible for the activity claimed or demonstrated, a concept called synergy.
Herbalists tend to use extracts from parts of plants, such as the
roots or leaves but not isolate particular phytochemicals. Pharmaceutical medicine prefers single ingredients on the grounds that dosage can be more easily quantified. It is also possible to patent single
compounds, and therefore generate income. Herbalists often reject
the notion of a single active ingredient, arguing that the different
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
phytochemicals present in many herbs will interact to enhance the
therapeutic effects of the herb and dilute toxicity. Furthermore, they
argue that a single ingredient may contribute to multiple effects.
Herbalists deny that herbal synergism can be duplicated with synthetic chemicals. They argue that phytochemical interactions and
trace components may alter the drug response in ways that cannot
currently be replicated with a combination of a few putative active
ingredients. Pharmaceutical researchers recognize the concept of
drug synergism but note that clinical trials may be used to investigate the efficacy of a particular herbal preparation, provided the
formulation of that herb is consistent.
In specific cases the claims of synergy and multifunctionality have
been supported by science. The open question is how widely both can
be generalized. Herbalists would argue that cases of synergy can be
widely generalized, on the basis of their interpretation of evolutionary
history, not necessarily shared by the pharmaceutical community.
Plants are subject to similar selection pressures as humans and therefore they must develop resistance to threats such as radiation, reactive
oxygen species and microbial attack in order to survive. Human diseases are multifactorial and may be treated by consuming the chemical defenses that they believe to be present in herbs. Bacteria, inflammation,
nutrition and ROS (reactive oxygen species) may all play a role in arterial disease. Herbalists claim a single herb may simultaneously address several of these factors. Likewise a factor such as ROS may underlie more than one condition. In short herbalists view their field as
the study of a web of relationships rather than a quest for single cause
and a single cure for a single condition.
In selecting herbal treatments herbalists may use forms of information that are not applicable to pharmacists. Because herbs can moonlight as vegetables, teas or spices they have a huge consumer base and
large-scale epidemiological studies become feasible. Ethnobotanical
studies are another source of information. For example, when indigenous peoples from geographically dispersed areas use closely related
herbs for the same purpose that is taken as supporting evidence for its
efficacy. Herbalists contend that historical medical records and herbals
are underutilized resources. They favor the use of convergent information in assessing the medical value of plants. An example would be
when in vitro activity is consistent with traditional use.
Unit III. Medical plants
33
TEXT D. USES OF HERBAL MEDICINES BY ANIMALS
Indigenous healers often claim to have learned by observing that
sick animals change their food preferences to nibble at bitter herbs
they would normally reject. Field biologists have provided corroborating evidence based on observation of diverse species, such as chickens, sheep, butterflies, and chimpanzee. The habit has been shown to
be a physical means of purging intestinal parasites. Lowland gorillas
take 90% of their diet from the fruits of Aframomum melegueta,
a relative of the ginger plant, which is a potent antimicrobial and apparently keeps shigellosis and similar infections at bay. Current research focuses on the possibility that this plant also protects gorillas
from fibrosing cardiomyopathy which has a devastating effect on captive animals.
Sick animals tend to forage plants rich in secondary metabolites, such as tannins and alkaloids. Since these phytochemicals often have antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antihelminthic properties, a plausible case can be made for self-medication by animals
in the wild.
Some animals have digestive systems especially adapted to cope
with certain plant toxins. For example, the koala can live on the leaves
and shoots of the eucalyptus, a plant that is dangerous to most animals.
A plant that is harmless to a particular animal may not be safe for humans to ingest. A reasonable conjecture is that these discoveries were
traditionally collected by the medicine men of indigenous tribes, who
then passed on safety information and cautions.
Extinction of Medicinal Plant Species
Because “over 50% of prescription drugs are derived from chemicals first identified in plants”, a 2008 report from the Botanic Gardens
Conservation International (representing botanic gardens in 120 countries) warned that “cures for things such as cancer may become extinct
before they are ever found”. They identified 400 medicinal plants at
risk of extinction from over-collection and deforestation, threatening
the discovery of future cures for disease. These included Yew trees (the
bark is used for the cancer drug paclitaxel); Hoodia (from Namibia,
a potential source of weight loss drugs); half of Magnolias (used as
Chinese medicine for 5000 years to fight cancer, dementia and heart
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
disease); and Autumn crocus (for gout). Their report said that “five billion people still rely on traditional plant-based medicine as their primary form of health care”.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT III
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What does herbal medicine (or herbalism) study and use?
2. What produces the reds, yellows and oranges of pumpkin, corn
and tomatoes?
3. What large variety of organisms produces alkaloids?
4. What shades are produced by the carotenoids in primrose bright?
5. Name four approaches to the use of plants as medicine.
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. A large and diverse class of organic compounds, produced by
a variety of plants, particularly conifers, which are often strong smelling and thus may have had a protective function.
2. An attempt to explain herb actions in terms of their chemical
constituents.
3. Bark of this rare tree is used for the cancer drug paclitaxel.
4. This plant is a potential source of weight loss drugs.
5. Half of these trees all over the world has been used as Chinese
medicine for 5.000 years to fight cancer, dementia and heart disease.
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include
fungal and …, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts.
2. The … of willow trees contains large amounts of salicylic acid,
which is the active metabolite of aspirin.
3. The use of … to treat disease is almost universal among nonindustrialized societies.
4. People consuming diets rich in … from natural foods, such as
fruits and vegetables, are healthier and have lower mortality from
a number of chronic illnesses.
Unit III. Medical plants
35
5. Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to … have
a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine.
6. … have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical
compounds that are used to perform important biological functions.
Bark, herbs, bee products, plants, physicians, carotenoids.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) digoxin
a) the study of all medicines that are derived
from natural sources;
2) alkaloids
b) a purified cardiac glycoside that is extracted
from the foxglove plant;
3) tisanes
c) a class of chemical compounds containing
a nitrogen ring;
4) datura stramo- d) herbal teas or the resultant liquid of extracting
nium
herbs into water, though they are made in
a few different ways;
5) pharmacognosy e) highly effective treatment for asthma symptoms when smoked, because it contains atropine, which acts as an antispasmodic in the
lungs.
Ex. V. Translate into English paying attention on the application of medicinal herbs and plants.
В лекарственных травах содержится минимум одно вещество,
обладающее лечебными свойствами. Это вещество или вещества
зачастую неравномерно распределены по тканям и частям растения. Поэтому при сборе лекарственных трав надо знать, где сосредоточены полезные элементы и в какой период развития растения
их концентрация максимальна. Основные способы применения
сырья лекарственных растений: производство лекарственных
средств для внутреннего и наружного использования. Внутрь
применяют водные извлечения: настой, отвар, водно-спиртовые,
масляные извлечения (настойка, экстракты) из лекарственного
растительного сырья или сборов. Из сочных свежих частей официальных растений получают сок. Наружно используются: травяная ванна, обертывание, примочка, компресс. Из официальных
растений получают различные морфологические группы лекарственного растительного сырья: трава, цветки, листья, корневища,
корни, плоды, семена, кора, почки и др.
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
Ex VI. Speak on the history of ethnobotany using the following
cards:
Definition
Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the relationships that exist between people and plants. Ethnobotanists aim to document, describe and explain complex relationships between cultures and (uses of)
plants, focusing primarily on how plants are used,
managed and perceived across human societies. This
includes use for food, clothing, currency, ritual, medicine, dye, construction, cosmetics and more.
History of eth- Though the term “ethnobotany” was not coined unnobotany
til 1895 by the botanist John William Harshberger,
the history of the field begins long before that. In
A.D. 77, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides published
a catalog of about 600 plants in the Mediterranean.
That illustrated herbal publication contained information on how and when each plant was gathered,
whether or not it was poisonous, its actual use, and
how the Greeks used the plants for medicinal purposes.
Ethnobotany of In 1542 Leonhart Fuchs, a Renaissance artist, cataRenaissance
loged 400 plants native to Germany and Austria.
John Ray (1686–1704) provided the first definition
of “species” in his “Historia Plantarum” as a set of
individuals who give rise through reproduction to
new individuals similar to themselves.
Ethnobotany of The first individual to study the emic perspective of
the XIXth cen- the plant world was Leopold Glueck, a German phytury
sician working in Sarajevo at the end of 19th century.
His published work on traditional medical uses of
plants done by rural people in Bosnia (1896) has to
be considered the first modern ethnobotanical work.
The term “ethnobotany” was first used by a botanist
named John W. Harshberger in 1895 while he was
teaching at the University of Pennsylvania.
Aboriginal bo- The 19th century saw the peak of botanical exploratany
tion. Alexander von Humboldt collected data from
the New World, and the James Cook’s voyages
brought back collections and information on plants
Unit III. Medical plants
37
from the South Pacific. Through all of this research,
the field of “aboriginal botany” was established – the
study of all forms of the vegetable world which
aboriginal peoples use for food, medicine, textiles,
ornaments and more.
Modern ethno- Beginning in the 20th century, the field of ethnobobotany
tany experienced a shift from the raw compilation of
data to a greater methodological and conceptual reorientation. This is also the beginning of academic
ethnobotany. The so-called “father” of this discipline
is Richard Evans Schultes, even though he did not
actually coin the term “Ethnobotany”. Today the
field of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills: botanical training for the identification and preservation
of plant specimens; and anthropological training to
understand the cultural concepts around the perception of plants.
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
UNIT IV
PHARMACOGNOSY
TEXT A. PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy, derived from the Greek for drug knowledge, is
the study of medicines derived from natural sources. It can be defined
as the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological
properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources. It is also defined as the study of crude drugs.
The term “pharmacognosy” was used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811. Originally, during the 19th century
and the beginning of the 20th century, pharmacognosy was used to define the branch of medicine or commodity sciences (Warenkunde in
German) which deals with drugs in their crude, or unprepared, form.
Crude drugs are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin, used for medicine.
By the beginning of the 20th century the subject had developed
mainly on the botanical side, being particularly concerned with the description and identification of drugs both in their whole state and in
powder form. Such branches of pharmacognosy are still of fundamental
importance particularly for quality control purposes.
Although most pharmacognostic studies focus on plants and medicines derived from plants, other types of organisms are also regarded as
pharmacognostically interesting, in particular, various types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.), and, recently, various marine organisms.
According to the International Society of Pharmacognosy, pharmacognosy is the study of natural product molecules that are useful for
their medicinal, ecological, gustatory, or other functional properties.
Other definitions draw on a broad spectrum of biological subjects, including botany, ethnobotany, marine biology, microbiology, herbal
medicine, chemistry, biotechnology, phytochemistry, pharmacology,
pharmaceutics, clinical pharmacy, and pharmacy practice.
The contemporary study of pharmacognosy can be divided into the
fields of:
Unit IV. Pharmacognosy
39
medical ethnobotany: the study of the traditional use of plants
for medicinal purposes;
• ethnopharmacology: the study of the pharmacological qualities
of traditional medicinal substances;
• the study of phytotherapy (the medicinal use of plant extracts);
• phytochemistry, the study of chemicals derived from plants (including the identification of new drug candidates derived from plant
sources);
• zoopharmacognosy, the process by which animals selfmedicate, by selecting and using plants, soils, and insects to treat and
prevent disease;
• marine pharmacognosy, the study of chemicals derived from
marine organisms.
The plant kingdom still holds many species of plants containing
substances of medicinal value which have yet to be discovered. Large
numbers of plants are constantly being screened for their possible
pharmacological value.
•
TEXT B. ISSUES OF PHYTOTHERAPY
The part of pharmacognosy focusing on use of crude extracts or
semi-pure mixtures originating from nature, namely phytotherapy, is
probably the best known and also the most debated area in pharmacognosy. Although phytotherapy is sometimes considered as alternative
medicine, when critically conducted, it can be considered the scientific
study on the effects and clinical use of herbal medicines.
Constituents and Drug Synergism
One characteristic of crude drug material is that constituents may
have an opposite, moderating or enhancing effect. Hence, the final effect of any crude drug material will be a product of the interactions between the constituents and the effect of each constituent on its own. To
effectively study the existence and effect of such interactions, scientific
studies must examine the effect that multiple constituents, given concurrently, have on the system. Herbalists assert that as phytopharmaceuticals rely upon synergy for their activities, plants with high levels
of active constituents like ginsenosides or hypericin may not correlate with the strength of the herbs. In phytopharmaceutical or herbal
40
PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
medicine, the therapeutic effects of herbs cannot be determined unless
its active ingredient or cofactors are identified or the herb is administered as a whole. One way to indicate strength is standardization to one
or several marker compound that are believed to be mainly responsible
for the biological effects. However many herbalists believe that the active ingredient in a plant is the plant itself.
Herb and Drug Interactions
A study of herb drug interactions indicated that the vast majority
of drug interactions occurred in four classes of drugs, the chief class
being blood thinners, but also including protease inhibitors, cardiac
glycosides and the immune-suppressant ciclosporin.
Natural Products Industry
Most bioactive compounds of natural origin are secondary metabolites, i.e. species-specific chemical agents that can be grouped into various categories. A typical protocol to isolate a pure chemical agent
from natural origin is bioassay-guided fractionation, meaning step-bystep separation of extracted components based on differences in their
physicochemical properties, and assessing the biological activity, followed by next round of separation and assaying. Typically, such work
is initiated after a given crude drug formulation (typically prepared by
solvent extraction of the natural material) is deemed “active” in
a particular in vitro assay. If the end-goal of the work at hand is to
identify which one(s) of the scores or hundreds of compounds are responsible for the observed in vitro activity, the path to that end is fairly
straightforward: 1) fractionate the crude extract, e.g. by solvent partitioning or chromatography; 2) test the fractions thereby generated with
in vitro assay; 3) repeat the first two steps until pure, active compounds
are obtained; and 4) determine structure(s) of active compound(s), typically by using spectroscopic methods. In vitro activity does not necessarily translate to activity in humans or other living systems.
The most common means for fractionation are solvent-solvent partitioning and chromatographic techniques such as high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC), medium-pressure liquid chromatography, “flash” chromatography, open-column chromatography, vacuumliquid chromatography (VLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), with
each technique being most appropriate for a given amount of starting
material. Countercurrent chromatography (CCC) is particularly well-
Unit IV. Pharmacognosy
41
suited for bioassay-guided fractionation because, as an all-liquid separation technique, concern about irreversible loss or denaturation of active sample components is minimized. After isolation of a pure substance, the task of elucidating its chemical structure can be addressed.
For this purpose, the most powerful methodologies available are nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and mass spectrometry
(MS). In the case of drug discovery efforts, structure elucidation of all
components that are active in vitro is typically the end goal. In the case
of phytotherapy research, the investigator may use in vitro BAGF as
a tool to identify pharmacologically interesting or important components of the crude drug. The work does not stop after structural identification of in vitro actives, however.
The task of “dissecting and reassembling” the crude drug one active component at a time, in order to achieve a mechanistic understanding of how it works in phytotherapy, is quite daunting. This is because
it is simply too difficult, from cost, time, regulatory, and even scientific
perspectives, to study experimental fractions of the crude drug in humans. In vitro assays are therefore used to identify chemical components of the crude drug that may rationally be expected to have a given
pharmacological effect in humans, and to provide a rational basis for
standardization of a crude drug formulation to be tested in humans and
marketed to them.
Loss of Biodiversity
Farnsworth for example, has found that 25% of all prescriptions
dispensed from community pharmacies in the United States from 1959
to 1980 contained active ingredients extracted from higher plants. In
some countries in Asia and Africa 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine (including herbal medicine) for primary health care.
Constituents of substances used by traditional healers have rarely been
incorporated into modern medicine. Quinine, physostigmine, d-tubocurarine, pilocarpine and ephedrine, have been demonstrated to have
active effects.
Knowledge of traditional medicinal practices is disappearing, particularly in the Amazon, as native healers die out and are replaced by
more modern medical practitioners. Botanists and pharmacologists are
racing to learn these ancient practices, which, like the forest plants they
employ, are also endangered. Species extinction is not only due to habitat loss.
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PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
Overharvesting of medicinal species of plants and animals also
contributes to species loss. This is particularly notable in the matter of
Traditional Chinese Medicine where crude drugs of plant and animal
origin are used with increasing demand.
TEXT C. SUSTAINABLE SOURCES OF PLANT
AND ANIMAL DRUGS
As species face loss of habitat or overharvesting, there have been
new issues to deal with in sourcing crude drugs. These include changes
to the herb from farming practices, substitution of species or other
plants altogether, adulteration and cross-pollination issues. For instance, ginseng which is field farmed may have significant problems
with fungus, making contamination with fungicides an issue. This may
be remedied with woods grown programs, but they are insufficient to
produce enough ginsengs to meet demand.
The farming of plant or animal species for medicinal purposes has
caused difficulties listed below.
A. One solution is to farm medicinal animals and plants. Chinese
officials have promoted this as a way of guaranteeing supplies as well as
protecting endangered species. And there have been some successes –
notably with plant species, such as American ginseng – which is used
as a general tonic and for chronic coughs. Also red deer has for centuries been farmed for its antlers, used to treat impotence and general fatigue. But growing your own is not a universal panacea. Some plants
grow so slowly that cultivation in not economically viable. Animals
such as musk deer may be difficult to farm, and so generate little profit.
Seahorses are difficult to feed and plagued by disease in captivity. Other species cannot be cultivated at all. Even when it works, farming
usually fails to match the scale of demand. Overall, cultivated plants in
China supply less than 20% of the required 1.6 million tons per annum.
Similarly, China’s demand for animal products such as musk and pangolin scales far exceeds supply from captive-bred sources.
B. Farming alone can never resolve conservation concerns. For
a start, consumers often prefer ingredients taken from the wild, believing them to be more potent. This is reflected in the price, with wild
oriental ginseng fetching up to 32 times as much as cultivated plants.
Unit IV. Pharmacognosy
43
Then there are welfare concerns. Bear farming in China is particularly
controversial. Around 7,600 captive bears have their bile “milked”
through tubes inserted into their gall bladders. Bear farming is surrounded by appalling levels of cruelty and neglect: 10,000 wild bears
would need to be killed each year to produce as much bile, making bear
farming the more desirable option. It is commonly believed in China
that the bile from a wild bear is the most potent, and so farming bears
for their bile cannot replace the demand for the product extracted from
wild animals.
C. One alternative to farming involves replacing medical ingredients from threatened species with manufactured chemical compounds. In general, this sort of substitution is difficult to achieve because the active ingredient is often not known. In addition, most TCM
users believe that TCM compounds may act synergistically so several
ingredients may interact to give the required effect. Thus TCM users
often people prefer the wild source.
TEXT D. PHARMACOLOGY AND PHARMACY
Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned
with the study of drug action, where a drug can be broadly defined as
any man-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule
which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect
normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal
properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals.
The field encompasses drug composition and properties, synthesis and drug design, molecular and cellular mechanisms, organ or systems mechanisms, signal transduction/cellular communication, molecular diagnostics, interactions, toxicology, chemical biology, therapy,
and medical applications. The two main areas of pharmacology are
pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. The former studies the effects of the drug on biological systems, and the latter the effects of biological systems on the drug. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with biological receptors, and pharmacokinetics
discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
(ADME) of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is
44
PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
not synonymous with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently
confused. Pharmacology, a biomedical science, deals with the research, discovery, and characterization of chemicals which show biological effects and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation to these chemicals. In contrast, pharmacy, a health
services profession, is concerned with application of the principles
learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it is in
a dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast
between the two is their distinctions between direct-patient care, for
pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by
pharmacology.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT IV
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. Into how many fields can the contemporary study of pharmacognosy be divided? Name them.
2. What kind of difficulties is caused by the farming of plant or
animal species for medicinal purposes?
3. What is the main difference between pharmacology and
pharmacy?
4. What are most common means for fractionation? Give their
examples.
5. What types of organisms are regarded as pharmacognostically
interesting?
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. The study of medicines derived from natural sources or the
study of crude drugs.
2. A health services profession.
3. The process by which animals self-medicate, by selecting and
using plants, soils, and insects to treat and prevent disease.
4. High-performance liquid chromatography.
Unit IV. Pharmacognosy
45
5. The study of the pharmacological qualities of traditional medicinal substances.
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. Constituents of substances used by traditional healers have rarely been incorporated into …
2. If … have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals.
3. Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned
with the study of …
4. Pharmacy is concerned with … of the principles learned from
pharmacology in its clinical settings.
5. Pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, …, metabolism, and
excretion of chemicals from the biological systems.
Substances, distribution, drug action, application, modern medicine.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) pharmacology
a) the scientific study on the effects and
clinical use of herbal medicines;
2) pharmacognosy
b) a biomedical science dealing with the research, discovery, and characterization of
chemicals which show biological effects
and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation to these chemicals;
3) pharmacodynamics c) the study of medicines derived from natural sources;
4) pharmacokinetics
d) the study of chemicals with biological receptors;
5) phytotherapy
e) the study of the ADME of chemicals
from the biological systems.
Ex. V. Topics for discussion. Look through the partial list of
herbs and herbal treatments with known or suspected adverse effects
(Appendix B) and speak on their application.
Ex. VI. Translate into English.
Лекарственная форма – придаваемое лекарственному средству
или лекарственному растительному сырью удобное для применения
состояние, при котором достигается необходимый лечебный эффект.
Лекарственная форма классифицируется по следующим критериям.
1. По разделению на дозы. Дозированные и недозированные:
порошки, гранулы, мази (пасты, кремы, гели, линименты), пластыри,
46
PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES
суспензии (взвеси), эмульсии, растворы, микстуры, аэрозоли. Недозированные (неразделенные): сборы, карандаши лекарственные,
клей кожный, настои, отвары, настойки, эликсиры, сиропы. Дозированные (разделенные): брикеты, таблетки (драже, глоссеты), пилюли, карамели, пастилки (троше), пленки глазные, суппозитории
(палочки, пессарии, шарики, свечи), капли, капсулы (пеллеты).
Пеллеты (вид капсул) – это покрытые оболочкой твердые частицы
шарообразной формы, содержащие одно или несколько активных
действующих веществ с добавлением вспомогательных веществ.
2. По консистенции. Твердые, мягкие или жидкие: экстракты,
среди которых различают: жидкие экстракты (подвижные жидкости), на этиловом 70%-ном спирте в соотношении 1 : 1; густые
экстракты (вязкие массы с содержанием влаги не более 25%),
на этиловом спирте, воде, эфире; сухие экстракты (сыпучие массы
с содержанием влаги не более 5%), высушенные густые. Твердые:
сборы, карандаши лекарственные, порошки, гранулы, брикеты,
капсулы, таблетки (драже, глоссеты), пилюли, карамели, пастилки,
пленки глазные. Мягкие: мази (пасты, кремы, гели, линименты),
суппозитории (палочки, пессарии, шарики, свечи), пластыри.
Жидкие: настои, отвары, настойки, эликсиры, сиропы, растворы
(капли), суспензии (взвеси), эмульсии, микстуры. Газообразные:
аэрозоли.
3. По цели действия и способу применения: для местного
(локального) действия; для общего (системного, резорбтивного)
действия: а) для парентеральных способов применения (лекарственные формы для инъекций: порошки, суспензии (взвеси),
эмульсии, растворы), б) для энтеральных способов применения.
Ex VII. Speak on phytochemicals using the following cards:
Definition
Phytochemicals, chemical compounds that occur naturally in plants (phyto means “plant” in Greek), are
responsible for color and organoleptic properties,
such as the deep purple of blueberries and smell of
garlic. The term is generally used to refer to those
chemicals that may have biological significance, for
example antioxidants, but are not established as essential nutrients. Scientists estimate that there may be
as many as 10,000 different phytochemicals having
the potential to affect diseases such as cancer, stroke
or metabolic syndrome.
Unit IV. Pharmacognosy
47
Phytochemicals Without specific knowledge of their cellular actions
as candidate nu- or mechanisms, phytochemicals have been consitrients
dered as drugs for millennia. Some phytochemicals
with physiological properties may be elements rather
than complex organic molecules. Sometimes they
can be harmful and sometimes they can be very helpful, as far as concerned they are responsible for the
color in vegetables or fruits. Abundant in many fruits
and vegetables, selenium, for example, is involved
with major metabolic pathways, including thyroid
hormone metabolism and immune function. Particularly, it is an essential nutrient and cofactor for the
enzymatic synthesis of glutathione, an endogenous
antioxidant.
Clinical
trials There are currently many phytochemicals in clinical
and health claim trials for a variety of diseases. Lycopene from tomastatus
toes, for example, has been tested in human studies
for cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer.
These studies, however, did not attain sufficient
scientific agreement to conclude an effect on any
disease.
Food processing Phytochemicals in freshly harvested plant foods may
and phytochem- be destroyed or removed by modern processing techicals
niques, including cooking. For this reason, industrially processed foods likely contain fewer phytochemicals and may thus be less beneficial than unprocessed
foods. Absence or deficiency of phytochemicals in
processed foods may contribute to increased risk of
preventable diseases. A converse example may exist
in which lycopene, a phytochemical present in tomatoes, is either unchanged in content or made more
concentrated by processing to juice or paste, maintaining good levels for bioavailability.
The Human Gastrointestinal Tract
(Digestive System)
Mouth
breaks down food
into small pieces
and mixes it
with saliva
Liver
produces bile
and processes nutrients
obtained from food
Gall bladder
stores bile
Rectum
stores the waste
until it leaves
the body through
the anus
Esophagus
is a muscular tube down
which food travels
from the mouth
to the stomach
Stomach
secretes juices
that get digestion
under way
Pancreas
secretes enzymes
into the small intestine
Small intestine
is the main site
where food is digested
Large intestine
absorbs water from
digestive waste
Anus
The Human Cardio-vascular System
VEINS
ARTERIES
Ascending aorta
Superior
vena cava
Heart
Inferior
vena cava
Femoral
vein
Abdominal
aorta
Iliac artery
Femoral artery
Popliteal artery
Greater
saphenous
vein
Blood circulation: red stands for oxygenated, blue stands for deoxygenated
The Human Nervous System
Brain
Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Brachial plexus
Musculocutaneous
nerve
Radial
nerve
Median nerve
Iliohypogastric
nerve
Genitofemoral
nerve
Obturator nerve
Ulnar nerve
Common
peroneal nerve
Deep peroneal
nerve
Superficial
peroneal
nerve
Intercostal nerves
Subcostal nerve
Lumbar plexus
Sacral
plexus
Femoral nerve
Pudental nerve
Sciatic nerve
Muscular branches
of femoral nerve
Saphenous nerve
Tibial nerve
Baacterial In
nfection and
a Main Species Involved
Overview of
Bacterial infections
o
Viral Infeection and
d Main Sp
pecies Invvolved
Overview
v
of
n
Viral infections
Health Effects of Pollution
48
PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
PART II
BIOTECHNOLOGY
UNIT V
BIOTECHNOLOGY
TEXT A. BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products. According to the UN Convention on
Biological Diversity, biotechnology is any technological application
that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to
make or modify products or processes for specific use.
For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in
agriculture, food production and medicine. The term itself is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky.
In the late 20th and early 21st century, biotechnology has expanded to
include new and diverse sciences such as genomics, recombinant gene
technologies, applied immunology, and development of pharmaceutical
therapies and diagnostic tests.
The concept of “biotech” or “biotechnology” encompasses a wide
range of procedures for modifying living organisms according to human purposes – going back to domestication of animals, cultivation
of plants, and “improvements” to these through breeding programs
that employ artificial selection and hybridization. Modern usage also
includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies.
Biotechnology also draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology). And in many instances it is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology
Unit V. Biotechnology
49
including: chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, bioinformatics, a new brand of information technology, and biorobotics.
Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts
such as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and heavily dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is
commonly thought of as the life sciences industry. Biotechnology is the
research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for
exploration, extraction, exploitation and production from any living organisms and any source of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by
biosynthesis, for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations and
gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior
to this to receive national and international approval from the results on
animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects
or safety concerns by using the products).
By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related
field with its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily altering or using biological materials directly) for interfacing
with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the application of the
principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and molecules. This can be considered as the use knowledge from working
with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve
functions in plants and animals.
TEXT B. HISTORY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of
human-derived agriculture clearly fit the broad definition of “using
a biotechnological system to make products”. Indeed, the cultivation of
plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise.
Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way
of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best suited crops,
having the highest yields, to produce enough food to support a growing
population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
by-products could effectively fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control
pests. Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently
altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants – one of the first forms
of biotechnology.
These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer.
In brewing, malted grains (containing enzymes) convert starch from
grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In
this process, carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Later other cultures produced the process of lactic
acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of
other forms of food, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in
this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of
fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s work in
1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source
into another form.
For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to
improve production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to
produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this
technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops.
In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific
products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological
culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using
Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United
Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World
War I.
Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In
1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium. His work
led to the purification of the antibiotic by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris
Chain and Norman Heatley, penicillin. In 1940, penicillin became
available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.
The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg’s (Stanford) experiments in
gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at San
Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced the
new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into
a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced.
Unit V. Biotechnology
51
TEXT C. APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, nonfood (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable
plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.
For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed
use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples
include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally
present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, cleanup sites contaminated by
industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological
weapons.
A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several
branches of biotechnology; for example: bioinformatics, blue biotechnology, green biotechnology, red biotechnology, and white biotechnology.
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid
organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as,
“conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale”. Bioinformatics plays
a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the
marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural
processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of
plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of
transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence
(or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might
produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of
pesticides.
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.
White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is
biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example
is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous or polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional
processes used to produce industrial goods.
The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bioeconomy.
Biotechnology is applied in medicine and pharmacogenetics.
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications
in such areas as drug production, pharmacogenomics, gene therapy,
and genetic testing (or genetic screening), i.e. techniques in molecular
biology detect genetic diseases.
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of
an individual affects his body’s response to drugs. It is a compound derived from the root of the word “pharmacology” plus the word “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals
and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design
and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.
Pharmacogenomics results in the following four benefits.
1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins,
enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes
and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize
therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages.
Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well
his/her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize
the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The
discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets
for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
Unit V. Biotechnology
53
4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced
by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of
being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.
TEXT D. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND PHARMACEUTICAL
PRODUCTS
Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively small molecules that bind to particular molecular targets and either activate or
deactivate biological processes. Small molecules are typically manufactured through traditional organic synthesis, and many can be taken
orally. In contrast, biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules
such as proteins that are developed to address targets that cannot easily
be addressed by small molecules. Some examples of biopharmaceutical
drugs include: 1) Infliximab, a monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases; 2) Etanercept, a fusion protein used in
the treatment of autoimmune diseases; and 3) Rituximab, a monoclonal
antibody used in the treatment of cancer. Due to their larger size, and
corresponding difficulty with surviving the stomach, colon and liver,
biopharmaceuticals are typically injected.
Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used
to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical.
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered
products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. Modern
biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily
and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Most drugs
today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of
the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response
sites is expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT V
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the term for conceptualizing biology applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with molecules?
2. What is bioremediation?
3. What study is used to recycle, treat waste, and also to produce
biological weapons?
4. What for was designed medicine known as the first genetically
engineered product?
5. Give three examples of biopharmaceutical drugs.
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. Relatively small molecules that bind to particular molecular
targets and either activate or deactivate biological processes.
2. The study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his body’s response to drugs.
3. The use of living systems and organisms to develop or make
useful products.
4. Large biological molecules such as proteins that are developed to address targets that cannot easily be addressed by small molecules.
5. Type of medicine that elicits the immune response without the
attendant risks of infection.
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. … is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products.
2. Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively small molecules that bind to particular molecular targets and either activate or …
biological processes.
3. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to … human diseases.
4. In brewing, malted grains convert … from grains into sugar and
then adding specific yeasts to produce beer.
Unit V. Biotechnology
55
5. In …, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in
such areas as drug production, pharmacogenomics, gene therapy, and
genetic testing.
Deactivate, medicine, treat, starch, one application of biotechnology.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) blue biotechnology
a) biotechnology applied to agricultural
processes;
2) white biotechnology b) a term used to describe the marine and
aquatic applications of biotechnology;
3) bioinformatics
c) biotechnology applied to medical
processes, such as the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics;
4) red biotechnology
d) biotechnology applied to industrial
processes and also known as industrial
biotechnology;
5) green biotechnology e) an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the
rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible.
Ex. V. Topics for discussion. Look through the list of plants that
have been used as herbal medicine (Appendix B) and speak on their
application.
Ex. VI. Translate into English.
Биотехнология – дисциплина, изучающая возможности использования живых организмов, их систем или продуктов их жизнедеятельности для решения технологических задач, а также возможности создания живых организмов с необходимыми свойствами
методом генной инженерии. С помощью современных методов
традиционные биотехнологические производства получили возможность улучшить качество пищевых продуктов и увеличить
продуктивность живых организмов. Биотехнология основана
на генетике, молекулярной биологии, биохимии, эмбриологии
и клеточной биологии, а также прикладных дисциплинах – химической и информационной технологиях и робототехнике.
Фармацевтическая химия (др.-греч. φάρμακον – лекарство),
или химия лекарственных средств, – это наука о химических
свойствах и превращениях лекарственных веществ, методах их
разработки и получения, качественного и количественного анализа.
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
Фармацевтическая химия изучает химические процессы при создании лекарственных средств, установлении их подлинности, определении действующего вещества и примесей, а также химические превращения при их хранении. Фармацевтическая химия является важным разделом химической науки и тесно связана с ее
отдельными дисциплинами: неорганической химией, органической химией, физической и коллоидной химией, аналитической
химией и биохимией. Фармацевтическая химия изучает органические лекарственные вещества (альдегиды, амины сульфаниловой
кислоты, амины угольной кислоты, аминокислоты, аминопроизводные ароматического ряда, ароматические аминокислоты
и аминоспирты, ароматические кислоты, галогенпроизводные углеводородов жирного ряда, гетероциклические соединения, карбоновые кислоты, спирты).
Unit VI. Microorganisms
57
UNIT VI
MICROORGANISMS
TEXT A. MICROORGANISM
A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which
may be a single cell or multicellular organism. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van
Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using
a microscope of his own design.
Microorganisms are very diverse; they include all of the prokaryotes,
namely the bacteria and archaea; and various forms of eukaryote, comprising the protozoa, fungi, algae, microscopic plants (green algae), and
animals such as rotifers and planarians. Some microbiologists also classify
viruses as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. Most
microorganisms are microscopic, but there are some like Thiomargarita
namibiensis, which are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye.
Microorganisms live in all parts of the biosphere including soil,
hot springs, on the ocean floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside
rocks within the Earth’s crust. Microorganisms are critical to nutrient
recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and
recent studies indicate that airborne microbes may play a role in precipitation and weather.
Microbes are exploited by people in biotechnology, both in traditional food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies
based on genetic engineering. However there are many pathogenic microbes which are harmful and can even cause death in plants and animals.
TEXT B. CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE
OF MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic
organization of life on the planet. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic,
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
including most protists, some fungi, as well as some animals and
plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not
considered as microbes, although the field of microbiology also encompasses the study of viruses.
Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are organisms that lack a cell nucleus
and the other membrane bound organelles. They are almost always unicellular, although some species such as myxobacteria can aggregate
into complex structures as part of their life cycle. Consisting of two
domains, bacteria and archaea, the prokaryotes are the most diverse and
abundant group of organisms on Earth and inhabit practically all environments where the temperature is below +140°C. They are found in
water, soil, air, animals’ gastrointestinal tracts, hot springs and even
deep beneath the Earth’s crust in rocks. Practically all surfaces that
have not been specially sterilized are covered by prokaryotes.
Bacteria. Almost all bacteria are invisible to the naked eye, with
a few extremely rare exceptions, such as Thiomargarita namibiensis.
They lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, and can
function and reproduce as individual cells, but often aggregate in multicellular colonies. Bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by binary fission or sometimes by budding, but do not undergo sexual reproduction.
Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria this
is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly and can double as quickly as
every 20 minutes.
Archaea. Archaea are also single-celled organisms that lack nuclei.
In the past, the differences between bacteria and archaea were not recognized and archaea were classified with bacteria as part of the kingdom Monera. However, in 1990 the three-domain system that divided
living things into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes was proposed. Archaea differ from bacteria in both their genetics and biochemistry. For
example, while bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, achaea membranes are made of ether lipids.
Eukaryotes. Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in
their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. However, a large
number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and
archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the cell nucleus, the
Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells. Unicellular eukaryotes
consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is
Unit VI. Microorganisms
59
significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell
called a zygote only at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have
multiple cell nuclei.
Protists. Of eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. This is a highly diverse group of organisms
that are not easy to classify. Several algae species are multicellular
protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching
between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms. The number of
species of protists is unknown since we may have identified only
a small proportion.
Micro-animals
Most animals are multicellular, but some are too small to be seen
by the naked eye. Microscopic arthropods include dust mites and spider
mites. Microscopic crustaceans include copepods and the cladocera,
while many nematodes are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
Another particularly common group of microscopic animals are the rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in fresh water. Micro-animals reproduce both sexually and asexually and may reach new
habitats as some eggs can survive harsh environments that would kill
the adult animal.
Fungi. The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker’s
yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in
some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others. Fungi reproduce
both asexually, by budding or binary fission, as well by producing
spores, which are called conidia when produced asexually.
Plants. The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green
algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified
with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land
plants. Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The
green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not
always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid,
and filamentous forms. There are about 6000 species of green algae.
Habitats and ecology. Microorganisms are found in almost every
habitat present in nature. Even in hostile environments such as the
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
poles, deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. Some types of microorganisms have adapted to the extreme conditions and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have
been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometers below the Earth’s
surface, and it has been suggested that the amount of living organisms
below the Earth’s surface may be comparable with the amount of life
on or above the surface. Extremophiles have been known to survive for
a prolonged time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to radiation,
which may even allow them to survive in space. Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while
others can be damaging to the host organism (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are known as pathogens and
then they are usually referred to as microbes.
Symbiotic microorganisms. Symbiotic microbes such as fungi and
algae form an association in lichen. Certain fungi form mycorrhizal
symbioses with trees that increase the supply of nutrients to the tree.
TEXT C. MICROORGANISMS’ IMPORTANCE
FOR HUMAN HEALTH
Microorganisms are vital to humans and the environment, as they
participate in the Earth’s element cycles such as the carbon cycle and
nitrogen cycle, as well as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all ecosystems, such as recycling other organisms’ dead remains and waste
products through decomposition. Microorganisms also have an important place in most higher-order multicellular organisms as symbionts.
Human Bacterial Flora and Human Health
Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms. For example, the bacteria that live within the human digestive system contribute to gut immunity, synthesize vitamins
such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates.
Diseases Caused By Microbes
Microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as
Unit VI. Microorganisms
61
plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoa, causing diseases such as
malaria, sleeping sickness and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing
diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However,
other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by
pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms
and are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition. No clear
examples of archaea pathogens are known, although a relationship has
been proposed between the presence of some archaea methanogens and
human periodontal disease.
Hygiene
Hygiene is the avoidance of infection or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are found virtually everywhere, the levels of harmful
microorganisms can be reduced to acceptable levels. However, in some
cases, it is required that an object or substance be completely sterile,
i.e. devoid of all living entities and viruses. A good example of this is
a hypodermic needle.
In food preparation microorganisms are reduced by preservation
methods (such as the addition of vinegar), clean utensils used in preparation, short storage periods, or by cool temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are irradiation and the
use of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker.
There are several methods for investigating the level of hygiene in
a sample of food, drinking water, and equipment. Water samples can be
filtrated through an extremely fine filter. This filter is then placed in
a nutrient medium. Microorganisms on the filter then grow to form
a visible colony. Harmful microorganisms can be detected in food by
placing a sample in a nutrient broth designed to enrich the organisms in
question. The hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be
tested by touching them with a solid piece of nutrient medium and then
allowing the microorganisms to grow on it.
There are no conditions where all microorganisms would grow,
and therefore often several different methods are needed. For example,
a food sample might be analyzed on three different nutrient mediums
designed to indicate the presence of “total” bacteria (conditions where
many, but not all, bacteria grow), molds (conditions where the growth
of bacteria is prevented by antibiotics) and coliform bacteria (these indicate a sewage contamination).
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT VI
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is classification of microorganisms?
2. The presence of what is indicated by three different nutrient
mediums, used to analyze a food sample?
3. What do microscopic arthropods include?
4. What is the difference between soil microorganisms and symbiotic microorganisms?
5. What is the habitat of microorganisms in nature?
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult
form.
2. A highly diverse group of organisms that are most commonly
unicellular and microscopic and belong to eukaryotic groups.
3. They are surrounded by a cell wall, which provides strength and
rigidity to their cells.
4. Single-celled organisms that lack nuclei.
5. A microscopic organism, which may be a single cell or multicellular organism.
6. The study of microorganisms is called.
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. Hygiene is the avoidance of … or food spoiling by eliminating
microorganisms from the surroundings.
2. Microorganisms are the … of many infectious diseases.
3. The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric …
4. Influenza and yellow fever are caused by …, which are not
usually classified as living organisms.
5. Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged
time in a … and can be highly resistant to radiation.
Cause, nitrogen, pathogenic viruses, vacuum, infection.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the cases of use of microorganisms on the left:
Unit VI. Microorganisms
63
1) use in digestion a) Some forms of bacteria that live in animals’
stomachs help in their digestion. For example,
cows have a variety of different microbes in
their stomachs that aid them in their digestion
of grass and hay.
2) use in science
b) Microorganisms are used in brewing, winemaking, baking, pickling and other foodmaking processes. They are also used to
control the fermentation process in the production of cultured dairy products such as
yogurt and cheese. The cultures also provide
flavour and aroma, and inhibit undesirable
organisms.
3) use in energy c) The majority of all oxidative sewage treat(algae fuel, celment processes rely on a large range of milulosic ethanol,
croorganisms to oxidize organic constituents
and ethanol ferwhich are not amenable to sedimentation or
flotation. Anaerobic microorganisms are also
mentation)
used to reduce sludge solids producing methane gas, (amongst others) and a sterile mineralized residue. In potable water treatment
one method, the slow sand filter, employs
a complex gelatinous layer composed a wide
range of microorganisms to remove both
dissolved and particulate material from raw
water.
4) use in water d) Microbes are used in fermentation to produce
treatmentt
ethanol, and in biogas reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to
convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels.
5) use in food e) Microbes are also essential tools in biotech(fermentation)
nology, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular
biology. The yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces
pombe) are important model organisms in
science, since they are simple eukaryotes that
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are
easily manipulated. They are particularly vauable in genetics, genomics and proteomics.
Microbes can be harnessed for uses such as
creating steroids and treating skin diseases.
Scientists are also considering using microbes
for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution.
Ex. V. Topics for discussion. Look through the texts on bacterium, bacteria, replication cycle of viruses, and fungus (Appendix A)
and speak on them.
Ex. VI. Translate into English.
Фармаци́я (англ. pharmacy – применение лекарства) – комплекс научно-практических дисциплин, изучающих проблемы
создания, безопасности, исследования, хранения, изготовления,
отпуска и маркетинга лекарственных средств, а также поиска природных источников лекарственных субстанций. В комплексе
с фармакологией составляет науку о лекарствах.
Фармакология (греч. φάρμακον – лекарство, яд и λόγος –
учение) – медико-биологическая наука о лекарственных веществах и их действии на организм; в более широком смысле – наука
о физиологически активных веществах вообще и их действии
на биологические системы. Если вещества используются в фармакотерапии, их называют лекарственные средства.
Фармацевтика – часть фармации, связанная непосредственно
с проблемами производственно-технологического процесса производства лекарственных средств и субстанций. Известно, что
многие химические соединения, обладающие фармакологическими
свойствами, в необработанном состоянии бесполезны либо вредны.
Фармацевтика придает подобному веществу уникальную дозированную форму, пригодную для проведения лечения конкретной
группы больных при определенном пути его введения и режиме
применения. Термин «фармацевтика» не является синонимом понятия «фармация».
Фармацевтическая промышленность – отрасль промышленности, связанная с исследованием, разработкой, массовым производством, изучением рынка и распределением лекарственных
средств, преимущественно предназначенных для профилактики,
облегчения и лечения болезней.
Unit VI. Microorganisms
65
Ex. VII. Speak on the history of discovery of microorganisms
using the cards below.
Pre-microbiology. The possibility that microorganisms exist was
discussed for many centuries before their actual discovery in the 17th century. The existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by
Jainism, which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BC.
Mahavira asserted existence of unseen microbiological creatures living
in earth, water, air and fire. Jain scriptures also describe nigodas, which
are sub-microscopic creatures living in large clusters and having a very
short life and are said to pervade each and every part of universe, even
in tissues of plants and flesh of animals. In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro
proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike
entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact or
even without contact over long distances. All these early claims about
the existence of microorganisms were speculative and were not based
on any data or science.
Microscope. Microorganisms were neither proven, observed, nor
correctly and accurately described until the 17th century. The reason
for this was that all these early studies lacked the microscope. Antonie
Van Leeuwenhoek, the first microbiologist, was the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope of his own design, thereby making
one of the most important contributions to biology. Robert Hooke was
the first to use a microscope to observe living things; his 1665 book
“Micrographia” contained descriptions of plant cells.
Microorganism’s discovery. Before Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of
microorganisms in 1675, it had been a mystery why grapes could be
turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why food would spoil. Antonie
Van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) did not make the connection between
these processes and microorganisms, but using a microscope, he did
establish that there were forms of life that were not visible to the naked
eyel. Leeuwenhoek’s discovery, along with subsequent observations by
Spallanzani and Pasteur, ended the long-held belief that life spontaneously appeare d from non-living substances during the process of
spoilage.
Stalinization. Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799) found that boiling
broth would sterilise it, killing any microorganisms in it. He also found
that new microorganisms could only settle in a broth if the broth was
exposed to air. Lazzaro Spallanzani showed that boiling a broth
stopped it from decaying.
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
Germ theory. Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) showed that Spallanzani’s findings held even if air could enter through a filter that kept particles out. He expanded upon Spallanzani’s findings by exposing boiled
broths to the air, in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles
from passing through to the growth medium, and also in vessels with
no filter at all, with air being admitted via a curved tube that would not
allow dust particles to come in contact with the broth. By boiling the
broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no microorganisms survived
within the broths at the beginning of his experiment. Nothing grew in
the broths i n the course of Pasteur’s experiment. This meant that the
living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores
on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. Thus,
Pasteur dealt the death blow to the theory of spontaneous generation
and supported germ theory.
Koch’s postulates. In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established
that microbes can cause disease. He found that the blood of cattle, infected with anthrax, always had large numbers of Bacillus anthracis.
Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one animal to another
by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused the healthy animal to become
sick. He also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth,
and then inject it into a healthy animal, and cause illness. Based on
these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a causal link between a microbe and a disease and these are now known as Koch’s
postulates. Although these postulates cannot be applied in all cases,
they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific
thought and are still being used today.
Experimental evolution of microorganisms. Microorganisms tend
to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes
through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even between
widely divergent species. This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with
a high mutation rate and many other means of genetic variation, allows
microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in
new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid
evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the recent development of “super-bugs”, pathogenic bacteria that are resistant to modern
antibiotics.
Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances
67
UNIT VII
TECHNOLOGY OF PROTEINS AND BIOLOGICALLY
ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
TEXT A. PROTEIN
Proteins are large biological molecules consisting of one or more
chains of amino acids. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within
living organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, replicating
DNA, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of
their genes, and which usually results in folding of the protein into
a specific three-dimensional structure that determines its activity.
A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids
bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino
groups of adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acids in
a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the
genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino
acids. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in a protein
are often chemically modified by posttranslational modification, which
alters the physical and chemical properties, folding, stability, activity,
and ultimately, the function of the proteins. Sometimes proteins have
non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or
cofactors. Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes.
Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and
nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate
in virtually every process within cells. Many proteins are enzymes that
catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in
muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, which form a system of
scaffolding that maintains cell shape. Other proteins are important in cell
signalling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. Proteins
are also necessary in animals’ diets, since animals cannot synthesize all
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
the amino acids they need and must obtain essential amino acids from
food. Through the process of digestion, animals break down ingested
protein into free amino acids that are then used in metabolism.
Proteins may be purified from other cellular components using
a variety of techniques such as ultracentrifugation, precipitation,
electrophoresis, and chromatography. Methods commonly used to
study protein structure and functions include immunohistochemistry,
site-directed mutagenesis, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass
spectrometry.
History and Etymology
Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others, distinguished by the molecules’ ability to coagulate or flocculate under
treatments with heat or acid. The noted examples at the time included albumin from egg whites, blood serum albumin, fibrin, and
wheat gluten.
Proteins were first described by the Dutch chemist Gerardus Johannes Mulder and named by the Swedish chemist Jцns Jacob Berzelius in 1838. Mulder carried out elemental analysis of common proteins
and found that nearly all proteins had the same empirical formula,
C400H620N100O120P1S1. He came to the erroneous conclusion that they
might be composed of a single type of (very large) molecule. The term
“protein” to describe these molecules was proposed by Mulder’s associate
Berzelius; protein is derived from the Greek word proteios, meaning
“primary” or “standing in front”. Mulder went on to identify the products
of protein degradation such as the amino acid leucine for which he found
a (nearly correct) molecular weight of 131 atomic mass unit (Da).
Early nutritional scientists such as the German Carl von Voit believed that protein was the most important nutrient for maintaining the
structure of the body, because it was generally believed that “flesh
makes flesh”. The central role of proteins as enzymes in living organisms was not fully appreciated until 1926, when James B. Sumner
showed that the enzyme urease was in fact a protein.
The difficulty in purifying proteins in large quantities made them
very difficult for early protein biochemists to study. Hence, early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities, e.g.
those of blood, egg white, various toxins, and digestive or metabolic
enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses. In the 1950s, the Armour Hot
Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances
69
Dog Co. purified 1 kg of pure bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A and
made it freely available to scientists; this gesture helped ribonuclease A
become a major target for biochemical study for the following decades.
The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger,
in 1949. Sanger correctly determined the amino acid sequence of insulin, thus conclusively demonstrating that proteins consisted of linear
polymers of amino acids rather than branched chains, colloids, or cyclols. He won the Nobel Prize for this achievement in 1958.
The first protein structures to be solved were hemoglobin and
myoglobin, by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew, respectively, in 1958. The first atomic-resolution structures of proteins were
solved by X-ray diffraction analysis in the 1960s (Perutz and Kendrew
shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for these discoveries) and by
protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) in the 1980s.
As of 2013, the Protein Data Bank has nearly 90,000 atomic-resolution
structures of proteins. In more recent times, cryo-electron microscopy
of large macromolecular assemblies and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains are two methods approaching
atomic resolution.
TEXT B. PROTEIN BIOCHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS
Biochemistry
Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to
20 different L-α-amino acids. All proteinogenic amino acids possess
common structural features, including α-carbon to which an amino
group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only
proline differs from this basic structure as it contains an unusual ring to
the N-end amine group, which forces the CO–NH amide moiety into
a fixed conformation. The side chains of the standard amino acids have
a great variety of chemical structures and properties; it is the combined
effect of all of the amino acid side chains in a protein that ultimately
determines its three-dimensional structure and its chemical reactivity.
The amino acids in a polypeptide chain are linked by peptide bonds.
Once linked in the protein chain, an individual amino acid is called
a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms
are known as the main chain or protein backbone.
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
The peptide bond has two resonance forms that contribute some
double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the
alpha carbons are roughly coplanar. The other two dihedral angles in
the peptide bond determine the local shape assumed by the protein
backbone. The end of the protein with a free carboxyl group is known
as the C-terminus or carboxyl terminus, whereas the end with a free
amino group is known as the N-terminus or amino terminus. The words
protein, polypeptide, and peptide are a little ambiguous and can overlap
in meaning. Protein is generally used to refer to the complete biological molecule in a stable conformation, whereas peptide is generally reserved for short amino acid oligomers often lacking a stable threedimensional structure. However, the boundary between the two is not
well defined and usually lies near 20–30 residues. Polypeptide can refer
to any single linear chain of amino acids, usually regardless of length,
but often implies an absence of a defined conformation.
Protein Biosynthesis
Proteins are assembled from amino acids using information encoded in genes. Each protein has its own unique amino acid sequence
that is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding this
protein. The genetic code is a set of three-nucleotide sets called codons and each three-nucleotide combination designates an amino acid,
for example AUG (adenine-uracil-guanine) is the code for methionine. Because DNA contains four nucleotides, the total number of
possible codons is 64; hence, there is some redundancy in the genetic
code, with some amino acids specified by more than one codon.
Genes encoded in DNA are first transcribed into pre-messenger RNA
by proteins such as RNA polymerase. Most organisms then process
the pre-mRNA (also known as a primary transcript) using various
forms of post-transcriptional modification to form the mature mRNA,
which is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome. In prokaryotes the mRNA may either be used as soon as it is
produced, or be bound by a ribosome after having moved away from
the nucleoid. In contrast, eukaryotes make mRNA in the cell nucleus
and then translocate it across the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis then takes place. The rate of protein
synthesis is higher in prokaryotes than eukaryotes and can reach up to
20 amino acids per second.
Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances
71
The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is
known as translation. The mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is
read three nucleotides at a time by matching each codon to its base
pairing anticodon located on a transfer RNA molecule, which carries
the amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes. The growing
polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain. Proteins are always biosynthesized from N-terminus to C-terminus.
Chemical Synthesis
Short proteins can also be synthesized chemically by a family of
methods known as peptide synthesis, which rely on organic synthesis
techniques such as chemical ligation to produce peptides in high yield.
Chemical synthesis allows for the introduction of non-natural amino
acids into polypeptide chains, such as attachment of fluorescent probes
to amino acid side chains. These methods are useful in laboratory biochemistry and cell biology, though generally not for commercial applications. Chemical synthesis is inefficient for polypeptides longer
than about 300 amino acids, and the synthesized proteins may not
readily assume their native tertiary structure. Most chemical synthesis
methods proceed from C-terminus to N-terminus, opposite the biological reaction.
TEXT C. PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Most proteins fold into unique 3-dimensional structures. The shape
into which a protein naturally folds is known as its native conformation. Although many proteins can fold unassisted, simply through the
chemical properties of their amino acids, others require the aid of molecular chaperones to fold into their native states. Biochemists often refer to the following distinct aspects of a protein’s structure.
Primary structure: the amino acid sequence. A protein is a polyamide.
Secondary structure: regularly repeating local structures stabilized
by hydrogen bonds. The most common examples are the alpha helix,
beta sheet and turns. Because secondary structures are local, many regions of different secondary structure can be present in the same protein molecule.
Tertiary structure: the overall shape of a single protein molecule; the
spatial relationship of the secondary structures to one another. Tertiary
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
structure is generally stabilized by nonlocal interactions, most commonly the formation of a hydrophobic core, but also through salt
bridges, hydrogen bonds, disulphide bonds, and even posttranslational
modifications. The term “tertiary structure” is often used as synonymous
with the term fold. The tertiary structure is what controls the basic
function of the protein.
Quaternary structure: the structure formed by several protein molecules (polypeptide chains), usually called protein subunits in this context, which function as a single protein complex.
Proteins are not entirely rigid molecules. In addition to these levels
of structure, proteins may shift between several related structures while
they perform their functions. In the context of these functional rearrangements, these tertiary or quaternary structures are usually referred
to as conformations, and transitions between them are called conformational changes. Such changes are often induced by the binding of
a substrate molecule to an enzyme’s active site, or the physical region
of the protein that participates in chemical catalysis. In solution proteins also undergo variation in structure through thermal vibration and
the collision with other molecules.
Proteins can be informally divided into three main classes, which
correlate with typical tertiary structures: globular proteins, fibrous proteins, and membrane proteins. Almost all globular proteins are soluble
and many are enzymes. Fibrous proteins are often structural, such as
collagen, the major component of connective tissue, or keratin, the protein component of hair and nails. Membrane proteins often serve as receptors or provide channels for polar or charged molecules to pass
through the cell membrane.
A special case of intermolecular hydrogen bonds within proteins
poorly shielded from water attack and hence promoting their own dehydration, are called dehydrons.
Structure Determination
Discovering the tertiary structure of a protein, or the quaternary
structure of its complexes, can provide important clues about how the
protein performs its function. Common experimental methods of
structure determination include X-ray crystallography and NMR
spectroscopy, both of which can produce information at atomic resolution. However, NMR experiments are able to provide information
from which a subset of distances between pairs of atoms can be esti-
Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances
73
mated, and the final possible conformations for a protein are determined by solving a distance geometry problem. Dual polarisation interferometry is a quantitative analytical method for measuring the
overall protein conformation and conformational changes due to interactions or other stimulus. Circular dichroism is another laboratory
technique for determining internal beta sheet/helical composition of
proteins. Cryoelectron microscopy is used to produce lowerresolution structural information about very large protein complexes,
including assembled viruses; a variant known as electron crystallography can also produce high-resolution information in some cases,
especially for two-dimensional crystals of membrane proteins. Solved
structures are usually deposited in the Protein Data Bank (PDB),
a freely available resource from which structural data about thousands of proteins can be obtained in the form of Cartesian coordinates
for each atom in the protein.
TEXT D. PROTEIN METHODS
As some of the most commonly studied biological molecules, the
activities and structures of proteins are examined both in vitro and in
vivo. In vitro studies of purified proteins in controlled environments are
useful for learning how a protein carries out its function: for example,
enzyme kinetics studies explore the chemical mechanism of an enzyme’s catalytic activity and its relative affinity for various possible
substrate molecules. By contrast, in vivo experiments on proteins activities within cells or even within whole organisms can provide complementary information about where a protein functions and how it is
regulated.
Protein Purification
To perform in vitro analysis, a protein must be purified away
from other cellular components. This process usually begins with cell
lysis, in which a cell’s membrane is disrupted and its internal contents
released into a solution known as a crude lysate. The resulting mixture
can be purified using ultracentrifugation, which fractionates the various cellular components into fractions containing soluble proteins;
membrane lipids and proteins; cellular organelles, and nucleic acids.
Precipitation by a method known as salting out can concentrate the
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
proteins from this lysate. Various types of chromatography are then
used to isolate the protein or proteins of interest based on properties
such as molecular weight, net charge and binding affinity. The level
of purification can be monitored using various types of gel electrophoresis if the desired protein’s molecular weight and isoelectric point
are known, by spectroscopy if the protein has distinguishable spectroscopic features, or by enzyme assays if the protein has enzymatic
activity. Additionally, proteins can be isolated according their charge
using electrofocusing.
For natural proteins, a series of purification steps may be necessary
to obtain protein sufficiently pure for laboratory applications. To simplify this process, genetic engineering is often used to add chemical features to proteins that make them easier to purify without affecting their
structure or activity.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT VII
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What techniques are used to purify proteins from other cellular
components?
2. What is defined in a protein by the sequence of a gene, which is
encoded in the genetic code?
3. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in a protein
are often chemically modified by posttranslational modification. What
does it alter?
4. How many standard amino acids does the genetic code specify
in general?
5. What is the way to assemble proteins from acids?
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. Being essential parts of organisms, these biological macromolecules participate in virtually every process within cells.
Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances
75
2. It has two resonance forms that contribute some double-bond
character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons
are roughly coplanar.
3. To simplify this process, genetic engineering is often used to
add chemical features to proteins that make them easier to purify without affecting their structure or activity.
4. A protein with is the amino acid sequence.
5. The structure formed by polypeptide chains, which function as
a single protein complex.
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. ... can work together to achieve a particular function, and they
often associate to form stable protein complexes.
2. Proteins perform a vast ... within living organisms.
3. Most chemical ... methods proceed opposite the biological
reaction.
4. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of
amino acids, which is dictated by the ... sequence of their genes.
5. In certain organisms the genetic code can include ... and pyrrolysine.
Synthesis, proteins, selenocysteine, array of functions, nucleotide.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) cofactors
a) a single linear polymer chain of amino acids
bonded together by peptide bonds between the
carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino
acid residues;
2) proteins
b) non-peptide groups attached that proteins have;
3) the Protein c) large biological molecules consisting of one or
more chains of amino acids;
Data Bank
4) primary
d) a freely available resource from which structural
data about thousands of proteins can be obtained
structure
in the form of Cartesian coordinates for each
atom in the protein;
5) polypeptide e) the amino acid sequence of protein.
Ex. V. Translate into English.
Фармакопея (др.-греч. φαρμακον – лекарство; ποιη –
изготовляю) – это сборник официальных документов (свод стандартов и положений), устанавливающих нормы качества лекарственного сырья, т. е. медицинских субстанций, вспомогательных
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
веществ, диагностических и лекарственных средств, и изготовленных из них препаратов. Положения фармакопеи основаны
на достижениях фармацевтической химии, ее фармацевтического
анализа (его критериев, способов и методов). Этот документ
включает указания по изготовлению и проверке качества лекарств,
определяет высшие дозы препаратов, устанавливает требования
к лекарственному сырью.
Государственная фармакопея – это фармакопея, находящаяся под государственным надзором. Государственная фармакопея является документом общегосударственной законодательной силы, его требования обязательны для всех организаций данного государства, занимающихся изготовлением, хранением
и применением лекарственных средств, в том числе растительного происхождения.
Unit VIII. Technology of fats and essential oils
77
UNIT VIII
TECHNOLOGY OF FATS AND ESSENTIAL OILS
TEXT A. FATS
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Chemically,
fats are triglycerides triesters of glycerol and any of several fatty acids.
Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on
their structure and composition. Although the words “oils”, “fats”, and
“lipids” are all used to refer to fats, in reality, fat is a subset of lipid.
“Oils” is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room
temperature, while “fats” is usually used to refer to fats that are solids
at normal room temperature. “Lipids” is used to refer to both liquid and
solid fats, along with other related substances, usually in a medical or biochemical context. The word “oil” is also used for any substance that does
not mix with water and has a greasy feel, such as petroleum (or crude oil),
heating oil, and essential oils, regardless of its chemical structure.
Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by
their chemical structure and physical properties. This category of molecules is important for many forms of life, serving both structural and
metabolic functions. They are an important part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans). Fats or lipids are broken down in the
body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas.
Examples of edible animal fats are lard, fish oil, butter or ghee and
whale blubber. They are obtained from fats in the milk and meat, as
well as from under the skin, of an animal. Examples of edible plant fats
include peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut and olive oils,
and cocoa butter. Vegetable shortening, used mainly for baking, and
margarine, used in baking and as a spread, can be derived from the
above oils by hydrogenation.
These examples of fats can be categorized into saturated fats and
unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be further divided into cis fats,
which are the most common in nature, and trans fats, which are rare in
nature but present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils.
The following types of fats are differed: unsaturated fat (monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, omega fatty acids) and saturated fat.
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TEXT B. TRIGLYCERIDE
Triglyceride is an example of a natural triglyceride with three different fatty acids. Some fatty acids is saturated, another contains one
double bond within the carbon chain. The third fatty acid (a polyunsaturated fatty acid) contains three double bonds within the carbon chain.
All carbon-carbon double bonds are cis-isomers.
There are many different kinds of fats, but each is a variation on
the same chemical structure. All fats are derivatives of fatty acids and
glycerol. The molecules are called triglycerides, which are triesters of
glycerol (an ester being the molecule formed from the reaction of the
carboxylic acid and an organic alcohol). As a simple visual illustration,
if the kinks and angles of these chains were straightened out, the molecule would have the shape of a capital letter E. The fatty acids would
each be a horizontal line; the glycerol “backbone” would be the vertical
line that joins the horizontal lines. Fats therefore have “ester” bonds.
The properties of any specific fat molecule depend on the particular fatty acids that constitute it. Different fatty acids are composed of
different numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The carbon atoms,
each bonded to two neighboring carbon atoms, form a zigzagging
chain; the more carbon atoms there are in any fatty acid, the longer its
chain will be. Fatty acids with long chains are more susceptible to intermolecular forces of attraction, raising its melting point. Long chains
also yield more energy per molecule when metabolized.
Saturated and Unsaturated Fats
A fat’s constituent fatty acids may also differ in the C/H ratio.
When all three fatty acids have the formula CnH(2n+1)CO2H, the resulting fat is called “saturated”. Values of n usually range from 13 to 17.
Each carbon atom in the chain is saturated with hydrogen, meaning
they are bonded to as many hydrogens as possible. Unsaturated fats are
derived from fatty acids with the formula CnH(2n–1)CO2H. These fatty
acids contain double bonds within carbon chain. This results in an unsaturated fatty acid. More specifically, it would be a monounsaturated
fatty acid. Polyunsaturated fatty acids would be fatty acids with more
than one double bond; they have the formula, CnH(2n–3)CO2H and
CnH(2n–5)CO2H. Unsaturated fats can be converted to saturated ones by
the process of hydrogenation. This technology underpinned the development of margarine.
Unit VIII. Technology of fats and essential oils
79
Saturated and unsaturated fats differ in their energy content and
melting point. Since unsaturated fats contain fewer carbon-hydrogen
bonds than saturated fats with the same number of carbon atoms, unsaturated fats will yield slightly less energy during metabolism than saturated fats with the same number of carbon atoms. Saturated fats can
stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can freeze
easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal
fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids. Olive and linseed oils on the other hand are highly unsaturated and
are oily.
Trans Fats
There are two ways the double bond may be arranged: the isomer
with both parts of the chain on the same side of the double bond (the
cis-isomer), or the isomer with the parts of the chain on opposite sides
of the double bond (the trans-isomer). Most trans-isomer fats (commonly called trans fats) are commercially produced. Trans fatty acids
are rare in nature. The cis-isomer introduces a kink into the molecule
that prevents the fats from stacking efficiently as in the case of fats
with saturated chains. This decreases intermolecular forces between the
fat molecules, making it more difficult for unsaturated cis-fats to
freeze; they are typically liquid at room temperature. Trans fats may
still stack like saturated fats, and are not as susceptible to metabolization as other fats. Trans fats may significantly increase the risk of coronary heart disease.
TEXT C. ESSENTIAL OILS
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing
volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as
volatile oils, ethereal oils, or aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant
from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. Oil is essential in
the sense that it carries a distinctive scent, or essence, of the plant. Essential oils do not form a distinctive category for any medical, pharmacological, or culinary purpose. Essential oils are generally extracted by
distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression or
solvent extraction. They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to
incense and household cleaning products. Essential oils have been used
medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who
sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer
and often are based solely on historical accounts of use of essential oils
for these purposes. Claims for the efficacy of medical treatments, and
treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most
countries.
As the use of essential oils has declined in evidence-based medicine, one must consult older textbooks for much information on their
use. Modern works are less inclined to generalize; rather than refer to
“essential oils” as a class at all, they prefer to discuss specific compounds, such as methyl salicylate, rather than “oil of wintergreen”. Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity
of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that claims that essential oils and other aromatic compounds have curative effects. Oils
are volatilized or diluted in carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in
the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.
Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like
the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.
Eucalyptus oil. Apart from essential oils used mainly in foods, the
best-known essential oil worldwide might be eucalyptus oil, produced
from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus. Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil
is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as
a primary cleaning or disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and
countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties. Note, however, there are hundreds of species of
eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as
sources of essential oils. Not only do the products of different species
differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the
very same tree can vary grossly.
Rose oil. The second most well-known essential oil is probably
rose oil, produced from the petals of Rosa damascena and Rosa centifolia. Steam-distilled rose oil is known as “rose otto”, while the solvent
extracted product is known as “rose absolute”.
Lavender essential oil. One of the most popular essential oils in
the world, lavender essential oil has a reputation of being mild, relaxing
and appropriate for all ages and genders. Lavender essential oil is also
an insect repellant.
Unit VIII. Technology of fats and essential oils
81
TEXT D. PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS
Distillation
Today, most common essential oils – such as lavender, peppermint, and eucalyptus – are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of
the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into an
alembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the
steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to
liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel. Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), which takes 22 hours to complete through a fractional distillation. The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, herbal distillate or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant
product. Popular hydrosols include water, lavender water, lemon balm,
clary sage and orange blossom water. The use of herbal distillates in
cosmetics is increasing.
Expression
Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed
(similar to olive oil extraction). Due to the relatively large quantities of
oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials,
citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or
sweet orange oils that are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry
are even cheaper. Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils
were extracted by pressing.
Solvent Extraction
Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression;
their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the
high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexane or
supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils. Extracts from
hexane and other hydrophobic solvent are called concretes (perfumery), which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil soluble) plant material. Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often,
another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, which is more polar in nature, is
used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol is removed by evaporation, leaving behind the absolute fragrance. Supercritical
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carbon dioxide is used as a solvent in supercritical fluid extraction.
This method has many benefits including avoiding petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some “top notes” when steam
distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential
oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid
carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering
the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential
oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and
denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas,
leaving no residue.
Supercritical carbon dioxide is also used for making decaffeinated
coffee. Although it uses the same basic principles, it is a different
process because of the difference in scale.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT VIII
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What types of fats are differed?
2. Into what two groups can unsaturated fats be further divided?
3. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
4. What fats may significantly increase the risk of coronary heart
disease?
5. Name constituents part of a raw plant material.
Ex. II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Lard, fish oil, butter/ghee and whale blubber are examples of ...
animal fats.
2. An oil is “essential” in the sense that it carries a distinctive
scent of the …
3. As the use of essential oils has declined in evidence-based medicine, one must consult ... for much information on their use.
Unit VIII. Technology of fats and essential oils
83
4. Most trans-isomer fats are ... produced.
5. The best-known essential oil worldwide might be ... oil.
Plant, edible, commercially, eucalyptus, older textbooks.
Ex. III. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) cis fats
a) an example of a natural triglyceride with three
different fatty acids;
2) triglyceride
b) monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, trans, and
omega fatty acids;
3) trans fats
c) fats, the most common in nature;
4) essential oil
d) fats, rare in nature but present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils;
5) unsaturated
e) a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing
fats
volatile aroma compounds from plants.
Ex. IV. Topics for discussion. Look through the text on importance of fats for living organisms (Appendix A) and speak on their application.
Ex. V. Translate into English.
Отвар, устаревшее Декокт (лат. Decуctum) – недозированная
жидкая лекарственная форма, представляющая собой водное извлечение из лекарственного растительного сырья, специально
приготовленная для этой цели. Предназначается для внутреннего
или наружного применения. Технология настоев и отваров во
многом похожа. Основное отличие состоит в применяемом лекарственном растительном сырье и более жестких условиях экстракции. Для отваров используются корни, кора, корневища
и иногда толстые жесткие листья (например, листья брусники
или толокнянки).
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UNIT IX
TECHNOLOGY OF PERFUME-COSMETICS PRODUCTS
TEXT A. PERFUME
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents used to give the human body, animals,
food, objects, and living spaces “a pleasant scent”. Perfumes have been
known to exist in some of the earliest human civilizations, either
through ancient texts or from archaeological digs. Modern perfumery
began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma
compounds such as vanillin or coumarin, which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from
natural aromatics alone. Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent,
though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far
the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or
a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume oil can also be diluted by
means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil.
Applying Fragrances
The conventional application of pure perfume in Western cultures
is at pulse points, such as behind the ears, the nape of the neck, and the
insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm
the perfume and release fragrance continually. The modern perfume
industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so that it is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day.
Lightly scented products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion
are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the
afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points for evening. Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4 hours, while perfume may last up to six hours.
A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with the wearer’s own physiology and affect the perception of the fragrance. Diet is
one factor, as eating spicy and fatty foods can increase the intensity of
a fragrance. The use of medications can also impact the character of
Unit IX. Technology of perfume-cosmetics products
85
a fragrance. The relative dryness of the wearer’s skin is important,
since dry skin will not hold fragrance as long as skin with more oil.
Fragrance Wheel
The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that
is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was
created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification. The
new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification
and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each
of the individual classes. The five standard families consist of Floral,
Oriental, Woody, Fougиre, and Fresh, with the former four families
being more “classic” while the latter consisting of newer bright and
clean smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to
improvements in fragrance technology. Each of the families are in turn
divided into sub-groups and arranged around a wheel.
TEXT B. AROMATICS SOURCES
Plant Sources
Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential
oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest
source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these
compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can
offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions
and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of
petit grain, neroli, and orange oils.
Bark. Commonly used barks include cinnamon and cascarilla. The
fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified
for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other
fragrant compounds.
Flowers and blossoms are undoubtedly the largest and most common source of perfume aromatics. They include the flowers of several
species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa,
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the
blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Although not traditionally
thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also
commonly used. Most orchid flowers are not commercially used to
produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an
orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before
use in perfumery.
Fruits. Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. Notable exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include
citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is
still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit
aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell.
Leaves and twigs. Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf,
patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves
are valued for the “green” smell they bring to perfumes, examples of
this include hay and tomato leaf.
Resins. Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resincontaining perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for
a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include
labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin.
Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in
the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring
aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers.
Roots, rhizomes and bulbs are commonly used terrestrial portions
in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, and various rhizomes
of the ginger family.
Seeds. Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.
Woods are highly important in providing the base notes to
a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery.
Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood,
birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.
Unit IX. Technology of perfume-cosmetics products
87
Animal Sources
Ambergris is lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the sperm whale. Ambergris
should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry.
Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal
source, it remains one of the few animalic fragrance agents around
which little controversy now exists. Castoreum is obtained from the
odorous sacs of the North American beaver. Civet, also called Civet
Musk, is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the
family Viverridae, related to the mongoose. Honeycomb is obtained
from the honeycomb of the honeybee. Both beeswax and honey can
be solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with
ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute. Deer
musk, originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk
deer, has been replaced by the use of synthetic musks known as
“white musk”.
Synthetic Sources
Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics
can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic
marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic
aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are
not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and
coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylic
acid) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in
various orchids.
One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatic by
far are the white musks. These materials are found in all forms of
commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes.
These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting “clean” scent.
The majority of the world’s synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include: International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF), Givaudan, Firmenich, Takasago, and Symrise. Each of
these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually.
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
TEXT С. OBTAINING NATURAL ODORANTS
Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various
perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are
produced through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from natural
sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics
from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either essential
oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes
in the extracted product.
All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the
aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to
the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the
extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which
either change their odor character or renders them odorless.
Maceration
Maceration, or solvent extraction, is the most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Maceration lasts anywhere
from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous
plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics
from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat.
Commonly used solvents for maceration or solvent extraction include
hexane, and dimethyl ether. The product of this process is called
a “concrete”.
Supercritical fluid extraction is a relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs
supercritical carbon dioxide. Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds
derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material.
Ethanol extraction is a type of solvent extraction used to extract
fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or effleurage. Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh
plant materials since these contain large quantities of water, which will
also be extracted into the ethanol.
Unit IX. Technology of perfume-cosmetics products
89
Distillation
Distillation is a common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through
condensation of the distilled vapour.
Steam distillation. Steam from boiling water is passed through the
raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. The
condensate from distillation is settled in a Florentine flask. This allows
for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The water
collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes
sold. This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as
flowers, leaves, and stems.
Dry or destructive distillation. The raw materials are directly
heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often
undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method
is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant
woods where an intentional “burned” or “toasted” odor is desired.
Fractionation. Through the use of a fractionation column, different
fractions distilled from a material can be selectively excluded to modify the scent of the final product. Although the product is more expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or undesirable
scents of a material and affords the perfumer more control over their
composition process.
Expression
Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. Of
all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus
family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough
quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible.
Effleurage
Effleurage is absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and
then extraction of odorous oils with ethyl alcohol. Extraction by effleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible because
some fragrant compounds denature through high heat. This technique is
not commonly used in the modern industry due to prohibitive costs and
the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods.
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
TEXT D. FRAGRANT EXTRACTS
Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the
generic term “essential oils”, a more specific language is used in the
fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to
obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only absolutes,
essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes.
Absolute fragrant materials are purified from a pomade or concrete
by soaking them in ethanol. By using a slightly hydrophilic compound
such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source
materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy
molecules. Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid.
Concrete fragrant materials have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons. Concretes
usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds. As such concretes are
usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick
oily liquids.
Tincture fragrant materials are produced by directly soaking and
infusing raw materials in ethanol. Tinctures are typically thin liquids.
Products from different extraction methods are known under different
names even though their starting materials are the same. For instance,
orange blossoms from Citrus aurantium that have undergone solvent
extraction produces “orange blossom absolute” but that which have
been steam distilled is known as “neroli oil”.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT IX
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What for are absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures directly used?
2. What are commonly used resins in perfumery?
Unit IX. Technology of perfume-cosmetics products
91
3. What compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are all
aromatics from animal sources?
4. Why does the harvesting of ambergris remain one of the few
animalic fragrance agents around which little controversy now exists?
5. Name three fresh fruits that unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted.
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. A mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents used to give the human body, animals, food, objects,
and living spaces “a pleasant scent”.
2. The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry.
3. A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds
from a raw material, which often employs supercritical carbon dioxide.
4. Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce it.
5. Plants aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by
plants as protection against them.
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. Absolute … materials are purified from a pomade or concrete
by soaking them in ethanol.
2. Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material,
which drives out their … fragrant compounds.
3. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by
the high heat often undergo anhydrous …, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds.
4. Commonly used solvents for maceration or solvent extraction
include hexane, and … ether.
5. Synthetic … are produced through organic synthesis and purified.
Volatile, pyrolysis, dimethyl, odorants, fragrant.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) distillation
a) absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or
wax and then extraction of odorous oils with
ethyl alcohol;
2) ambergris
b) a common technique for obtaining aromatic
compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses;
3) iris rhizomes
c) commonly used barks include them;
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
4) cinnamon and d) lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose
cascarilla
precursors were secreted and expelled by the
sperm whale;
5) effleurage
e) commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery.
Ex. V. Topics for discussion. Look through the texts on composing perfumes, parfume fragrance notes, characteristics of natural and
synthetic aromatics sources, and dangers of essential oils (Appendix A)
and speak on them.
Ex. VI. Translate into English.
Экстракт, вытяжка (лат. Extractum) – концентрированное извлечение из лекарственного растительного сырья или сырья животного происхождения, представляющее собой подвижные, вязкие жидкости или сухие массы. В медицине термин «экстракт»
означает лекарственную форму, приготовленную с помощью экстрагирования. Экстрагентами могут быть вода, спирт, эфир, углекислота (и другие вещества в сверхкритическом состоянии). Следовательно, экстракты разделяют на водные, спиртовые, эфирные,
СО2-экстракты и др. Различают жидкие экстракты (подвижные
жидкости); густые экстракты (вязкие массы с содержанием влаги
не более 25%); сухие экстракты (сыпучие массы с содержанием
влаги не более 5%). Процесс приготовления экстракта называют
экстракцией, или экстрагированием. В промышленных экстрактах 1 г экстракта соответствует 1 г исходного сырья. Для приготовления подобной формы необходимо заводское оборудование;
в домашних условиях экстракты приготовить невозможно. Поэтому
заменять заводские экстракты домашними нельзя. В народной медицине под термином «экстракты» понимают упаренные водные
или водно-спиртовые вытяжки из высушенного сырья, иногда сырье используют свежее.
Unit X. Ferments and vitamins
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UNIT X
FERMENTS AND VITAMINS
TEXT A. FERMENTATION
The word fermentation is derived from the Latin verb fervere,
which means to boil (same root as effervescence). The term is thought
to have been first used in the late fourteenth century in alchemy, but
only in a broad sense. It was not used in the modern scientific sense until around 1600. The word yeast is derived from jes, the Proto-IndoEuropean language (PIE) word meaning boil (cf. Greek zein, Welsh
ias, and Sanskrit yasyati).
Fermentation (disambiguation) is a metabolic process converting
sugar to acids, gases and/or alcohol using yeast or bacteria. In its strictest
sense, fermentation is the absence of the electron transport chain and takes
a reduced carbon source, such as glucose, and makes products like lactic
acid or acetate. No oxidative is used, only substrate level phosphorylation,
which yields a much lower amount of ATP. Fermentation is also used
much more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on
a growth medium. The science of fermentation is known as zymology.
Fermentation is often used to produce wine and beer, but it is also
employed in preservation to create lactic acid in sour foods such as
pickled cucumbers and yogurt.
Fermentation is a form of anaerobic digestion that generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the process of substrate-level phosphorylation. The energy for generating ATP comes from the oxidation of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates. In contrast, during respiration
is where electrons are donated to an exogenous electron acceptor, such
as oxygen, via an electron transport chain. Fermentation is important in
anaerobic conditions when there is no oxidative phosphorylation to
maintain the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
History
The use of fermentation, particularly for beverages, has existed
since the Neolithic and has been documented dating from 7000–6600 BCE
in China, 6000 BC in Georgia, 3150 BC in ancient Egypt, 3000 BC in
Babylon, 2000 BC in pre-Hispanic Mexico, and 1500 BC in Sudan.
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The first solid evidence of the living nature of yeast appeared between 1837 and 1838 when three publications appeared by C. Cagniard
de la Tour, T. Swann, and F. Kuetzing, each of whom independently
concluded as a result of microscopic investigations that yeast is a living
organism that reproduces by budding. It is perhaps because wine, beer,
and bread were each basic foods in Europe that most of the early studies on fermentation were done on yeasts, with which they were made.
Soon, bacteria were also discovered; the term was first used in English
in the late 1840s, but it did not come into general use until the 1870s,
and then largely in connection with the new germ theory of disease.
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), during the 1850s and 1860s, showed
that fermentation is initiated by living organisms in a series of investigations. In 1857, Pasteur showed that lactic acid fermentation is caused
by living organisms. In 1860, he demonstrated that bacteria cause souring in milk, a process formerly thought to be merely a chemical
change, and his work in identifying the role of microorganisms in food
spoilage led to the process of pasteurization. In 1877, working to improve the French brewing industry, Pasteur published his famous paper
on fermentation “Studies on Fermentation” in 1879. He defined fermentation (incorrectly) as “Life without air”, but correctly showed that
specific types of microorganisms cause specific types of fermentations
and specific end-products.
Although showing fermentation to be the result of the action of living microorganisms was a breakthrough, it did not explain the basic nature of the fermentation process, or prove that it is caused by the microorganisms that appear to be always present. Many scientists, including Pasteur, had unsuccessfully attempted to extract the fermentation
enzyme from yeast. Success came in 1897 when the German chemist
Eduard Buechner ground up yeast, extracted a juice from them, then
found to his amazement that this “dead” liquid would ferment a sugar
solution, forming carbon dioxide and alcohol much like living yeasts.
The “unorganized ferments” behaved just like the organized ones.
From that time on, the term enzyme came to be applied to all ferments.
It was then understood that fermentation is caused by enzymes that are
produced by microorganisms. In 1907, Buechner won the Nobel Prize
in chemistry for his work.
Advances in microbiology and fermentation technology have continued steadily up until the present. For example, in the late 1970s, it
was discovered that microorganisms could be mutated with physical
Unit X. Ferments and vitamins
95
and chemical treatments to be higher-yielding, faster-growing, tolerant
of less oxygen, and able to use a more concentrated medium. Strain selection and hybridization developed as well, affecting most modern
food fermentations.
TEXT B. FERMENTATION FOR MEDICINE
Fermentation does not necessarily have to be carried out in an
anaerobic environment. For example, even in the presence of abundant
oxygen, yeast cells greatly prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration, as
long as sugars are readily available for consumption (a phenomenon
known as the Crabtree effect). The antibiotic activity of hops also inhibits aerobic metabolism in yeast.
Fermentation uses an endogenous, organic electron acceptor. A widely used endogenous electron acceptor is pyruvate. During fermentation,
pyruvate is metabolized to various compounds through several
processes: 1) ethanol fermentation, also referred to as alcoholic fermentation; 2) lactic fermentation (short for lactic acid fermentation). Ethanol fermentation is the conversion of pyruvate into ethanol and carbon
dioxide. Lactic fermentation refers to two means of producing lactic
acid: heterolactic fermentation (the production of lactic acid as well as
other acids and alcohols) and homolactic fermentation (the production
of lactic acid from pyruvate).
Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical
examples of fermentation products are ethanol, lactic acid, lactose, and
hydrogen gas (H2). However, more exotic compounds can be produced
by fermentation, such as butyric acid and acetone. Yeast carries out
fermentation in the production of ethanol in beers, wines, and other alcoholic drinks, along with the production of large quantities of carbon
dioxide. Fermentation occurs in mammalian muscle during periods of
intense exercise where oxygen supply becomes limited, resulting in the
creation of lactic oil.
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Lactic acid fermentation is the simplest type of fermentation. In
essence, it is a redox reaction. In anaerobic conditions, the cell’s primary mechanism of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production is glycolysis. Glycolysis reduces (i.e. transfers electrons to) nicotinamide adenine
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
dinucleotide (NAD+), forming NADH. However there is a limited
supply of NAD+ available in any given cell. For glycolysis to continue,
NADH must be oxidized (i.e. have electrons taken away) to regenerate
the NAD+ that is used in glycolysis. In an aerobic environment, where
oxygen is available, oxidation of NADH is usually done through an
electron transport chain in a process called oxidative phosphorylation,
but oxidative phosphorylation cannot occur in anaerobic environments
because oxygen is absent due to the pathway’s dependence on the terminal electron acceptor of oxygen. Instead, the NADH donates its extra
electrons to the pyruvate molecules formed during glycolysis. Since the
NADH has lost electrons, NAD+ regenerates and is again available for
glycolysis. Lactic acid, for which this process is named, is formed by
the reduction of pyruvate.
In heterolactic acid fermentation, one molecule of pyruvate is converted to lactate; the other is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide. In
homolactic acid fermentation, both molecules of pyruvate are converted
to lactate. Homolactic acid fermentation is unique because it is one of
the only respiration processes to not produce a gas as a byproduct.
Homolactic fermentation breaks down the pyruvate into lactate. It
occurs in the muscles of animals when they need energy faster than the
blood can supply oxygen. It also occurs in some kinds of bacteria (such as
lactobacilli) and some fungi. It is this type of bacteria that converts lactose
into lactic acid in yogurt, giving it its sour taste. These lactic acid bacteria
can be classed as homofermentative, where the end-product is mostly lactate, or heterofermentative, where some lactate is further metabolized and
results in carbon dioxide, acetate, or other metabolic products.
In heterolactic fermentation, the reaction proceeds as follows, with
one molecule of glucose being converted to one molecule of lactic acid,
one molecule of ethanol, and one molecule of carbon dioxide.
Before lactic acid fermentation can occur, the molecule of glucose
must be split into two molecules of pyruvate. This process is called
glycolysis.
Glycolysis
To extract chemical energy from glucose, the glucose molecule
must be split into two molecules of pyruvate. This process generates
two molecules of NADH and also four molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), yet there is only net gain of two ATP molecules considering the two initially consumed:
Unit X. Ferments and vitamins
97
C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ → 2CH3COCOO− + 2ATP +
+ 2NADH + 2H2O + 2H+
As shown by the reaction equation, glycolysis causes the reduction
of two molecules of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NADH.
In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate produced by glycolysis is oxidized completely, generating additional ATP and NADH in the citric
acid cycle and by oxidative phosphorylation. However, this can occur
only in the presence of oxygen. Oxygen is toxic to organisms that are
obligate anaerobes, and are not required by facultative anaerobic organisms. In the absence of oxygen, one of the fermentation pathways occurs in order to regenerate NAD+; lactic acid fermentation is one of
these pathways.
TEXT C. FERMENTS OR ENZYMES
Proteins that have catalytic properties are called enzymes (i.e. enzymes are biological catalysts of protein nature). Some enzymes have
full catalytic reactivity per se; these are considered simple proteins because they do not have a nonprotein moity. Other enzymes are conjugated proteins, and the nonprotein structural components are necessary
for reactivity. Occasionally, enzymes require metallic ions. Conditions
that affect denaturation of proteins usually have an adverse effect on
the activity of the enzyme.
Zymogens, also called proenzymes, are enzyme precursors. These
proenzymes are said to be activated when they are transformed to the
enzyme. Activation usually involves catalytic action by some proteolytic enzyme. Occasionally, the activators merely effect a reorganization
of the tertiary structure (conformation) of the protein so that the groups
involved within the reactive center become functional (i.e. unmasked).
Exportable proteins (enzymes), such as amylase, ribonuclease,
chymotrypsin(ogen), trypsin(ogen), and insulin, are synthesized on the
ribosomes. They pass across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum into the cisternae and directly into a smooth vesicular structure,
which effects further transportation. They are finally stored in highly
concentrated form within membrane-bound granules called zymogen
granules. The exportable protein content of zymogen granules may
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
reach a value of 40% of the total protein of the gland cell. In these enzyme sequences, the newly synthesized exportable protein (enzyme) is
not free in the cell sap. The stored exportable digestive enzymes are released into the extracellular milieu and the hormones into adjacent capillaries. Release of these proteins is initiated by specific inducers.
There are various systems for the classification of enzymes. The International Union of Biochemistry system includes some of the terminology used in the literature of medicinal chemistry, and in many instances the terms are self-explanatory. For example, transferases catalyze transfer of a group; hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis reactions; and
lyases catalyze nonhydrolytic removal of groups, leaving double bonds.
There are also oxidoreductases, isomerases, and ligases. Other systems
are sometimes used to classify and characterize enzymes, and the following terms are frequently encountered: lipase, peptidase, protease,
phosphatase, kinase, synthetase, dehydrogenase, oxidase, and reductase.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT X
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. Before lactic acid fermentation can occur, the molecule of glucose must be split into two molecules of pyruvate. Name this process.
2. What is the simplest type of fermentation?
3. To what is one molecule of pyruvate converted in heterolactic
acid fermentation?
4. In the absence of what substance does lactic acid fermentation
occur?
5. In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate produced by glycolysis is
oxidized completely. What does it generate?
Ex. II. Name the word.
1. Type of fermentation, a redox reaction.
2. The cell’s primary mechanism of adenosine triphosphate production in anaerobic conditions.
Unit X. Ferments and vitamins
99
3. Type of fermentation that breaks down the pyruvate into
lactate.
4. Substance, toxic to organisms that are obligate anaerobes, and
are not required by facultative anaerobic organisms.
5. To extract chemical energy from glucose, the glucose molecule
must be split into two molecules of this substance.
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. The first solid evidence of the living nature of yeast appeared in
1837 when three publications appeared by C. Cagniard de la Tour,
T. Swann, and F. Kuetzing, each of whom independently concluded as
a result of microscopic investigations that ... is a living organism that
reproduces by budding.
2. During the 1850s and 1860s, Louis Pasteur showed that ... is
initiated by living organisms.
3. In 1857, Pasteur showed that ... is caused by living organisms.
4. In 1877, working to improve the French ... industry, Pasteur
published his famous paper on fermentation “Studies on Fermentation”
in 1879.
5. He incorrectly defined fermentation as “life without …”, but
correctly showed that specific types of microorganisms cause specific
types of fermentations.
6. In 1897 Eduard Buechner ground up yeast, extracted juice from
them, and then found that this “dead” liquid would ferment ..., forming
carbon dioxide and alcohol much like living yeasts.
Fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, brewing, yeast, sugar solution, air.
Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left:
1) heterolactic fermenta- a) a metabolic process converting sugar
tion
to acids, gases and/or alcohol using
yeast or bacteria;
2) sugars
b) the science of fermentation;
3) homolactic fermenta- c) the production of lactic acid as well as
tion
other acids and alcohols;
4) disambiguation
d) the production of lactic acid from pyruvate;
5) zymology
e) ethanol, lactic acid, lactose, and hydrogen gas;
6) fermentation products f) the most common substrate of fermentation.
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PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY
Ex. V. Translate into English.
Настой (лат. Infusum) – это недозированная жидкая лекарственная форма, представляющая собой водное извлечение
из лекарственного растительного сырья или водный раствор, специально приготовленный для этой цели. Настой предназначен для
внутреннего или наружного применения. Большое распространение данная лекарственная форма получила в народной медицине.
Настои могут применяться внутренне, наружно или вдыхаться
с разогретыми парами. Первый документально зафиксированный
факт приготовления и лечения данной лекарственной формой относится к X веку, когда персидский ученый Авиценна описал рецепт настоя на масляной основе.
Существуют три способа приготовления настоя: холодный,
горячий и смешанный. При холодном способе измельченные части
сырья заливают холодной основой и настаивают в закрытом сосуде
некоторое время. В случае горячего способа сырье заливают кипятком или маслом и парят, не доводя до кипения, или готовят
на водяной бане. При кипении могут разрушиться полезные вещества, точки кипения обычно достигают при отварах. Также некоторые горячие настои можно приготовить в термосе. При смешанном
способе сырье сначала настаивают, настой сцеживают, а
с остатками сырья поступают как при горячем способе, потом оба
настоя смешивают. Такой способ является наиболее эффективным.
Напаривание – это народный способ приготовления настоев.
Обычно напар готовят из наиболее нежных частей (цветков, травы,
листьев и плодов). Традиционный способ приготовления напара
практически утрачен в наше время, поскольку в деревенских
условиях напар получали в остывающей за ночь русской печи.
В наше время измельченное растительное сырье помещают
в фарфоровую или глиняную посуду и заливают кипятком, поставив его на ночь остывать. Однако при таком способе приготовления лечебный эффект частично теряется. В случае приготовления напара для приема внутрь из одной весовой части (в граммах) сырья получают 10 объемных (в миллилитрах) частей
напара. Для наружного применения концентрация напара должна
быть в 2–3 раза больше.
Напар быстро портится, поэтому желательно его готовить каждодневно. Допустимо хранение напара в холодильнике в течение
2–3 дней, в этом случае перед употреблением его необходимо разогреть, не доводя до кипения.
Phylogenetic Tree
P
T
(showing the
t diversity off bacteria, com
mpared to other organisms))
Industrial Biotechnology
Industrial Biotechnology Production Platforms
Fermentation
Enzymes
Products of Alkohol F
Fermentation
Biotechnology
Unit XI. Wastewater treatment
101
PART III
BIOECOLOGY
UNIT XI
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
TEXT A. METHODS FOR TREATING WASTEWATERS
FROM INDUSTRY
Technologies for treating industrial wastewaters can be divided into three categories: chemical methods, physical methods, and biological methods. Chemical methods include chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction, formation of an insoluble gas followed by
stripping, and other chemical reactions that involve exchanging or sharing electrons between atoms. Physical treatment methods include sedimentation, flotation, filtering, stripping, ion exchange, adsorption, and
other processes that accomplish removal of dissolved and nondissolved
substances without necessarily changing their chemical structures. Biological methods are those that involve living organisms using organic
or, in some instances, inorganic substances for food. In so doing, the
chemical and physical characteristics of the organic and/or inorganic
substances are changed.
Most substances found as pollutants in industrial wastewaters can
be classified according to the most appropriate method of treatment:
chemical, physical, or biological treatment. For instance, dairy wastewater should most appropriately be treated by biological means, because the bulk of the pollution from a typical dairy is organic material
from whole milk, which is readily biodegradable. As a general rule, biological treatment is more economical than any other type of treatment
where reasonably complete treatment is required and wherever it can
be made to work successfully.
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
It is very often possible to make preliminary selections of candidate treatment technologies based on fundamental properties of the pollutants and experience. For instance, when candidate treatment technologies to treat wastewaters from metal plating operation are being
considered, none of the biological treatment technologies would be appropriate, since metal ions are not biodegradable. However, both
chemical precipitation (a chemical treatment technology) and ion exchange (a physical treatment technology) should work well, based on
the fundamental properties of the substances to be removed (dissolved
inorganic cations and anions). The question then reduces to
a comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of these two
technologies, and experience provides much of the information appropriate to this evaluation.
For example, experience has shown that, for most metal plating
wastewaters, chemical precipitation is far less costly than ion exchange; however, chemical precipitation is not readily capable of reducing metal concentrations to less than approximately 5 mg/l, principally because the process of removing precipitated metals by settling in
a clarifier typically does not remove the very small particles of precipitate. Sand (or other) filtration effectively removes most of the particles
of metal precipitate that will not settle. The concentrations of dissolved
metals even after chemical precipitation and sand filtration are still no
lower than 1 to 2 mg/l, at best. Furthermore, ion exchange can “polish”
the effluent from chemical precipitation and sand filtration to very low
concentrations (20 to 50 ppb). Ion exchange could do the entire job of
removing metals from industrial wastewater to very low concentrations
without being preceded by chemical precipitation and sand filtration,
but usually the cost of doing so is much higher than the cost of the
three processes in combination.
The pollutants in these wastewaters are not organic and therefore
not biodegradable; extensive experience has shown that: 1) chemical
precipitation is the most cost-effective method for removing the bulk of
the dissolved metals; 2) sand, diatomaceous earth, or other media filtration is the most cost-effective “next step” to follow the chemical precipitation process; and 3) if still further reduction in metals concentration
is required, ion exchange is the best candidate.
In many cases there will be substances in certain metal plating
wastewaters that require more than straightforward alkaline precipitation, filtration, and ion exchange. For instance, if chelating agents are
Unit XI. Wastewater treatment
103
present, it may be necessary to destroy or otherwise inactivate them, in
order to expose the metal ions to the full effect of the precipitating
anions. In other cases, if the concentration of organic matter is high, it
may interfere with the precipitation process and have to be removed by
biological or other treatment, prior to the metals removal steps.
Raw materials, water, and air enter “the industrial waste system”
and, as a result of the industrial process, products and by-products exit
the system, along with airborne wastes, waterborne wastes, and solid
wastes. Since discharge permits are required for each of the wastebearing discharges, treatment systems are required. Each of the treatment systems has an input, the waste stream, and one or more outputs.
The output from any of the treatment systems could be an air discharge,
a waterborne discharge, and/or a solid waste stream.
TEXT B. BIOLOGICAL METHODS OF WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
Biological treatment of industrial wastewater is a process whereby
organic substances are used as food by bacteria and other microorganisms. Almost any organic substance can be used as food by one or
more species of bacteria, fungi, ciliates, rotifers, or other microorganisms. Complex organic molecules are systematically broken down, or
“disassembled”, then reassembled as new cell protoplasm. In aerobic or
anoxic systems, oxygen, which acts as an electron acceptor, is required
in either the dissolved molecular form or in the form of anions such as
nitrate and sulfate. The end result is a decrease in the quantity of organic pollutants and an increase in the quantity of microorganisms, carbon dioxide, water, and other by-products of microbial metabolism. In
anaerobic systems, substances other than oxygen act as the electron acceptor. Equation below describes the aerobic or anoxic biological
treatment process.
Organic Matter, Microorganisms, Oxygen, Nutrients,
More Microorganisms, CO2, H2O, and Oxidized Organic Matter
Organic matter is regarded as pollution prior to the treatment
process, is used as food by the microorganisms, and might have been
formed by a natural process, by a living plant or animal, or might have
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
been formed synthetically by a chemical manufacturing process. It is
composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and many additional elements in much smaller amounts. These
elements are connected by chemical bonds, each of which is characterized by a certain quantity of energy called “bond energy”. As the microorganisms disassemble the organic matter, they are able to capture
much of this energy and use it to make new chemical bonds, in the synthesis of new protoplasm. However, the process is less than 100% efficient. Fewer chemical bonds can be assembled in the process of cell
synthesis than were disassembled during the microbial degradation
process. Because of this, the microorganisms need a way to get rid of
carbon, hydrogen, and other atoms that result from the process of degradation but for which there is not sufficient energy to form carboncarbon and other high-energy bonds required in the cell synthesis
process. Because relatively low energy bonds can be formed with oxygen, the microorganisms get rid of excess carbon atoms as CO2 and
excess hydrogen atoms as H2O. Other elements, if in excess, can be
combined with oxygen as well and passed off into solution as the
oxide. Nitrate and sulfate are examples.
Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, and
worms. They also exist in a hierarchical food chain within which bacteria and fungi feed directly on the organic matter (pollutants), and the
higher life forms (protozoa, nematodes, etc.) feed on the bacteria.
Oxygen is referred to as: 1) a hydrogen acceptor, 2) an electron acceptor.
Nutrients include the following: nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, micronutrients.
More microorganisms are the result of growth of the microorganisms originally present. They must be handled and disposed of as waste
sludge. And they typically amount, in mass, to one-third to one-half the
amount of organic matter (pollutants) originally present in the untreated
wastewater, when microorganisms are measured as dried solids.
CO2 is a waste product, in that it is a method used by the microorganisms to get rid of carbon atoms that have resulted from the degradation of the organic pollutants, but for which there is not sufficient energy to make carbon-carbon and other higher-energy bonds needed to
make new cell material in the cell growth process. Microorganisms do
not disassemble organic molecules for the fun of it. They do it because
they have a compulsion to grow (i.e. increase in numbers).
Unit XI. Wastewater treatment
105
H2O is a waste product and the mechanism used by microorganisms to get rid of excess hydrogen atoms derived during the process of
disassembling organic matter.
Oxidized organic matter in the untreated wastewater may contain
some organic molecules that the microorganisms are unable to degrade.
The degradation of organic matter by the microorganisms is not 100%
complete.
All biological treatment processes – aerobic, anaerobic, suspended growth, and fixed growth – are accurately represented by this
relationship. The differences in the various configurations of
processes are in the speed of reaction; the form of oxygen used; the
relative amounts of “more microorganisms” and “oxidized organic
matter” produced; and the types of tankage and equipment and
amount of land required.
The overall process involves diffusion of the molecules of organic
matter through the aqueous medium (the wastewater itself), and adsorption (or other type of attachment) of these organic molecules onto
the surface of the microorganisms. Then, the microorganisms to which
the molecules, or particles, of organic matter are attached, must manufacture enzymes capable of breaking the organic molecules or particles
down into elementary segments that can pass through the microorganism’s cell membranes. Then, the cells’ metabolic machinery “metabolizes” the elementary segments of organic material, rearranging molecular structures and building more cell protoplasm in order to grow by
binary fission and “wasting” a certain amount of the food as carbon
dioxide, water, and some low-molecular-weight organics (“oxidized
organic material”).
Bacteria and fungi are the primary converters of organic materials
in the wastewater to new cell protoplasm and waste materials. However, these single-celled microorganisms make up only a portion of the
multitudinous diverse life forms that populate a biological treatment
system. In a mature treatment system, a food chain hierarchy becomes
established, ranging from the single-celled primary converters through
a number of species of protozoa, rotifers, worms, and in some cases algae and many other types of microscopic life forms. The rotifers and
higher life forms feed on one or more of the lower life forms (the primary converters). To manage a well-operating biological treatment system is to manipulate the “feeding” of the microorganisms and remove
certain quantities of the microorganisms in such a way as to maintain
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
optimum relative numbers of the various life forms. In activated sludge
systems, this is best done by controlling sludge age to within a range
that works best for each individual system.
TEXT C. DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN EQUATIONS
FOR BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Two equations are used to mathematically describe the fundamental
kinetics of the “treatment” that takes place as a result of microorganisms
converting organic material to new cell mass, carbon dioxide, water, and
residual material (referred to as “oxidized organic material”, “other lowmolecular-weight compounds”, or “refractory organics”). These equations
are empirical and applicable to the treatment of wastes in all environmental media (e.g. activated sludge treatment of wastewater containing organics; biofiltration of air streams containing hydrogen sulfide; and biodegradation of organics in landfilled sludge) and are stated as follows:
dx
dF
=Y
− kd X ,
dt
dt
(1)
dF
kXSe
=
,
dt ks + Se
(2)
where
X stands for mass of microorganisms (grams or pounds).
F stands for mass of organic matter used as food by the microorganisms (normally expressed as BOD) (milligrams or pounds).
Y stands for constant, represents the proportion of organic matter
that is converted to new microorganisms cell material (dimensionless).
kd stands for constant, represents the proportion of the total mass of
microorganisms that self-degrade (endogenous respiration) per unit time.
k stands for maximum rate at which the microorganisms
represented by the symbol X are able to degrade the organic matter, no
matter how much organic matter is present.
S e stands for mass of F at the conclusion of the degradative
process; equivalent to mass of BOD in the treated effluent.
k s stands for mass of organic matter, F, that induces the microorganisms, X, to degrade that organic matter at a rate equal to one-half
the maximum possible rate, k.
Unit XI. Wastewater treatment
107
Two additional parameters are defined as follows:
Θc =
X
= mean cell residence time = sludge age,
ΔX / day
(3)
where
Θc stands for the average amount of time a component of the microbial population spends in the reactor before exiting as effluent solids
or being removed as daily wasting, in order to maintain a constant
amount of microorganisms in the reactor
U=
dF / dt
.
X
(4)
When the concentration of food or substrate is very low, it is limiting, and an increase in concentration of food will result in
a proportionate increase in utilization (eating) rate. Once the concentration of substrate reaches a certain level, food is not limiting, and the
microorganisms utilize the food at their maximum rate, k. The value
of k will have a direct effect on the size of treatment system and,
therefore, its cost. Values of k range from 0.01 to 5.0. It is always necessary to understand the conditions under which a value of k was determined before using that value for any kind of calculation of size of
treatment facility.
In the case of a mixture of substances such as is typical of industrial wastewater, there is a k rate that is applicable to each individual substance. Moreover, when a mixture of substances is utilized by
a population of microbes, the substances that are most readily utilized
(glucose, for instance) exhibit the highest value of k. As each of the
more easily utilized substances in the original mixture is depleted, the
apparent value of k decreases. The apparent value of k changes with
time, as a mixture of substances is utilized.
As a population of microorganisms begins utilizing a mixture of
substances, the apparent value of k for the mixture is relatively high. As
the most easily utilized substance becomes scarce, the microorganisms
begin utilizing, successively, those substances that are more difficult to
utilize, and the apparent value of k decreases.
The rate constants are specific for the particular population or mix
of the microbes present at any given time, as well as for the type or
mixture of types of organic matter.
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT XI
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the three main types of industrial wastewater
treatment?
2. What is the most economical type of treatment?
3. What method uses living organisms for the treatment of wastewaters?
4. What is organic matter composed of?
5. What do nutrients include?
6. What are the types of biological treatment process?
7. What is the difference between them?
8. What do microorganisms convert organic material into?
9. What substances are most readily utilized by microbes?
10. What influences the rate with which microorganisms degrade
the organic matter?
Ex. II. Name the word according to its definition.
1. A substance that makes land, water air, etc. dirty and not suitable to use.
2. Water that has been used (as in a manufacturing process).
3. Some form that is capable of responding to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development.
4. The techniques or actions applied in a specified situation.
5. Capable of being slowly destroyed and broken down into very
small parts by natural processes.
6. A tank used to remove solid particulates or suspended solids
from liquid.
7. Water that falls to the ground as rain, snow, etc. Or the process
of separating a solid substance from a liquid.
8. Complex compound which is formed by the combination of ion
metals with ligands.
9. Something that is produced during the production or destruction
of something else.
10. The things that people and animals eat.
Unit XI. Wastewater treatment
109
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. Biological ... is more economical than any other type of
treatment.
2. Chemical methods ... chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction and other chemical reactions.
3. Biological methods involve ... for degradation of organic materials.
4. Technologies for treating industrial ... can be divided into three
categories.
5. Each of the treatment systems has an input, the waste stream
and one or more ...
6. Almost any organic substance can be used as ... by bacteria,
fungi, etc.
7. The end result of wastewater treatment is a ... in the quantity of
organic pollutants.
8. ... is used as food by microorganisms.
9. Organic matter is regarded as ... prior to the treatment process.
10. Microorganisms are unable to ... some organic molecules in the
untreated wastewater.
Ex. IV. Match the words to their definitions:
1) oxidation
a) matter composed of organic compounds that
come from the remains of once living organisms, such as plants and animals;
2) effluent
b) the organisms inhabiting a particular locality;
3) food chain
c) an extremely small living thing that can only
be seen with a microscope;
4) organic material d) the process of the loss of electrons by
a molecule, atom, or ion;
5) microbe
e) a combination of different things;
6) aerobic
f) living or occuring in the presence of oxygen;
7) metabolism
g) a series of types of living things in which
each one uses the next lower member as
a source of food;
8) conversion
h) the act or process of changing from one form
or state to another;
9) population
i) liquid (such as sewage or industrial chemicals) that is released as waste;
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
10) mixture
j) chemical processes by which a plant or an
organism uses food, water, etc. to grow and
make energy.
Ex. V. Get meaningful sentences.
1. Should, by, dairy, biological, wastewater, be, means, treated.
2. Which, is, pollution, biodegradable, the, readily, from, material,
dairy, a, organic, typical, is.
3. Inorganic, living, which, for, biological, organisms, food, use,
involve, or, substances, methods, organic.
4. Process, substances, organic, biological, as, is, microorganisms,
a, food, treatment, by, which, are, in, used.
5. Small, is, of, many, in, organic, additional, nitrogen, matter,
hydrogen, oxygen, and, composed, elements, carbon, amounts.
6. Get, of, carbon, microorganisms, and, atoms, rid, excess, hydrogen, excess, atoms.
7. Matter, exist, and, in, organic, microorganisms, a, an, chain,
hierarchical, the, bacteria, food, feed, which, in, fungi.
8. Into, are, converters, bacteria, of, waste, primary, and, organic,
the, materials, fungi, materials.
9. Molecules, are, wastewater, microorganisms, the, degrade, untreated, some, unable, in, to, organic.
10. Complete, not, 100%, organic, the, microorganisms, matter,
degradation, is, the, by, of.
Ex. VI. Topics for discussion.
1. Three categories of technologies for treating industrial wastewaters and their characteristics.
2. Biological methods of wastewater treatment.
3. Conditions necessary for successful wastewater treatment.
Ex. VII. Translate into English.
1. Существует три метода очистки промышленных сточных вод.
2. Биологические методы очистки сточных вод используют
живые организмы для разложения органических веществ.
3. Биологический метод очистки сточных вод является самым
экономичным по сравнению с другими методами.
4. Химическое осаждение – наиболее эффективный
и экономичный метод для удаления растворенных металлов.
5. Каждая система очистки включает устройство ввода, сток
и одно или более выходных устройств.
Unit XI. Wastewater treatment
111
6. Почти любое органическое вещество может использоваться
одним или несколькими видами бактерий, грибов в качестве пищи.
7. В результате биологического метода очистки сточных вод
происходит уменьшение количества органических загрязнителей
и увеличение количества микроорганизмов, диоксида углерода,
воды и других продуктов метаболизма.
8. До процесса очистки органическое вещество рассматривается как загрязнение.
9. Микроорганизмы существуют в пищевой цепочке, внутри
которой бактерии и грибы питаются органическим веществом, а
более высокие формы жизни питаются бактериями.
10. В необработанной сточной воде микроорганизмы не способны разложить некоторые органические молекулы, входящие
в состав органических веществ.
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
UNIT XII
TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
TEXT A. BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
It is convenient to classify biological treatment processes as either
aerobic or anaerobic. Within each of those two major categories, there
are two principal types of systems: suspended growth and attached
growth. The suspended growth systems all have diverse populations of
microbes suspended in a mixture of liquid that includes the wastewater
being treated.
When the concentration of microbes is relatively high, as in the
case of activated sludge, the mixture of suspended microbes, wastewater being treated, and other substances, both dissolved and suspended,
is referred to as “mixed liquor suspended solids” (MLSS).
The term MLVSS is used to designate that portion of the MLSS
that is active microbes (the V in this term stands for “volatile”). The
MLVSS concentration is only an approximate indicator of the actual
concentration of active microbes in a mixture of activated sludge.
Attached growth systems all have masses of microbes attached to
a medium. Wastewater to be treated flows in contact with this medium
and, especially, the attached microorganisms. The microbes are able to
access the organic matter in the wastewater as a result of the wastewater flowing over, around, and through the media to which the microbes
are attached. The trickling filter and the rotating biological contactor
are familiar examples of fixed-growth systems.
Aerobic wastewater treatment systems require that dissolved molecular oxygen be present and available to the microbes as they disassemble organic pollutant molecules. It is convenient to categorize aerobic wastewater treatment systems according to their relative “intensity
of treatment”. A treatment system of high intensity is one in which the
concentrations of both pollutants and microorganisms are high.
Oxygen must be added in high quantity to maintain aerobic conditions, and the system is said to be relatively highly stressed. Aerobic
biological treatment systems range in intensity from high-rate activated
sludge, which has MLVSS concentrations as high as 10,000 mg/l and
Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater
113
hydraulic retention times as low as a few hours, to very low stressed
aerobic or facultative nonaerated lagoons, which have MLVSS concentrations of less than 100 mg/l and hydraulic retention times of over
100 days. Fixed growth systems also vary in treatment intensity, but
normally over a smaller range than suspended growth systems.
Development of the most cost-effective suspended growth systems
is usually a matter of tradeoff between capital cost and operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs. High-intensity systems require more skilled
operators and significantly more oxygen supplied by mechanical means
but smaller tankage and land area.
TEXT B. ACTIVATED SLUDGE
An activated sludge wastewater treatment system has at least four
components: an aeration tank and a settling tank (clarifier); a return
sludge pump; and a means of introducing oxygen into the aeration tank.
Wastewater, sometimes pretreated, enters the aeration tank (and is
therefore the “influent”); it is mixed with a suspension of microbes in
the presence of oxygen. This mixture is referred to as “mixed liquor”.
The microbes “metabolize” the organic pollutants in the wastewater,
converting them to more microbes, carbon dioxide, water, and some
low-molecular-weight organics. After spending, on the average, an
amount of time equal to the hydraulic residence time in the aeration
tank, the mixed liquor flows into the clarifier, where the solids (MLSS)
separate from the bulk liquid by settling to the bottom. The clarified
“effluent” then exits the system. The settled solids are harvested from
the clarifier bottom and are either returned to the aeration tank or are
“wasted”. The MLVSS solids that are returned to the aeration tank are
microbes in a starved condition, having been separated from untreated
wastewater for an extended period of time, and are thus referred to as
“activated”. It is this process of returning microbes from the clarifier to
the aeration tank that enables buildup of their concentrations to high
levels (1800 to 10,000 mg/l), and that, indeed, characterizes the activated sludge process itself.
The MLSS solids that are taken out of the system and therefore referred to as “wasted” represent the main means of controlling the
“mean cell residence time” or “sludge age”. Sludge age is an extremely
important parameter in the successful operation of an activated sludge
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
treatment system. Activated sludge systems that are maintained at
a very low sludge age, on the order of two days or so, will contain what
is known as a very young population, which is typically highly active
and mobile and difficult to induce to settle well in the clarifier. Activated sludges with somewhat longer sludge ages, between 7 and 15 days,
have many more microorganisms per unit of organic “food”. They are,
therefore, in a much more starved condition than sludge of young
sludge age and tend to predation and cannibalism. When food becomes
very scarce, the microorganisms themselves become food. The live
bacteria and fungi are food for higher life forms, and those that die
break apart and spew their cell contents into the fluid medium, providing food for other bacteria and fungi.
To defend themselves against predation and cannibalism, some
microbial species are able to exude and surround themselves with
a protective mass of polysaccharide material. In addition to affording
protection, this gelatinous material helps to flocculate the microbes
that make up the MLVSS, enabling better settling characteristics in
the clarifier.
When the sludge age increases to over 20 days or so, the microbes
become so advanced in predatory behavior that they develop the ability
to manufacture enzymes that can break down the polysaccharide protective material. The sludge thus loses its excellent flocculent nature
and, consequently, its good settling characteristics.
The best settling activated sludge, and therefore the system that
produces the clearest effluent, will be the system in which the gelatinous polysaccharide protective material is maintained in optimum
amounts.
In terms of treated effluent quality, the effluent from activated
sludge systems with very low sludge ages is typically high in suspended solids; those with sludge ages of around ten days have low suspended solids, and those with a very high sludge age are often very
high in suspended solids.
An excellent tool for use in maintaining an optimum activated culture (in terms of treatment performance, settleability, and low concentration of solids in the effluent) is the microscope. The usefulness of
microscopic examination of activated sludge as an aid for process control can be explained as follows.
Consider a container of fresh, biodegradable wastewater, inoculated with a “seed” of activated sludge from a well-operating treatment
Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater
115
system. The container is aerated, mixed well, and provided with
a steady supply of biodegradable organics, but at a rate that is slower
than the growth rate of the microbial population that develops. Initially,
there is a very high concentration of “food” compared with the numbers of microorganisms. Under this condition, bacteria will multiply at
their maximum rate. Each individual bacterial cell will “grow”, and
through the process of binary fission, become two cells within a time
period corresponding to the maximum attainable growth rate of that
particular species, which can be as short a time as 20 minutes. A logarithmic increase in numbers of the fastest growing bacteria that can
readily metabolize the organics in the wastewater takes place, and those
bacteria dominate the population during the first few hours. Examination of a sample of the contents of the container, using a microscope,
will show this to be the case.
During the initial hours, there will not be much growth of anything
while the microbes with which the container was “seeded” become adjusted to the new environment. They need to manufacture the appropriate enzymes for the particular molecules of food available. This period
of time is referred to as the “lag phase of growth”.
As the first individual bacteria develop these enzymes and begin to
grow, the phase of increasing growth rate occurs, and eventually, full
logarithmic growth takes place and continues as long as food is unlimited and predation does not occur. Sooner or later, within any biological system food will become limiting and the rate of growth will decline. Some individual microbes will grow and some will die. Normally, there will be a period of time when the growth rate equals the death
rate, and the population will be stable. Finally, as the food supply runs
out, and/or predation exceeds growth, the population will decline.
As the bacteria that first begin growing reach high numbers, microbes that prey on them begin to grow. Then, in succession, higher
forms of microorganism that can feed upon the microorganisms that
grow earlier (and are thus said to be higher on the food chain) go
through their own growth process. In a biological treatment system,
that succession is typically flagellated bacteria (bacteria equipped with
a “tail” that propels them), free-swimming ciliates, stalked ciliates, rotifers, and finally worms. Microscopic examination of a sample of the
microbial population from a given treatment system, then, can reveal
the current stage of development of the system, in terms of “young
sludge” or “old sludge”.
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
When activated sludge is in a young condition, the relative numbers of flagellated bacteria and free-swimming bacteria are high, and
there are almost no stalked ciliates. The effluent from the secondary
clarifier will be high in suspended solids, and many of those solids will
consist of long, thin bits and pieces of ill-formed activated sludge, referred to as “stragglers”. The cure for this condition is to decrease the
food-to-microorganism ratio by wasting less sludge and allowing the
concentration of MLVSS in the aeration tank to increase.
When the relative proportions of rotifers, stalked ciliates, and nematodes become high compared with the flagellated bacteria and freeswimming ciliates, there will again be high solids in the effluent from
the secondary clarifier. In this case, the solids will appear as tiny, more
or less spherical bits and pieces of activated sludge. The cure for this
condition is to increase the rate of sludge wasting, thus increasing the
food-to-microorganism ratio.
Unfortunately, it is not always the case that adjusting the rate of
sludge wasting will cure problems of high suspended solids in the
treatment system effluent. Conditions other than sludge age that can affect effluent quality are: concentration of dissolved oxygen in the aeration tank, degree of mixing, the changing nature of the influent to the
aeration tank, temperature, and the presence of toxic materials.
TEXT C. AERATION SYSTEMS FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Air must be supplied to activated sludge systems to provide oxygen for microbial respiration. A wide range of alternative air supply
systems is available, and there can be as much as a 150% difference in
total annual costs from one system to another. Mixing is also required
in activated sludge systems, and aeration can often provide all of the
mixing that is necessary. Sometimes, however, supplemental mixing is
more economical.
The two principal types of aeration devices are mechanical and
diffuser. The basic difference between the two is that the mechanical
aerators cause small droplets of the mixed liquor to be thrown up out of
the aeration tank, through the air above the tank, and back down into
the tank. These mechanical devices also mix the contents of the aeration tank, with the objectives of: 1) there being no “dead zones” and
2) each portion of the liquid mass in the aeration tank being thrown into
Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater
117
the air every few minutes. Oxygen transfer takes place through the
surface of each droplet. For this reason, the more efficient mechanical aerators are those that create the largest surface-to-volume ratio
of the activated sludge mass per unit of energy expended per unit of
time. It should also be noted that in cold climates, mechanical aeration
tends to cool the MLVSS, and diffused aeration tends to heat it. This
may be a factor to consider during selection.
The driving force for oxygen transfer in the case of mechanical aerators is the gradient between the oxygen concentration in the air and
the concentration of dissolved oxygen within a given droplet. The
transfer of oxygen from the air into a droplet is a four-step process.
First, oxygen diffuses through the bulk air medium to the surface of the
droplet. Next, each oxygen molecule must diffuse through the doublelayered “skin” of the droplet, which consists of a layer of nitrogen and
oxygen molecules covering a layer of water molecules. This diffusion
through the two layers can be considered one step, and is thought to be
the rate-limiting step for the process as a whole. The final two steps are
diffusion of oxygen into the bulk liquid of the droplet, followed by diffusion into the bulk liquid contents of the aeration tank, once the droplet returns to the tank.
Diffusion through the double “membrane” at the surface of the
droplet is the rate-limiting step. Within either the bulk air or the bulk
liquid, each molecule of the medium is attracted to other molecules
equally in all directions (across the entire surface area of the molecule).
At the interface between liquid and air, however, each molecule of the
medium is attracted to other like molecules in only the directions where
the like media are present. Therefore, since the total attractive force is
the same as in the bulk medium, but the force is distributed over only
half the area, the effective attraction is essentially doubled. This causes
the molecules of both gas and liquid to be more dense and, therefore, to
be less permeable to the passage of other molecules.
Air diffusers introduce bubbles of air into the bulk liquid within
the aeration tank. In this case, as opposed to the case for mechanical
aerators, the oxygen transfer process is from a more or less spherical
“container” of air directly to the bulk liquid. Again, the driving force
for oxygen transfer is the difference in concentration between oxygen
molecules in the air bubble and the concentration in the bulk liquid.
There is still the process of diffusion of oxygen molecules through,
first, the air, except that here, the air is contained in a small “package”,
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
which is the bubble. Next, the oxygen molecules must diffuse through
the double “membrane” of gas, then through liquid molecules that surround the bubble, then into the bulk liquid. Here, the process has four
steps rather than five, and the rate-limiting step is still considered to be
the rate of diffusion through the double-layered membrane.
Air diffusers manufactured for the purpose of supplying air to activated sludge wastewater treatment systems are divided into two categories: coarse bubble diffusers and fine bubble diffusers (also called
“fine pore diffusers”). In general, coarse bubble diffusers require less
maintenance than fine bubble diffusers and require somewhat less air
pressure to pass a given flow rate of air (therefore less power per unit
of air supplied), but achieve a lower degree of oxygen transfer efficiency (OTE). Fine bubble diffusers characteristically provide higher OTE
values than coarse bubble diffusers, owing to the significantly higher
surface-to-volume ratio of the smaller air bubbles. Since the ratelimiting step of the oxygen transfer process is diffusion through the
double layered “membrane” surrounding each air bubble, and since the
flux of oxygen, in terms of pounds of oxygen per unit area of bubble
surface, will be the same regardless of bubble size, increasing the bubble surface area will directly increase the transfer of oxygen.
Fine bubble diffusers have significant disadvantages compared
with coarse bubble diffusers or mechanical aerators in certain specific instances, due to a higher tendency to cause foaming and
a tendency to clog or otherwise become fouled. If foaming occurs
and antifoam agents are added, the antifoam agents act to cause the
fine bubbles to coalesce and become large bubbles. The tendency for
fine pores to clog or become otherwise fouled results in the necessity
for periodic cleaning or replacement. In addition, the lower air
supply rate needed by fine bubble diffusers for the required oxygen
transfer results in less air for mixing, an important component of aeration. The addition of one or more alternatives to satisfy mixing requirements, for instance, by supplying more air than is required for
oxygen transfer, or making use of mechanical mixers along with the
fine bubble aerators, sometimes results in the long-term economics
favoring coarse bubble diffusers.
Some industrial wastes have chemical or physical characteristics
that make them bad candidates for fine bubble diffusers. Sometimes,
the reason is obvious. Treatment systems for potato starch processing
wastewater, which foams copiously due to the types of proteins
Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater
119
present, and treatment of pulp mill wastewaters, which contain chemical components (possibly including sulfonated remnants of lignin) that
cause small bubbles to coalesce, are examples.
TEXT D. TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATERS
USING ANAEROBIC TECHNOLOGIES
Anaerobic wastewater treatment, accomplished through microbiological degradation of organic substances in the absence of dissolved
molecular oxygen, has undergone a complete change since the mid1980s. Used for decades as a slow-rate process requiring long retention
times and elevated temperatures, it was considered economically viable
on only wastes of high organic strength. Its principal role in wastewater
treatment was for stabilization of waste biosolids from aerobic treatment processes. It was also used as a treatment step preceding aerobic
treatment, in which large, complex molecules were broken down to
more readily biodegradable substances. It is now used routinely at ambient temperatures on industrial wastewaters with organic strengths as
low as 2000 to 5000 mg/l COD. In fact, the economic attractiveness of
treating wastewaters by first using anaerobic technology and then polishing with one of the aerobic technologies certainly has the potential
to turn the wastewater treatment world upside down.
More recent developments have enabled use of anaerobic treatment at cold temperatures for wastewaters with COD values as low as
100 to 200 mg/l. Research conducted since the mid-1970s has shown
that, by addressing the fundamental reasons for the slow treatment capability of anaerobic systems, modifications could be developed to
overcome them. The result has been the development of anaerobic
technologies that are capable of treatment comparable to aerobic systems, at significantly lower overall cost. Additionally, anaerobic systems are capable of treating some substances that are not readily treated
by aerobic systems, such as cellulosic materials, certain aromatic compounds, and certain chlorinated solvents.
All microbiological mechanisms carried out in the absence of dissolved molecular oxygen, whether anoxic or truly anaerobic, are referred to as anaerobic. In this sense, the term anaerobic simply means
“in the absence of free, molecular oxygen”.
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
It is useful to assume that the fundamental reason for the apparently slow kinetics of anaerobic treatment is that it is a slow microbiological process. On an individual microorganism-to-organic-molecule basis, anaerobic degradation is slower than aerobic degradation. The method by which anaerobic treatment has been made capable of
competing with aerobic treatment has been to greatly increase the
numbers of anaerobic organisms per unit of organic matter to be
treated. For instance, if aerobic metabolism is 10 times faster than
anaerobic metabolism, then the time required for complete treatment by
either process can be made nearly equal by increasing the number of
active anaerobic organisms to ten times the number of aerobic organisms, for a given volume of wastewater.
The active microorganisms can be found within only a limited
thickness of active biofilm on the surface. Since the surface-to-volume
ratio is small, the total number of active anaerobic microorganisms is
small for a given volume of reactor.
What can make aerobic treatment even faster? The answer is that
for aerobic treatment, the rate-limiting step becomes oxygen transfer,
or getting oxygen from the outside air (or in some cases from a source
of pure oxygen) to the inside of each microbe. There is no such limitation in the case of anaerobic treatment. For anaerobic treatment, the
sources of oxygen are nitrate, sulfate, and other anions, already present
in the wastewater and in water itself.
The principal cost-saving characteristics of the newer anaerobic
treatment technologies, compared with aerobic technologies such as activated sludge, are: 1) the absence of need for aeration, which
represents the largest portion of O&M costs for aerobic systems, and
2) the fact that the amount of waste biosolids (sludge) that must be
handled, dewatered, and disposed of is less than that for aerobic systems by approximately a factor of ten. Added to these advantages is the
cost recovery capability represented by methane. Methane recovered
from anaerobic treatment processes has routinely been used as a source
of energy to operate motors for pumps or for space heating, either at
the treatment plant itself or in another location. As a general rule, about
5.62 ft3 of methane can be harvested as a result of anaerobic degradation of one pound of COD.
The reason for the smaller quantity of waste bio-solids is that anaerobic metabolism is much less efficient, in terms of units of cell growth
per unit of organic matter metabolized, than is aerobic metabolism.
Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater
121
Consequently, more of the organic matter being treated is used for
energy, and correspondingly less is used for cell growth. For the same
reason, correspondingly less nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients
are needed per unit of organic matter removed for treatment to take
place. For most anaerobic treatment applications approximately 80 to
90% of the COD removed is converted to methane and carbon dioxide.
Five percent or less becomes incorporated into new cell protoplasm,
and the balance is lost as heat or refractory organic “junk”.
In many anaerobic treatment systems, mean cell residence times,
otherwise known as sludge age, are on the order of 100 to 200 days
or more.
Two important characteristics of industrial wastewaters regarding
their suitability as candidates for treatment by one of the anaerobic
technologies are alkalinity and sulfur content. The anaerobic degradation of organic substances in industrial wastewaters includes conversion of complex materials to organic acids. If the alkalinity within the
treatment system is insufficient, the pH will decrease to the point of
toxicity to the system’s microbial population. Similarly, if the sulfate
content of an industrial wastewater is more than about 200 mg/l, the
concentration of hydrogen sulfide, which is a by-product of the anaerobic degradation process, will increase to the range of toxicity to the
system’s microbial population.
TEXT E. MECHANISMS OF ANAEROBIC METABOLISM
Anaerobic treatment of organic wastes can be described as
a progression of events that starts with hydrolysis, proceeds through
acidogenesis, and ends with methanogenesis. These processes are symbiotic in the sense that none can proceed for very long without one or
more of the others.
Complex organics, such as lipids (fats), proteins, polysaccharides,
polynucleotides, and aromatics, are first broken down to their elemental
building blocks. Hydrolysis is the principal mechanism for this process,
and there is no reduction of COD. Exoenzymes, secreted by a variety
of anaerobes carry out this hydrolysis. The basic building blocks include fatty acids in the case of lipids, amino acids in the case of proteins, simple sugars for polysaccharides, nucleic acids for nucleotides,
and benzene derivatives for aromatic compounds. These basic building
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
materials are further broken down, again by hydrolysis, to alcohols and
then to fatty acids of relatively small molecular size. Acetic acid, plus
smaller amounts of propionic, butyric, and valeric acids, is the product
of this process, which is known as acidogenesis. Molecular hydrogen is
also produced during this process.
The final steps include conversion of the products of hydrolysis
and acidogenesis to methane and carbon dioxide. This process is
known as methanogenesis.
Some of the intermediate and some of the final products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis are diverted to various metabolic pathways of
cell material construction. Most likely, the new cell material is made
via the two-carbon precursor of acetate, which is ethanol, being carried
into the cell. It is then acted upon by the cell’s construction machinery,
which includes the RNA, the DNA, and the mitochondria.
The primary product of the hydrolytic breakdown of complex organic substances is ethanol. At this point, very little, if any, COD has
been removed from the wastewater, and very little, if any, energy has
been captured by the anaerobes for use in reassembling some of the organic breakdown products into new cell protoplasm. The method used
by most anaerobes to liberate this needed energy is to convert the
ethanol to methane and carbon dioxide. This process releases almost
21 kcal per mole of ethanol converted. The anaerobes cannot convert
ethanol directly to methane and carbon dioxide, however, but must first
convert ethanol to acetic acid, with the consequent release of molecular
hydrogen.
The acetic acid that is produced directly by hydrolysis and acidogenesis is converted to methane and carbon dioxide.
The energy made available by this transformation, 6.77 kcal/mole
of acetate converted (minus losses due to inefficiencies), is used by the
anaerobes to make new chemical bonds in the assembly of new cell
protoplasm. There are many products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis
other than acetic acid, however, including ethyl alcohol, propyl alcohol,
propionic acid, butyl alcohol, and others. Many of these substances
cannot be converted directly to methane and carbon dioxide. Current
thinking is that at least three species of anaerobic organisms are involved in a three- (or more) step process, at least one of which is an
energy-consuming process. First ethanol is converted to acetate and
molecular hydrogen, a process that consumes 1.42 kcal of energy per
mole of ethanol converted.
Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater
123
Then, both the acetate and the hydrogen are converted to methane
and carbon dioxide, each by a different species of anaerobe.
6.77 kcal of energy per mole of acetate converted is made available (minus losses due to inefficiencies) from the conversion of acetate
to methane and carbon dioxide. Two and a half times more than that,
15.63 kcal/mole, is made available by the conversion of hydrogen and
carbon dioxide to methane and water.
As is the case with many microbiological metabolic processes, one
of the products of metabolism is highly toxic to the species that carries
out the process. The substance that is toxic to the species that carries
out that reaction is molecular hydrogen. Consequently, in order for the
process to continue in an anaerobic reactor, the hydrogen must be removed by the species responsible for the reaction. The two anaerobic
species are thus symbiotic, since one depends on the other for food
(molecular hydrogen) and the other depends upon the first to remove
the hydrogen, which is toxic to it. In addition, the two species are symbiotic in that, some of the energy released by the reaction is made
available and used by the species that carries out the reaction.
Propionic, butyric, and other alcohols and acids are converted to
methane and carbon dioxide with the release of energy that can be used
for cell synthesis. Propionate breaks down to acetate and hydrogen,
which are then converted to methane and carbon dioxide.
REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT XII
Ex. I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are two main types of biological treatment processes?
2. What do mixed liquor suspended solids include?
3. What treatment system is regarded as a system of high intensity?
4. What does an activated sludge wastewater treatment system
consist of?
5. What do microbes convert the organic pollutants into?
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
6. What is the best activated sludge?
7. What influences the amount of suspended solids in the effluent
from activated sludge systems?
8. What are two principal types of aeration devices?
9. What does the term “anaerobic” mean?
10. What are the main steps of anaerobic treatment of organic
wastes?
Ex. II. Name the word according to its definition.
1. Living, active, occuring or existing in the absence of free oxygen.
2. The state of a substance when its particles are mixed with but
undissolved in a fluid or solid.
3. Thick, soft, wet mud. A soft, thick material that is produced in
various industrial processes (such as in treatment of sewage).
4. Mixed with a liquid becoming part of it.
5. A chemical that is found in the air, in water, in most rocks and
minerals, that has no colour, taste or smell, and that is necessary for life.
6. The characteristic time during which a particular analyte passes
through the system under set conditions.
7. The capacity of a tank.
8. The act of killing and eating other animals.
9. Deficient in quantity or number compared with the demand; not
plentiful or abundant.
10. A chemical substance in animals and plants that helps to cause
natural processes (such as digestion).
Ex. III. Fill in the blanks.
1. The ... growth systems have diverse populations of microbes
suspended in a mixture of liquid.
2. ... must be added in high quantity to maintain aerobic conditions.
3. An activated ... wastewater treatment system has four components.
4. Wastewater enters the aeration ... and mixes with a suspension
of microbes.
5. To defend themselves from ... some microbes surround themselves with a protective mass of polysaccharide material.
6. The fastest growing bacteria can readily ... the organics in the
wastewater.
7. Sludge age can affect ... quality.
8. The transfer of oxygen from the air into a ... is a four-step
process.
Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater
125
9. ... degradation is slower than aerobic degradation.
10. The ... of the products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis to methane and carbon dioxide is known as methanogenesis.
Ex. IV. Match the words to their definitions:
1) aeration
a) the speed at which something happens or is
done during a particular period of time;
2) residence time b) the process in which particles of liquids, gas
or solids mix and in dissolved substances
move from a region of higher to a region of
lower concentration;
3) rate
c) a reservoir for biochemical treatment of
wastewater;
4) microscope
d) a mass of small bubbles that are formed in or
on a liquid;
5) succession
e) a device used for producing a much larger
view of very small objects so that they can be
seen clearly;
6) influent
f) the duration of persistence of a mass or substance in a medium or place;
7) diffusion
g) a series of things that come one after the
other;
8) interface
h) a place or area at which different things meet
and communicate with or affect each other;
9) foam
i) a chemical process of decomposition involving the splitting of a bond and the addition of
the hydrogen cation and the hydroxide anion
of water;
10) hydrolysis
j) something that flows in: as fluid input into
a reservoir or process.
Ex. V. Get meaningful sentences:
1. Conversion, acidogenesis, the, methanogenesis, methane, is,
products, of, hydrolysis, of, the, and, to.
2. Organic, the, breakdown, ethanol, of, product, is, complex,
primary, the, substances, of, hydrolytic.
3. Ethanol, the, acid, first, acetic, anaerobes, to, convert.
4. Alkalinity, are, important, as, industrial, wastewaters, treatment,
and, content, characteristics, candidates, sulfur, for, two, of.
5. Is, degradation, by-product, hydrogen, anaerobic, of, sulfide, a,
of, the.
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PART III. BIOECOLOGY
6. From, as, processes, a, methane, energy, treatment, recovered,
is, of, source, used, anaerobic.
7. That, aerobic, systems, are, anaerobic, some, by, can, substances, treat, systems, readily, not, treated.
8. Divided, categories, diffusers, into, air, two, are.
9. Aeration, introduce, liquid, air, into, the, within, diffusers, bubbles, air, tank, of, the.
10. Growth, end, food, predation, comes, as, exceeds, the, to, and,
population, an, the, supply, declines.
Ex. VI. Topics for discussion.
1. Biological treatment technologies.
2. Activated sludge.
3. Treatment of industrial wastewaters using aerobic technologies.
4. Treatment of industrial wastewaters using anaerobic technologies.
5. Mechanisms of anaerobic metabolism.
Ex. VII. Translate into English.
1. Процессы биологической очистки сточных вод классифицируются на аэробные и анаэробные.
2. Системы с суспензированной культурой включают разнообразные популяции микробов в смеси со сточной водой.
3. Система обработки высокой интенсивности – это система,
в которой высока концентрация загрязняющих веществ и микроорганизмов.
4. Активный ил, возраст которого 7–15 дней, имеет больше
микроорганизмов на единицу органической пищи.
5. Условия, которые влияют на качество очищенных сточных
вод: концентрация растворенного кислорода в аэротенке, степень
перемешивания, температура, присутствие токсичных веществ и т. д.
6. Движущей силой для переноса кислорода является разница в концентрации между молекулами кислорода в пузырьках воздуха и в жидкости.
7. Мелкопузырчатый рассеиватель имеет значительные недостатки по сравнению с крупнопузырчатым рассеивателем из-за
повышенной тенденции к пенообразованию и загрязнению.
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APPENDIX
A. IT IS INTERESTING TO KNOW
BACTERIUM (genus)
The genus Bacterium was a taxon described in 1828 by Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg. The type species was later changed from Bacterium triloculare to Bacterium coli (now Escherichia coli) as it was lost.
In 1951 and then in 1954 it was recognised as a rejected generic name,
also applied to its family Bacteriaceae.
This genus included non-spore forming rods whose relation to other species was obscure (a “taxonomy dumping group”). This is different to the genus Bacillus, whose members were spore forming rods
(sensu Cohn 1872).
Bacterium species. Many species were placed under the genus.
Given that the genus was abolished in the process of forming the Bacteriological Code there is no such thing as an official list of species
present. These are those accepted by Breed and Conn in 1935: Bacterium radiobacter, then Agrobacterium tumefaciens, now Rhizobium
radiobacter; Bacterium aerogenes, now Aerobacter aerogenes; Bacterium violaceum, now Chromobacterium violaceum; Bacterium amylovorum, now Erwinia amylovora; Bacterium zopfii, now Kurthia zopfii;
Bacterium monocytogenes, now Listeria monocytogenes; and Bacterium pneumoniae, now Klebsiella pneumoniae.
BACTERIA
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria
have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals.
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Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are
present in most habitats on the planet, growing in soil, water, acidic hot
springs, radioactive waste, and deep in the Earth’s crust, as well as in
organic matter and the live bodies of plants and animals, providing outstanding examples of mutualism in the digestive tracts of humans, termites and cockroaches.
There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and
a million bacterial cells in a milliliter of fresh water; in all, there are
approximately five nonillion (5 · 1030) bacteria on Earth, forming
a biomass that exceeds that of all plants and animals. Bacteria are vital
in recycling nutrients, with many steps in nutrient cycles depending on
these organisms, such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere
and putrefaction. In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, bacteria provide the nutrients needed to
sustain life by converting dissolved compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and methane.
Most bacteria have not been characterized, and only about half of the
phyla of bacteria have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The
study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology.
VIRUS
The word is from the Latin virus referring to poison and other noxious substances, first used in English in 1392. Virulent, from Latin virulentus (poisonous), dates to 1400. The meaning of “agent that causes
infectious disease” is first recorded in 1728, before the discovery of viruses by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. The plural is viruses. The adjective
viral dates back to 1948. The term virion (plural virions), which dates
back to 1959, is also used to refer to a single, stable infective viral particle that is released from the cell and is fully capable of infecting other
cells of the same type.
A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the
living cells of an organism. Viruses can infect all types of organisms,
from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea.
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids – pieces of DNA that
can move between cells – while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene
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transfer, which increases genetic diversity. Viruses are considered to be
a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve
through natural selection. However they lack key characteristics (such as
cell structure) that are generally considered necessary to count as life.
Viruses spread in many ways; viruses in plants are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids;
viruses in animals can be carried by blood-sucking insects. These disease-bearing organisms are known as vectors. Influenza viruses are
spread by coughing and sneezing.
REPLICATION CYCLE OF VIRUSES
Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they
are acellular. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of
a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves, and they assemble in the cell.
The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there
are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses.
Attachment is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and
specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host range of a virus. This mechanism has evolved to favour
those viruses that infect only cells in which they are capable of replication. Attachment to the receptor can induce the viral envelope protein
to undergo changes that results in the fusion of viral and cellular membranes, or changes of non-enveloped virus surface proteins that allow
the virus to enter.
Penetration follows attachment. Virions enter the host cell through
receptor-mediated endocytosis or membrane fusion. This is often called
viral entry. The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that
of animal cells. Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and
fungi one of chitin, so most viruses can get inside these cells only after
trauma to the cell wall. However, nearly all plant viruses (such as tobacco mosaic virus) can also move directly from cell to cell, in the
form of single-stranded nucleoprotein complexes, through pores called
plasmodesmata.
Uncoating is a process in which the viral capsid is removed. This may
be by degradation by viral enzymes or host enzymes or by simple dissociation; the end-result is the releasing of the viral genomic nucleic acid.
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Replication of viruses involves primarily multiplication of the genome. Replication involves synthesis of viral messenger RNA from
“early” genes (with exceptions for positive sense RNA viruses), viral
protein synthesis, possible assembly of viral proteins, then viral genome replication mediated by early or regulatory protein expression.
This may be followed, for complex viruses with larger genomes, by
one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis: “late” gene expression
is, in general, of structural or virion proteins.
Following the structure-mediated self-assembly of the virus particles, some modification of the proteins often occurs. In viruses such
as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after
the virus has been released from the host cell.
Viruses can be released from the host cell by lysis, a process that
kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall if present. This is
a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses. Some viruses undergo a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome is incorporated by genetic recombination into a specific place in the host’s chromosome.
FUNGUS
The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus
(mushroom). This in turn (derived from Greek for sponge) refers to the
macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the
root is also used in other languages, such as the German sponge and
mold. The use of the word mycology (derived from Greek for mushroom and discourse) to denote the scientific study of fungi is thought
to have originated in 1836 with English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley’s publication “The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith”.
A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is a member of a large group of
eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and
molds (British English: moulds), as well as the more familiar mushrooms.
These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria. One major difference is that
fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of
plants, which contain cellulose. These and other differences show that
the fungi form a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (a monophyletic group). This fungal group is distinct from the structurally simi-
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lar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology
(from Greek for fungus). Mycology has often been regarded as
a branch of botany, even though it is a separate kingdom in biological
taxonomy. Genetic studies have shown that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.
Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the
small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead
matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi. They may
become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds. Fungi
perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and
have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange.
IMPORTANCE OF FATS FOR LIVING ORGANISMS
Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be
digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are
also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement.
Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and
promoting healthy cell function.
Fats also serve as energy stores for the body, containing about
37 kilojoules per gram (8.8 kcal/g). They are broken down in the body
to release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted
to glucose by the liver and thus used as a source of energy.
Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. When
a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic – reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute – or at least
maintain equilibrium of – the offending substances by storing it in new
fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized and/or removed from the body
by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.
While it is nearly impossible to remove fat completely from the diet, it would also be unhealthy to do so. Some fatty acids are essential
nutrients, meaning that they can’t be produced in the body from other
compounds and need to be consumed in small amounts. All other fats
required by the body are non-essential and can be produced in the body
from other compounds.
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DANGERS OF ESSENTIAL OILS
The potential danger of an essential oil is generally relative to its
level or grade of purity. Many essential oils are designed exclusively
for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should
not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted or neat form. Some
can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time,
prove hepatotoxic. Non-therapeutic grade essential oils are never recommended for topical or internal use.
Essential oils should not be used with animals, as they possess extreme hepatotoxicity and dermal toxicity for animals, especially for
cats. Instead, essential oils should be blended with vegetable-based carrier oil (as a base, or “fixed” oil) before being applied. Common carrier
oils include olive, almond, hazelnut and grape seed. Only neutral oils
should be used. A common ratio of essential oil disbursed in a carrier
oil is 0.5–3.0% (most under 10%), depending on its purpose. Some essential oils, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers,
increasing the skin’s vulnerability to sunlight.
Handling
Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so
care must be taken in choosing the correct handling equipment. Glass
syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations. Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough
to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality
control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling
viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe has a seal and piston arrangement
which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette
wall. This improves accuracy, and the inside of the pipette is easy to
clean and reuse immediately. Chemistry pipetting syringes are equal in
accuracy to the best laboratory equipment and are available in sizes
from 1 ml through 25 ml.
Pesticide Residues
There is some concern about pesticide residues in essential oils,
particularly those used therapeutically. For this reason, many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are
pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are
used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is
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a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or
orange oils, the proper criterion is not whether the material is alleged to
be organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content.
PARFUME FRAGRANCE NOTES
Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of
notes, making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over
time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final
stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume.
Top notes are the scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person’s initial impression of a perfume
and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. These are
called the head notes.
Middle notes are the scents of a perfume that emerges just prior to
the dissipation of the top note. The middle note compounds form the
“heart” or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant
initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with
time. They are also called the heart notes.
Base note are the scents of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the
main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to
a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and
“deep” and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application.
The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base
notes as well the scents of the base notes will be altered by the type of
fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers of perfumes
usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as fragrance
pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract terms.
Olfactive Families
Grouping perfumes, like any taxonomy, can never be a completely
objective or final process. Many fragrances contain aspects of different
families. Even a perfume designated as “single flower”, however subtle,
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APPENDIX
will have undertones of other aromatics. True unitary scents can rarely
be found in perfumes as it requires the perfume to exist only as
a singular aromatic material. Classification by olfactive family is
a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself
denote the specific characteristic of that perfume.
Traditional Classification
The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories:
Single Floral. Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one
particular flower; in French called a soliflore (e.g. Serge Lutens Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose).
Amber or “Oriental”. A large fragrance class featuring the sweet
slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined
with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers and woods. It can be enhanced by
camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era
imagery of the Middle East and Far East. Traditional examples include
Yves Saint Laurent’s Opium.
Woody. Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically
of agarwood, sandalwood and cedar wood. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. A traditional example here would be Chanel Bois-des-Оles. A modern example would
be Balenciaga Rumba.
Leather. A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and
a scent that alludes to leather. Traditional examples include Pierre
Balmain’s Jolie Madame.
Modern Scents
Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume
creation (i.e. compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural development of styles and tastes, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents:
Green. a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre
type, with pronounced cut grass, crushed green leaf and cucumber-like
scents. Examples include Calvin Klein’s Eternity.
Aquatic, Oceanic, or Ozonic. The newest category in perfume history, first appearing in 1988, Davidoff Cool Water (1988), Christian
Dior’s Dune (1991), and many others. It is a clean smell reminiscent
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of the ocean, leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes.
It generally contains calone, a synthetic scent discovered in 1966, or
other more recent synthetics. Also it used to accent floral, oriental, and
woody fragrances.
Citrus. An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of “freshening” eau de colognes, due to the low tenacity of citrus
scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for
the creation of primarily citrus fragrances. A good example here would
be Faberge Brut.
Fruity. Featuring the aromas of fruits other than citrus, such as
peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion fruit, and others. A modern example here would be Ginestet Botrytis.
Gourmand scents with “edible” or “dessert”-like qualities. These
often contain notes like vanilla, tonka bean and coumarin, as well as
synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors.
COMPOSING PERFUMES
Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries
ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to
manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using
perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell (olfaction) and entice them into
purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find
aesthetically pleasing.
Basic Framework
Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and
these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will
play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups.
Primary scents (Heart). Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept, such as “rose”. Alternatively, multiple
ingredients can be used together to create an “abstract” primary scent
that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract
floral fragrances.
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Modifiers. These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the
perfume a certain desired character: for instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; calone and citrus
scents can be added to create a “fresher” floral. The cherry scent in
cherry cola can be considered a modifier.
Blenders. A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between different “layers” or bases. These themselves can be used as a major component of the primary scent. Common blending ingredients include linalool and hydroxycitronellal.
Fixatives. Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many
resins, wood scents, and amber bases are used as fixatives.
The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate
primary scents and supporting ingredients. The perfume’s fragrance
oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and water, aged in
tanks for several weeks and filtered through processing equipment to,
respectively allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilize
and to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be
filled into the perfume bottles.
Perfume Concentration
Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in
a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water
and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of
perfume types. The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the
concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds (natural essential oils/perfume oils) used. As the percentage of aromatic
compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent
created. Specific terms are used to describe a fragrance’s approximate
concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil, which are typically
vague or imprecise. A list of common terms (Perfume-Classification) is
as follows:
1. Perfume extract, or simply perfume (extrait): 15–40% (IFRA:
typical 20%) aromatic compounds.
2. Esprit de Parfum (ESdP): 15–30% aromatic compounds,
a seldom used strength concentration in between EdP and perfume.
3. Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10–20% (typical ~15%) aromatic compounds, sometimes listed as “eau de perfume”.
Parfum de Toilette is a less common term that is generally analogous to
Eau de Parfum.
A. It is interesting to know
137
4. Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5–15% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds.
A “Classical cologne” describes male and female fragrances which
are basically citrus blends and do not have a perfume parent. Classical
colognes are different from modern colognes, where the fragrance is
typically a lighter, less concentrated interpretation of a perfume.
PLANTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED AS HERBAL MEDICINE
Plants have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical
compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and
to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals. Many of these phytochemicals have beneficial effects on long-term health when consumed by humans, and can be used
to effectively treat human diseases. At least 12,000 such compounds
have been isolated so far; a number estimated to be less than 10% of
the total. These phytochemicals are divided into: 1) primary metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found in all plants; and 2) secondary metabolites – compounds which are found in a smaller range
of plants, serving a more specific function. For example, some secondary
metabolites are toxins used to deter predation and others are pheromones used to attract insects for pollination. Chemical compounds in
plants mediate their effects on the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical compounds in
conventional drugs; thus herbal medicines do not differ greatly from
conventional drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal medicines to be as effective as conventional medicines, but also gives
them the same potential to cause harmful side effects.
Most cultures have a tradition of using plants medicinally. In Europe, apothecaries stocked herbal ingredients for their medicines.
138
APPENDIX
B. TOXICOLOGY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
The following table 1 lists the medial lethal dose (LD50) or median
lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the
members of a tested population. LD50 is intended as a guideline only,
and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species
and testing conditions.
Table 1
Toxicology of essential oils
Common name
Oral LD50
Dermal LD50
14 g/kg
>2 g/kg
Lemon myrtle
2.43 g/kg
2.25 g/kg
Frankincense
>5 g/kg
>5 g/kg
Boswellia carterii
Frankincense
>2 g/kg
>2 g/kg
Boswellia sacra
Indian frankincense
>2 g/kg
>2 g/kg
Boswellia serrata
Ylang-ylang
>5 g/kg
>5 g/kg
Cedarwood
>5 g/kg
>5 g/kg
Roman chamomile
>5 g/kg
>5 g/kg
White camphor
>5 g/kg
>5 g/kg
Cinnamomum camphora,
extracted from leaves
Yellow camphor
3.73 g/kg
>5 g/kg
Cinnamomum camphora,
extracted from bark
Hot oil
3.80 g/kg
>5 g/kg
Cinnamomum camphora,
oil extracted from leaves
Cassia
2.80 g/kg
0.32 g/kg
Neem
Notes
It is important to understand that the foregoing figures are far less
relevant in everyday life than far smaller, often localized levels of exposure. For example, a dose of many an essential oil that would do no
harm if swallowed in diluted solution or emulsion, could do serious
damage to eyes or lungs in a higher concentration.
The list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine
139
LISTS OF HERBS
THE LIST OF PLANTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED
AS HERBAL MEDICINE
A
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa, люцерна посевная) leaves are used to
lower cholesterol, as well as for kidney and urinary tract ailments.
Arnica (Arnica Montana, арника горная) is used as an antiinflammatory and for osteoarthritis.
Asthma weed (Euphorbia hirt, молочай) has been used traditionally in Asia to treat bronchitis asthma and laryngeal spasm. It is used
in the Philippines for dengue fever.
B
Barberry (Berberis vulgaris, барбарис обыкновенный) has
a long history of medicinal use, dating back to the Middle Ages. Uses
have included skin ailments, scurvy and gastro-intestinal ailments.
Belladonna (Atropa belladonna, красавка, белладонна) was
used in Italy by women to enlarge their pupils, although being toxic.
It also has a sedative use. The name itself means “beautiful woman”
in Italian.
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus, черника) used to treat diarrhea,
scurvy, and other conditions.
Blueberries (genus Vaccinium, голубика) are of current medical
interest as an antioxidant and for urinary tract ailments.
Burdock (Arctium lappa, лопух, репейник) has been used traditionally as a diuretic and to lower blood sugar and, in traditional
140
LISTS OF HERBS
Chinese medicine as a treatment for sore throat and symptoms of the
common cold.
C
Cayenne (Capsicum annuum, перец красный) is a type of chili
that has been used as both food and medicine for thousands of years.
Uses have included pain relief and treating fever, cold, and diarrhea,
among other conditions.
Celery (Apium graveolens, сельдерей корневой) seed is used
only occasionally in tradition medicine. Modern usage is primarily as
a diuretic.
Chamomile (Matricaria recutita and Anthemis nobilis, ромашка
аптечная, ромашка римская) has been used over thousands of years
for a variety of conditions, including sleeplessness, anxiety, and gastrointestinal conditions such as upset stomach, gas, and diarrhea.
Chili’s (Capsicum frutescens, перец сладкий) active ingredient,
capsaicin, is the basic of commercial pain-relief ointments in Western
medicine. The low incidence of heart attack in Thais has been shown to
be related to capsaicin’s fibronolytic action (dissolving blood clots).
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum, гвоздичное дерево) is used for upset
stomach and as an expectorant. The oil is used topically to treat toothache.
Coffee senna (Cassia occidentalis, кассия западная, александрийский лист) is used in a wide variety of roles in traditional medicine, including in particular as a broad-spectrum internal and external
antimicrobial, for liver disorders, for intestinal worms and other parasites and as an immune-system stimulant.
Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, окопник лекарственный) has
been used as a vulnerary and to reduce inflammation. It was also
used internally in the past, for stomach and other ailments, but its
toxicity has led a number of other countries, including Canada, Brazil, Australia, and the United Kingdom, to severely restrict or ban the
use of comfrey.
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon, клюква крупноплодная)
is used historically as a vulnerary and for urinary disorders, diarrhea,
diabetes, stomach ailments, and liver problems. Modern usage has concentrated on urinary tract related problems.
The list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine
141
D
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, одуванчик лекарственный)
was most commonly used historically to treat liver diseases, kidney
diseases, and spleen problems.
Digitalis (Digitalis lanata, наперстянка шерстистая), or foxglove, came into use in treating cardiac disease in late 18th century
England in spite of its high toxicity. Its use has been almost entirely replaced by the pharmaceutical derivative Digoxin, which has a shorter
half-life in the body, and whose toxicity is therefore more easily managed. Digoxin is used as an antiarrhythmic agent and inotrope.
E
Elderberry (Sambucus nigra, бузина черная) berries and leaves
have traditionally been used to treat pain, swelling, infections, coughs,
and skin conditions and, more recently, flu, common cold, fevers, constipation, and sinus infections.
Ephedra (Ephedra sinica, хвойник китайский, эфедра китайская)
has been used for more than 5000 years in traditional Chinese medicine
for respiratory ailments. Products containing ephedra for weight loss,
energy and athletic performance, particularly those also containing caffeine, have been linked to stroke, heart arrhythmia, and even death.
Evening primrose (Oenothera spp., энотера, примула) oil has
been used since the 1930s for eczema, and more recently as an antiinflammatory.
F
Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium, пиретрум девичий) has been
used for centuries for fevers, headaches, stomach aches, toothaches, insect bites and other conditions.
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum, лён-кудряш) is most commonly
used as a laxative. Flaxseed oil is used for different conditions, including arthritis.
142
LISTS OF HERBS
G
Garlic (Allium sativum, чеснок) is widely used as an antibiotic
and, more recently, for treating cardiovascular disease.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale, имбирь лекарственный) is used to
relieve nausea.
Gingko (Gingko biloba, гинкго билоба) leaf extract has been
used to treat asthma, bronchitis, fatigue, and tinnitus.
Grape (Vitis vinifera, виноград культурный) leaves and fruit
have been used medicinally since the ancient Greeks.
H
Hawthorn (specifically Crataegus monogyna and Crataegus laevigata, боярышник однопестичный или боярышник гладкий) fruit
has been used since the first century for heart disease. Other uses include digestive and kidney problems.
Horsetail (Equisetum arvense, хвощ полевой) dates back to ancient Roman and Greek medicine, when it was used to stop bleeding,
heal ulcers and wounds, and treat tuberculosis and kidney problems.
K
Konjac (Amorphophallus konjac, аморфофаллюс коньяк) is
a significant dietary source of glucomannan, which is used in treating
obesity, constipation, and reducing cholesterol.
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa, кратом) is known to prevent or delay withdrawal symptoms in an opiate dependent individual, and it is
often used to mitigate cravings thereafter. It can also be used for other
medicinal purposes.
L
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia, лаванда узколистная) was
traditionally used as an antiseptic and for mental health purposes.
The list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine
143
It was also used ancient Egypt in mummifying bodies. There is little
scientific evidence that lavender is effective for most mental health uses.
Lemon (Citrus limon, лимон), along with other citruses, has
a long history of use in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine. In
contemporary use, honey and lemon is common for treating coughs and
sore throat.
Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra, лакричник обыкновенный)
has a long history of medicinal usage for stomach ulcers, bronchitis,
and sore throat, as well as infections caused by viruses, such as hepatitis.
M
Marigold (Calendula officinalis, календула лекарственная), or calendula, has a long history of use in treating wounds and soothing skin.
Milk thistle (Silybum marianum, расторо́пша пятни́стая) has
been used for thousands of years for a variety of medicinal purpos es,
in particular liver problems.
N
Noni (Morinda citrifolia, моринда лимонолистная) has a history
of use as for joint pain and skin conditions.
O
Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum, мак сонный) is the plant
source of morphine, used for pain relief. Morphine made from the refined and modified sap is used for pain control in terminal patients.
Dried sap was used as a traditional medicine until the 19th century.
Oregano (Origanum vulgare, душица обыкновенная) is used as
an abortificant in folk medicine in some parts on Bolivia and other
north western South American countries, though no evidence of efficacy exists in Western medicine. Hippocrates used oregano as an antiseptic, as well as a cure for stomach and respiratory ailments. Cretan
144
LISTS OF HERBS
oregano (O. dictamnus) is still used today as a palliative for sore throat.
Evidence of efficacy in this matter is also lacking evidence.
P
Papaya (Carica papaya, дынное дерево) is used for treating
wounds.
Passion Flower (Passiflora, пассифлора, страстоцвет), thought
to have Anti-depressant properties, is used in traditional medicine to
aid with sleep or depression.
Peppermint (Mentha piperita, мята перечная) oil, from a cross
between water mint and spearmint, has a history of medicinal use for
a variety of conditions, including nausea, indigestion, and symptoms of
the common cold.
Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea, эхинацея пурпурная)
and other species of Echinacea have been used for at least 400 years to
treat infections and wounds, and as a general “cure-all” (panacea). It is
currently used for symptoms associated with cold and flu.
R
Red clover (Trifolium pratense, клевер луговой) has been used
historically to treat cancer and respiratory problems. More recently, it
has been used for women’s health issues.
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, розмарин лекарственный)
has been used medicinally from ancient times. Rosemary essential oil
was shown to improve cognitive performance and mood in a recent
study.
S
Sage (Salvia officinalis, шалфей лекарственный) shown to improve cognitive function in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s
disease.
The list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine
145
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum, зверобой пронзеннолистный) is evaluated for use as an antidepressant, but with ambiguous results.
T
Tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia, чайное дерево, мелалеука)
has been used medicinally for centuries by Australian aboriginal people.
Modern usage is primarily as an antibacterial or antifungal agent.
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, тимьян обыкновенный (чабрец)) is
used to treat bronchitis and cough. It serves as an antispasmotic and
expectorant in this role. It has also been used in many other medicinal
roles in Asian medicine, although it has not been shown to be effective
in non-respiratory medicinal roles.
Turmeric (Curcuma longa, дикий имбирь) a spice that lends its distinctive yellow color to Indian curries, has long been used to aid digestion
and liver function, relieve arthritis pain, and regulate menstruation.
U
Umckaloabo, or South African Geranium (Pelargonium sidoides, пеларгония, герань), is used in treating acute bronchitis.
V
Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, валериана лекарственная) has been
used since at least ancient Greece and Rome for sleep disorders and anxiety.
W
White willow (Salix alba, ива белая) is a plant source of salicylic
acid, a chemical related to aspirin, although more likely to cause stomach upset as a side effect than aspirin itself. Used from ancient times
for the same uses as aspirin.
Medicinal Herbs
Asthma weed (Euphorbia hirt,
молочай)
Astragalus (Astragalus propinquus,
астрагал сходный)
Belladonna (Atropa belladonna,
красавка, белладонна)
Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium,
померанец, горький апельсин)
Chaste berry (Vitex agnus-castus,
авраамово дерево)
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum,
гвоздичное дерево)
Coffee senna (Cassia occidentalis,
кассия западная,
александрийский лист)
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale,
одуванчик лекарственный)
Ephedra (Ephedra sinica,
хвойник китайский,
эфедра китайская)
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus,
эвкалипт шаровидный)
Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.,
энотера, примула)
Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium,
пиретрум девичий)
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum,
лён-кудряш)
Ginger (Zingiber officinale,
имбирь лекарственный)
Gingko (Gingko biloba,
гинкго билоба)
Hawthorn (specifically Crataegus
monogyna or Crataegus laevigata,
боярышник однопестичный или
боярышник гладкий)
Horsetail (Equisetum arvense,
хвощ полевой)
Jamaica dogwood (Piscidia erythrina
or Piscidia piscipula, писцидиевое
дерево)
Konjac (Amorphophallus konjac,
аморфофаллюс коньяк)
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa,
кратом)
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia,
лаванда узколистная)
Marigold (Calendula officinalis,
календула лекарственная)
Neem (Azadirachta indica,
ним или азадирахта индийская)
Oregano (Origanum vulgare,
душица обыкновенная)
Passion Flower (Passiflora,
пассифлора, страстоцвет)
Purple coneflower (Echinacea
purpurea, эхинацея пурпурная)
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis,
розмарин лекарственный)
Sage (Salvia officinalis,
шалфей лекарственный)
Syrian Rue (Peganum harmala,
гармала обыкновенная)
Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia,
чайное дерево, мелалеука)
Thunder God Vine (Tripterygium
wilfordii, крылоорешник Вильфорда)
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris,
тимьян обыкновенный (чабрец))
Umckaloabo (Pelargonium sidoides,
пеларгония, герань)
Valerian (Valeriana officinalis,
валериана лекарственная)
White willow (Salix alba,
ива белая)
Yerba santa (Eriodictyon crassifolium,
эриодиктион войлочный (клейкий))
146
LISTS OF HERBS
THE PARTIAL LIST OF HERBS AND HERBAL
TREATMENTS WITH KNOWN OR SUSPECTED
ADVERSE EFFECTS
This is a partial list of herbs and herbal treatments with known or
suspected adverse effects, either alone or in interaction with other herbs
or drugs. Non-inclusion of any herb in this list does not imply that it is
free of adverse effects. In general, the safety and effectiveness of alternative medicines have not been scientifically proven and remain largely
unknown. Beyond adverse effects from the herb itself, adulteration, inappropriate formulation, or lack of understanding of plant and drug interactions have led to adverse reactions that are sometimes life threatening or lethal. Most of the adverse effects stated in this list are associated with only a small percentage of cases; they should be understood
as potential risks (tables 2, 3).
Table 2
Herbal plants associated with allergic reactions
Name
Aniseed
Apricot
Arnica
Cassia
Celery
Cinnamon
Cowslip
Dandelion
Euphorbia
Feverfew
Hops
Russian name
Анис
Абрикос
Арника
Кассия
Сельдерей
Корица
Первоцвет
Одуванчик
Молочай
Пижма
Хмель
Name
Hydrangea
Juniper
Lady’s Slipper
Motherwort
Parsley
Pilewort
Plantain
Rosemary
Tansy
Thistle
Yarrow
Russian name
Гортензия
Можжевельник
Венерин башмачок
Пустырник
Петрушка
Лютик весенний
Подорожник
Розмарин
Пижма
Чертополох
Тысячелистник
The partial list of herbs and herbal treatments
147
148
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Abbreviation
149
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
ABBREVIATION
ACE (Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor) – ингибитор ангиотензинпревращающего фермента (АПФ)
ADME (Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of
chemicals) – абсорбция, распределение, обмен и выведение химических веществ
AIDS (Human immunodeficiency virus infection) – синдром приобретенного иммунодефицита (СПИД)
ATC system (Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System) – анатомо-терапевтическо-химическая классификация (АТХ)
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) – аденилпирофосфорная кислота,
аденозилтрифосфат
AUG (Adenine-uracil-guanine) – аминопуринурацилгуанин
BAGF (Bay Area Gardeners Foundation) – Фонд садоводов зоны
залива
BOD (Biochemical oxygen demand) – биологическая потребность
в кислороде; биологическое потребление кислорода
BT (Bleeding time) – время кровотечения
BTMs (Behind-the-counter medications) – препараты, которые могут быть отпущены без рецепта, но только в аптеках (фармацевтом)
и не подлежащие открытой выкладке
CAM (Complementary and alternative medicines) – дополнительные и альтернативные лекарственные средства
CCC (Countercurrent chromatography) – противоточная хроматография
CNS actions (Central nervous system) – действия центральной
нервной системы (ЦНС)
COD (Chemical oxygen demand) – химическая потребность
в кислороде; химическое потребление кислорода
150
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
COX (Cyclooxygenase enzyme) – фермент циклооксигеназы (ЦОГ)
Da (Dopamine) – допамин
EPPP (Environmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants) – экологически стойкие фармацевтические загрязнители
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) – вирус иммунодефицита
человека (ВИЧ)
HPLC (High-performance liquid chromatography) – высокоэффективная жидкостная хроматография
HRT (Hormone Replacement Therapy) – заместительная гормональная терапия (ЗГТ)
IFF (International Flavors and Fragrances) – международные ароматизаторы и ароматы
INCB (The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations) – международный совет по контролю над наркотическими
средствами Организации Объединенных Наций
ISDE (The International Society of Doctors for the Environment) –
международное общество врачей за сохранение окружающей среды
kcal (kilocalorie) – килокалория
LHRH (Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone gamolenic (gammalinolenic) acid) – лютенизирующий гормон, высвобождающий гормон
гамма-линоленовой кислоты
MAPs (Medicinal and aromatic plants) – лекарственные и ароматические растения
mg/l (milligram/liter) – мг/л
MLSS (Mixed liquor suspended solids) – взвешенные вещества
в смеси сточных вод с активным илом
MLVSS (Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids) – взвешенные летучие вещества в смеси сточных вод с активным илом
mRNA (Messenger Ribonucleic acid) – матричная рибонуклеиновая кислота
MS (Mass spectrometry) – масс-спектрометрия
NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) – никотинамидадениндинуклеотид
NADH (type of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) – никотинамидадениндинуклеотид восстановленный
NMDA – N-метил-D-аспартат
NMR spectroscopy (Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy) –
ядерная магнитно-резонансная спектроскопия
Abbreviation
151
NSAID (Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, i.e. any of a class of
drugs reducing inflammation and pain in rheumatic diseases) – нестероидное противовоспалительное средство (НПВП)
O&M (Operation and maintenance) – эксплуатация и техническое
обслуживание
OTC (Over-the-counter drugs) – безрецептурные препараты
OTE (Oxygen transfer efficiency) – эффективность переноса кислорода
PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) – цепная реакция полимеризации
PDB (Protein Data Bank) – банк данных 3D-структур белков
и нуклеиновых кислот
POM (Prescription only medicine) – препараты, отпускаемые
только по рецепту врача
ppb (parts per billion) – частей на миллиард
PPCPs (Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products) – фармацевтические препараты и средства личной гигиены
PPIs (Proton pump inhibitors) – ингибиторы протонной помпы
(ИПП)
RNA (Ribonucleic acid molecules) – молекулы рибонуклеиновой
кислоты
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) – рибонуклеиновая кислота (РНК)
SAICM (Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management) – стратегический подход к международному регулированию
химических веществ
SNRI (Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) – ингибиторы обратного захвата серотонина и норадреналина
SSRIs (Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) – селективные ингибиторы обратного захвата серотонина (СИОЗС)
TCM plants (Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine) – растения, используемые в традиционной китайской медицине
ТСХ (Thin-layer chromatography) – тонкослойная хроматография
TETriglyceride (Natural triglyceride with three different fatty acids) –
природный триглицерид с тремя различными жирными кислотами
THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) – тетрагидроканнабинол (ТГК)
VLC (Vacuum-liquid chromatography) – вакуумно-жидкостная
хроматография
WHO (The World Health Organization) – Всемирная организация
здравоохранения (ВОЗ)
152
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
GLOSSARY TERMS FOR UNITS
А
Abnormal biochemical function – аномальные биохимические
функции
Absolute fragrance – абсолютный аромат
Acetic acid – уксусная кислота
Achieve analgesia, relief from pain – достигать обезболивания,
облегчения от боли
Acid-base extraction – кислотно-щелочная экстракция
Acidogenesis – кислотогенез
Act peripherally in nerve endings – воздействовать на периферические нервные окончания
Activated sludge – активный ил
Acute condition – обострение болезни
Addictive – привыкание
Adjacent amino acid residue – смежный остаток аминокислоты
Adjust – приспосабливать
Adjuvant analgesic (atypical analgesic) – вспомогательное болеутоляющее средство
Administer herb – применять лекарственную траву
Adrenergic agonists – адреномиметики (группа биологически
активных веществ природного или синтетического происхождения, вызывающих различные метаболические и функциональные
изменения в организме)
Adrenergic neurone blocker – блокатор адренергических
нейронов
Adrenoreceptor agonists (ketamine, clonidine) – адренорецепторы (кетамин, клофелин)
Adulteration – добавка, примесь, подмешивание
Adverse effects of pharmaceuticals – побочные эффекты фармацевтических препаратов
Adverse events (accidental overdoses) – неблагоприятные события (случайные передозировки)
Aerated – насыщенный кислородом, аэрированный
Glossary terms for units
153
Aeration tank – аэрационный бассейн
Aerobic respiration – клеточное или тканевое дыхание (совокупность биохимических реакций в клетках живых организмов,
в ходе которых происходит окисление углеводов, липидов и аминокислот до углекислого газа и воды)
Aesthetic – эстетический, чувственный, связанный с ощущениями
Aetherolea – эфирный
Affect pain and consciousness – обезболивать и влиять на сознание
Agarwood, bearwood – крушина (лекарственное растение)
Aggregate in multicellular colonies – соединиться в многоклеточные колонии
Albumin – альбумин, белок
Alcohol baths – емкость для спирта
Alcoholic extract of herbs – спиртовой экстракт трав
Alembic (distillation apparatus) – дистиллятор
Aleuronic – протеиновый
Alkalinity – щелочность, щелочные свойства
Alkalising agent – щелочной компонент, препарат
Alkaloid (group of nitrogenous basic compounds found in plants,
typically insoluble in water and physiologically active, e.g. morphine,
strychnine, quinine, nicotine, and caffeine) – алкалоид (класс химических соединений, содержащих азотные кольца)
Alleviate neuropathy – облегчать нервное заболевание
All-liquid separation technique – метод разделения жидкостей
Alpha carbons – альфа-углерод
Alter properties – изменять свойства
Amber – зверобой пронзенный, амбра
Ambergris – серая амбра
Ambient temperature – комнатная температура
Ambiguous – неоднозначный
Ambrette – мускатный орех, амбретт
Aminoglycoside (compound isolated from living organisms) –
аминогликозид (соединение, выделенное из живых организмов)
Amitriptyline (a tricyclic antidepressant drug; C20H23N) – амитриптилин
Amoebicide – амебицид (препарат для лечения заболеваний,
передающихся одноклеточными организмами)
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TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Amoeboid – амебовидный
Anabolic drug – анаболик
Anaerobe (an organism that does not require oxygen for respiration) – анаэроб
Anaesthetic – анестетик, болеутоляющее средство
Analgesic, analgesic drug, painkiller – анальгетик (болеутоляющее)
Androgen (androgenic hormone or testoid) – андроген (группа
стероидных гормонов, производимых половыми железами и корой
надпочечников, которые повышают синтез белков и тормозят их
распад)
Angiotensin receptor blocker – блокаторы рецепторов ангиотензина (стойкое повышение артериального давления)
Animalic fragrance agent – аромат животного происхождения
Anoxic – аноксидный, бескислородный
Antacid – антацид
Antagonistic to growth of microorganisms in high dilution –
антагонистичный рост микроорганизмов в сильном разбавлении
Anthelmintic – антигельминтик (противоглистный препарат)
Anthocyanin – антоциан (пирилиевая соль)
Anthrax – сибирская язва
Antiandrogen – антиандроген
Antianginals – антиангинальные средства
Antiarrhythmics – антиаритмические препараты
Antiasthma therapeutic ephedrine – терапевтический эфедрин
от астмы
Antibacterial properties – антибактериальные свойства
Antibiotics (inhibiting germ growth) – антибиотики (блокирующие/ингибирующие размножение бактерий)
Anticancer vincristine (a cytotoxic drug used in the treatment of
leukemia, derived from the tropical shrub Madagascar periwinkle) –
противораковый препарат винкристин
Anticholinergic – антихолинергический препарат (мочегонное,
слабительное, рвотное)
Anticholinergic – антихолинергический
Anticholinesterase (AChE) – ацетилхолинэстераза (один из самых быстрых ферментов, при гидролизе разлагает ацетилхолин
на холин и ацетатную группу, способствует расслаблению мышечной клетки)
Glossary terms for units
155
Anticoagulant – антикоагулянт
Anticonvulsants (antiepileptics) – противосудорожные препараты
Antidepressants – антидепрессанты
Antidiarrhoeal – противодиарейнoе средствo
Antidopaminergic – противорвотное средство
Antiemetics – противорвотные средства
Antifibrinolytics – антифибринолитики (препараты, разжижающие кровь и препятствующие образованию тромбов)
Antiflatulent – антифлатулент (препарат, препятствующий
скоплению газов в кишечнике и метеоризму)
Antifungal – противогрибковые препараты
Antihelminthic – противоглистное средство
Antihemophilic drug – антигемофилический препарат
Antihistamine drugs, antihistamines (for allergy sufferers) – антигистаминные препараты (для аллергиков)
Antihistamines (for nasal allergies) – антигистаминные препараты (дословно – «для лечения аллергического насморка»)
Antihypertensive drug (affecting blood pressure) – гипотензивное средство (снижающее артериальное давление)
Antiinflammatory – противовоспалительное средство
Antileprotic – противолепрозное средство (антибиотик от
проказы)
Antimalarial drugs, antimalarials (treating malaria) – противомалярийные препараты
Antimicrobial compounds – антибактериальные соединения
Antiobesity drugs – лекарства против ожирения
Antiplatelet drugs – антиагрегантные препараты при синдроме
Пиквика (состояние, при котором люди с крайней степенью ожирения не способны дышать достаточно глубоко и быстро, что ведет к низкому уровню кислорода и высокому уровню углекислого
газа в крови)
Antiprotozoal – противопротозойное средство (от малярии)
Antipruritic – противозудный препарат
Antipsychotic – нейролептический препарат
Antipyretic (reducing fever) – жаропонижающее средство
Antiseptics (preventing germ growth near burns, cuts and wounds) –
антисептики (предотвращающие размножение бактерий в области
ожогов, порезов и ран)
Antispasmodic in the lungs – спазмолитик в легких
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TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Antituberculous drug – противотуберкулезнoе средствo
Antitussive – отхаркивающее средство
Antiviral drug – противовирусный препарат
Anxiolytics – седативные средства (лекарственные вещества
растительного или синтетического происхождения, вызывающие
успокоение или уменьшение эмоционального напряжения без снотворного эффекта)
Apparent value – истинная/несомненная ценность
Applied immunology – прикладная иммунология
Apply topically to the skin – для местного наружного применения
Approved drug – одобренный препарат
Aquatic application – растворенный в воде; водный раствор
Archaea – архей (одноклеточные микроорганизмы, не имеющие ядра)
Archaea membrane – клеточная стенка
Archetypal opioid – основной синтетический наркотический
препарат
Aromatase inhibitors – ингибиторы аромата
Ascertain – для выяснения
Assay – проба, анализ
Assert – утверждать, заявлять, декларировать
Assess content of products before use – для оценки содержания
продуктов перед использованием
Assessing the medical value of plant – оценка медицинской
ценности растения
Astringency – терпкость
Astringent – вяжущий препарат
Atharvaveda – сборник древнеиндийских религиозных гимнов («веды»)
Atherosclerosis/cholesterol inhibitors – атеросклеротические
препараты/ингибиторы синтеза холестерина
Atomic resolution structures of proteins – атомное разрушение
структуры белков
Atrial fibrillation – сердечная аритмия
Atrial flutter – сердечная вибрация
Attached growth treatment system – система очистки при помощи закрепленных организмов
Attainable – достижимый
Glossary terms for units
157
Attract insects for pollination – привлекать насекомых для
опыления
Attract pollinator – привлекать опылителей
Attractive force – сила притяжения
Autoclave – автоклав
Autoimmune disease – аутоиммунное заболевание (вызвано
нарушением функции иммунной системы)
Autumn crocuses – осенние крокусы
Ayurvedic medicine, ayurveda – древнеиндийская медицина
(на основе растительных препаратов)
B
Bacterial conjugation – бактериальная конъюгация (слияние)
Bacteriostatic agents (slow down or stall bacterial growth) –
бактериостатические агенты (замедляют или останавливают рост
бактерий)
Baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) – дрожжи для выпечки
Ban – запретить
Bark – кора
Be the case – так и есть
Benzocaine – бензокаин
Beta blockers – бета-адреноблокаторы
Beta lactam antibacterial – бета-лактамные антибактериальные средства
Bewildering variety – огромное разнообразие
Biguanide (class of compounds used in the treatment of diabetes) – бигуанид
Bile – желчь
Bile acid sequestrants – изоляторы желчных кислот
Bioassay guided fractionation – проводить деление на фракции биопробы
Biodegradable – биологически разлагаемый
Biological diversity – разнообразие биологических видов
Biopharmaceutical – биологические фармпрепараты
Biotin – биотин, витамин H
Bitten by herbivore – укушенный травоядным животным
Bitter orange – горький апельсин
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TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Blockbuster drug (generates more than $1 billion of revenue for
its owner each year) – лекарственные препараты, являющиеся лидерами продаж (лекарства, годовой объем продаж которых составляет более 1 млрд. дол. США)
Blood serum albumin – сывороточный альбумин крови
Blood thinner – разбавитель крови
Blunt termini – «тупые» концы
Bone regulator – регуляторы костного метаболизма
Bound to sugar molecules – связанный с молекулами сахарозы
Bovine – бычий, телячий
Break apart – разъединять; разбить на составляющие части
Break down – разрушать, разлагать
Break down carbohydrates into alcohols (such as ethanol) –
преобразовать углеводы в спирты (например, этанол)
Break down ingested protein into free amino acids – расщеплять поглощенный белок на свободные аминокислоты
Brewing – производить что-либо сбраживанием; пивоварение
Bronchodilator (drug that causes dilation of the bronchial tubes by
relaxing bronchial muscle) – бронходилататор, бронхорасширитель
Bubble diffuser – пузырчатый аэратор, распылитель
Budding – почкование, окулирование, бутонизация
Buildup – увеличение
Bulb – луковицеобразное утолщение, луковица; шарик;
клубень
Bulk air medium – основная часть воздушной среды
Bulk liquid – основная часть жидкости; жидкость; жидкие
продукты
Burn as incense – гореть как ладан, фимиан
Burn the skin – сжечь кожу
Butyric acid – масляная кислота
By a factor of ... – на порядок; в n раз
By-product – побочный продукт
C
Caffeine – кофеин
Calcitonin – кальцитонин (у млекопитающих гормон, вырабатываемый клетками щитовидной железы, называется тиреокальци-
Glossary terms for units
159
тонином; но у остальных аналогичный по функциям гормон производится не в щитовидной железе и называется кальцитонином)
Calcium channel blockers – блокаторы кальциевых каналов
Calone – продукт синтетического происхождения
Candidate treatment – подходящая/возможная обработка
Candidiasis – кандидоз, кандидамикоз, дрожжевой микоз, монилиаз
Cannabinoid – каннабиноид (группа соединений в растениях
семейства Коноплевые)
Cannabis sativa plant – растения конопли
Capital cost – капитальные затраты
Capsaicin (a colourless crystalline bitter alkaloid found in capsicums and used as a flavouring in vinegar and pickles) – капсаицин
(бесцветный кристаллический горький алкалоид, содержащийся
в перце, используется как ароматизатор уксуса и в соленьях)
Captive breed sources – размножение в неволе
Capture – захватывать, поглощать
Caraway – тмин обыкновенный
Carbapenems – карбапенемы (класс антибиотиков с широким
спектром действий, имеющих структуру, которая обусловливает
их высокую устойчивость к бета-лактамазам)
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors/hyperosmotics – гиперосмотические препараты
Cardiac glycoside – сердечный гликозид (органические вещества растительного или синтетического происхождения, которые
при кислотном, щелочном, ферментативном гидролизе расщепляются на два компонента: агликон и углевод)
Cardiovascular system – сердечно-сосудистая система
Carotenoid – каротиноид (природный органический пигмент
оранжевого или красного цвета, синтезируемый бактериями, высшими растениями)
Carrier oil – масляной резервуар
Cartesian coordinates – декартовы координаты
Cascarilla – кротоновое дерево (его горькая ароматная кора
применяется как тонизирующее средство)
Cassie – кассия (благовонное растение, дикая корица), род
многолетних растений семейства Бобовые
Castoreum – кастореум (бобровая струя)
Catalyse metabolic reactions – ускорять реакции обмена веществ
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TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Causative agents of various infectious diseases – возбудители
различных инфекционных заболеваний
Cause adverse effects – вызывать побочные эффекты
Cause agranulocytosis – вызвать агранулоцитоз (отсутствие
или уменьшение количества гранулоцитов в крови)
Cause gastrointestinal hemorrhage – вызвать желудочнокишечные кровотечения
Cause toxicity to the patient – вызывать токсичность у пациента
Cedar – кедр
Celecoxib – целекоксиб (нестероидный противовоспалительный препарат для лечения ревматоидного артрита, при острых болях)
Cell adhesion – клеточное сцепление
Cell biology – цитология (раздел биологии, изучающий живые
клетки)
Cell lysis – клеточный лизис (1) медленное падение температуры
тела при лихорадочных заболеваниях и ослабление явлений болезни
в течение нескольких суток в результате таких инфекционных болезней, как брюшной тиф, скарлатина, корь и др.; 2) разрушение
клеток и нарушение структуры тканей под действием ферментов)
Cerebral opioid receptor system – церебральная опиоидная
рецепторная система
Charales (algae most closely related to higher plants) – морская
водоросль
Chemotherapeutic agents – цитостатики (противоопухолевые
препараты, которые вызывают некроз раковых клеток)
Cherry pits – вишневые косточки
Chimeric monoclonal antibody – гибридное моноклональное
антитело
Cholinergics – холинергики (препараты для лечения расстройства опорно-двигательного аппарата, вызванного приемом нейролептиков)
Chop plant – разрушать растение
Chromatography – хроматография
Chronic condition/illness – хроническое медицинское заболевание
Ciliates – инфузории
Cimetidine – циметидин (лекарственное средство, которое
усиливает защитные механизмы слизистой оболочки желудка
Glossary terms for units
161
и способствует заживлению ее повреждений путем увеличения
образования желудочной слизи)
Cinnamon – корица
Circular dichroism – круговой дихроизм оптически активных
молекул (зависимость коэффициента поглощения света от направления круговой поляризации, «эффект Коттона»)
Cis-isomers (carbon-carbon double bonds) – цис-изомеры
Citric acid cycle – цикл лимонной кислоты
Citrus aurantium – померанец
Civet Musk – мускус циветты
Claims for the efficacy of medical treatment – требования
к эффективности лечения
Clarifier – очистная установка
Clary sage – шалфей мускатный
Clean utensils – чистая посуда
Cleanse the skin on a deeper level (steam inhalation) – чистить
кожу на более глубоком уровне (паровая ингаляция)
Clinical pharmacy – клиническая фармация
Clinical setting – клиническая установка, параметры
Clinical trial – клиническое испытание
Clog – засорять, закупоривать
Clomiphene (used to treat infertility in women) – кломифен
(препарат от бесплодия)
Coagulate (flocculate under treatments with heat or acid) – коагулировать, свертываться; коагулят, сгусток
Coalesce – соединяться, слипаться
Coarse bubble diffuser – крупнопузырчатый диффузор
Coccoid – коккоподобный (форма возбудителя туберкулеза)
Codeine preparations – препараты кодеина
Codon – кодон, кодирующий тринуклеотид (единица генетического кода, тройка нуклеотидных остатков в ДНК или РНК)
Cofactor (prosthetic groups) – кофактор (простетическая группа); кофермент, коэнзим
Cohesive termini – «липкие» концы
Coliform bacteria (these indicate a sewage contamination) – колиподобная бактерия (индикатор загрязнения сточных вод)
Combat pain at multiple sites of action – бороться с болью
в нескольких местах
Compounding of metals – состав/компоненты металлов
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TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Compulsion – импульсивное желание; принуждение
Computational biology – молекулярный драг дизайн
Concentrated medium – концентрированная среда
Concrete (a product of solvent extraction) – твердый цветочный
экстракт, экстрактовое эфирное масло, продукт экстракции несущих ароматические вещества частей растения неполярными растворителями
Conduct research – проводить исследование
Conformational change – конформационное изменение
Confusion – беспорядок
Conifers – хвойные
Conjecture – конъектура
Constipation – запор
Constituent – компонент
Consume diets – использовать диету
Contactor – замыкатель
Contaminated – загрязненный
Contemporary perfumes – современные духи
Content – содержимое, объем
Contraindications (reasons not to prescribe drugs) – противопоказания (причины, по которым не стоит применять лекарственные средства)
Controversy – спор, дискуссия
Conventional drug – лекарства, удовлетворяющие техническим условиям
Convert starch from grains into sugar – преобразовать крахмал из зерна в сахар
Converter – преобразователь
Copal – копал, копаловая смола
Cope – справиться, совладать
Copiously – обильно
Coplanar – компланарный
Corroborating evidence – подкрепляющее доказательство
Corticosteroids (for inflammation) – кортикостероиды (для
снятия воспаления)
Cost recovery – окупаемость/возмещение убытков
Cost-effective – эффективный и экономичный
Cost-saving – требующий меньших издержек
Coumarin – кумарин (гликозид, содержащийся во многих растениях семейства Астровые, применяется как душистое вещество
в парфюмерной промышленности)
Glossary terms for units
163
Counter diseases with plant-based medication – лечить заболевания растительными препаратами
COX-1 (constitutive) enzyme – образующий фермент ЦОГ-1
COX-2 (inducible) enzyme – адаптивный фермент ЦОГ-2
Crabtree effect – эффект Крэбтри
Critical to nutrient recycling – требование к переработке питательных отходов
Cropping – обрезка
Cross-pollination issues – проблемы перекрестного опыления
Crude drug – сырой препарат
Crude extract – необработанный экстракт
Crude lysate – сырой клеточный лизат
Crude oil (petroleum) – сырая нефть
Crush herb – измельчать растение
Cryoelectron microscopy – криоэлектронная микроскопия
Curative effect – целебное действие
Cyan glycoside – голубая гликозида
Cyclobenzaprine – циклобензаприн
Cycloplegic – мидриатик (используется в офтальмологии для
исследования глазного дна)
Cyclopyrrole – циклопиррол
Cytoplasm – цитоплазма (внутренняя среда живой или умершей клетки, кроме ядра, ограниченная плазматической мембраной)
Cytoprotectants – цитопротекторные препараты
Cytotoxic drugs – цитотоксические средства (противоопухолевые препараты, которые запускают процесс самоуничтожения
внутри злокачественной клетки)
D
Dahlias – георгины
Dakin’s solution (germicide which helps to prevent gangrene) –
раствор Дайкина (бактерицидное средство для профилактики
гангрены)
Datura stramonium (effective treatment for asthma symptoms
when smoked) – дурман страмония
Daunting – трудный
Debated issue – обсуждаемый вопрос
164
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Decaffeinated coffee – кофе без кофеина
Decoction (long-term boiled extract) – отвар (длительно вареный экстракт)
Decongestants corticosteroid – противозастойные/противоотечные кортикостероиды
Decrease likelihood of overdose – снизить вероятность передозировки
Deer musk – мускус оленя
Dehydron – дегидрин (внутримолекулярная водородная связь)
Denaturation – денатурация
Denature through high heat – изменять естественные свойства
при повышении температуры
Derivatives of biochemical motifs – производные биохимических мотивов
Derive drug from – получить препарат из
Derive from – выводить из
Desloughing agents – моющие средства
Destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals – уничтожать вредные
химикаты
Detection – выявление, обнаружение, открытие; регистрация
Deter predation – измельчить траву
Determine the safety and efficacy of drugs – определить безопасность и эффективность наркотиков
Devoid of activity on dopamine, serotonin or histamine receptors – избежать воздействия на рецепторы дофамина, серотонина
и гистамина
Dewatered – обезвоженный
Dextroamphetamine – декстроамфетамин
Diatomaceous earth – гидравлическая добавка
Diffuse – рассеивать
Diffuser – диффузор, распыливатель, рассеиватель
Digestion – пищеварение
Digestive system – пищеварительная система
Digoxin (a purified cardiac glycoside extracted from the foxglove
plant) – дигоксин (очищенный сердечный гликозид, экстрагируемый из наперстянки)
Dihedral angles in the peptide bond – двугранные углы
в пептидной связи
Glossary terms for units
165
Dihydromorphine – дигидроморфин
Dilute in – разбавлять; разводить до
Diluted plant extract – разбавленный растительный экстракт
Dimensionless – безразмерный, бесконечно малый
Dimethyl ether – диметиловый эфир
Diphosponate – бисфосфонат/дисфосфонат
Diploid – диплоид (с двойным набором хромосом)
Direct patient care (for pharmacy practice) – прямой уход за
больным
Disassemble – разбирать на части
Discharge permit – разрешение на сброс
Disinfectants – дезинфицирующие средства
Dispensing – распределение
Dispose of – избавляться, ликвидировать, уничтожать
Dissect drugs – разводить лекарства
Dissolved – растворенный
Distinct from – быть отличным от
Diuretics – диуретики (мочегонные средства)
Diverse species (chickens, sheep, butterflies) – разнообразные виды
Divert – направлять
Domestication of plants – доместикация растений
Dopamine agonists – агонисты допамина (гормон, вырабатываемый мозговым веществом надпочечников, биохимический
предшественник адреналина)
Dopamine antagonists – антагонисты допамина
Dosage – дозировка
Dose ceiling – максимальная доза
Driving force – движущая сила
Drug administration (delivery of a pharmaceutical drug to
a patient) – применение препарата
Drug substance – лекарственное вещество
Drug synergism – синергизм препарата (совместное действие
препарата)
Drug tolerance – медикаментозная зависимость
Drug’s enhancing effect – эффект усиления препарата
Drug’s final effect – заключительный эффект препарата
Drug’s moderating effect – препарат смягчающего действия
Drugs for off-label use – использование препарата вне зарегистрированных показаний
166
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Dry/destructive distillation – сухая перегонка
Dry extracts – сухие экстракты
Dry-distilled (rectified) form – форма, полученная путем сухой
перегонки (очищенная)
D-tubocurarine – тубокурарина хлорид
Dual polarisation interferometry – интерферометрия двойной
поляризации
Duloxetine – дулоксетин (антидепрессант)
E
Economics – экономический расчет/оценка/анализ
Eco-pharmacology – экофармакология
Eco-pharmacovigilance – надзор в сфере экофармакологии/фармаконадзор
Effleurage – экстракция раствора
Effluent – сток; сточные воды
Electrofocusing – электрофокусирование
Electron crystallography – электронная кристаллография
Electrophoresis – электрофорез
Elevate mood – поднять настроение
Eliminate sensation – устранить ощущения
Elimination from – выведение из
Elixir – эликсир
Elucidate chemical structure – объяснять химическую структуру
Embryology – эмбриология
Embryophyte plant – початок, саженец
Emetic – вызывающий рвоту; рвотное средство
Emollients – смягчающие средства
Encode protein – кодировать
Encompass – окружать; заключать
Endanger – подвергать опасности
Endogenous (organic electron acceptor) – эндогенный, внутренний
Endogenous respiration – эндогенное дыхание (обмен газов
внутри тканей организма)
Endosymbiotic – эндосимбиотический препарат
Energy consuming – энергоемкий
Glossary terms for units
167
Enteral (taking medication orally) – применение препарата
внутрь (перорально)
Entheogenic – используемый для получения наркотических
веществ, употребляемых во время религиозных обрядов (о растении); галлюциногенный
Enzyme catalytic activity – каталитическая активность фермента
Enzyme hydrolysis – ферментативный гидролиз
Enzyme urease – гидролитический фермент уреаза (катализирует гидролиз мочевины до диоксида углерода и аммиака; обнаружен в бактериях, дрожжах, семенах сои, в организме человека
и животных образуется бактериальной флорой)
Ephedrine – эфедрин
Erroneous conclusion – ошибочный вывод
Essential oil – эфирное масло
Ester bond – связь сложного эфира
Ethanol extraction – выделение этилового спирта
Ethanol fermentation – ферментация этанола
Ether lipid – липиды эфира
Ethereal oil – эфирное масло
Ethnobotany (the study of traditional human uses of plants) –
этноботаника
Ethnomedical plant sources – этномедицинские растительные
источники
Ethnopharmacology – народная медицина
Etoricoxib – эторикоксиб
Eucalyptus globulus (lat.) – эвкалипт шаровидный
Eukaryote – эукариот (домен живых организмов, клетки которых содержат ядра)
Excess use – избыточное использование
Exert a biochemical effect on smth – оказывать биохимическое
воздействие на что-либо
Exoenzyme – внеклеточный фермент
Expand aroma – расширить аромат
Expelle – вытеснять, изгонять, выбрасывать
Extinction of medicinal plant species – вымирание видов лекарственных растений
Extremophile (a microbe that lives in an environment once
thought to be uninhabitable, for example in boiling or frozen water) –
икстримофил
168
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Exudate – экссудат, выпот (жидкость, выделяющаяся в ткани
или полости организма из мелких кровеносных сосудов при воспалении; процесс выделения экссудата называется экссудацией)
Exude – источать, выделять
F
Facultative anaerobic organism – факультативно-анаэробный
организм
Facultative lagoon – аэробно-анаэробный накопитель
Fast-acting serotonin releasing agent – быстродействующий
агент, выпускающий серотонин
Fatigue – выносливость; усталость; утомление
Fatty acid – жирная кислота
Favour the use of convergent information – одобрить использование сходящейся информации
Feasible epidemiological studies – возможные эпидемиологические исследования
Febrifuges – жаропонижающие
Feed on (upon) – питаться (чем-то)
Fermentation (disambiguation) – брожение
Fertility medications – лекарства от бесплодия
Fever reducer – редуктор лихорадки
Fibrin – фибрин (высокомолекулярный белок, образующийся
из фибриногена плазмы крови под действием фермента тромбина;
имеет форму гладких или поперечно исчерченных волокон, сгустки которых составляют основу тромба при свертывании крови)
Fibrinolytics – фибринолитические средства
Fibrosing cardiomyopathy (has a devastating effect on captive
animals) – фиброзная кардиомиопатия (имеет разрушительное воздействие на животных в неволе)
Field biologist – полевой биолог
Fight a sinus infection or cough – бороться с инфекцией пазух
или кашлем
Filamentous hyphae – волокнистые гифы (нитевидное образование у грибов, состоящее из многих клеток или содержащее
множество ядер)
Glossary terms for units
169
Filter feeder – фильтратор
Fine bubble diffuser – мелкопузырчатый рассеиватель
Fine-pored – мелкопористый
Fir resin – смола ели (еловая смола)
Fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) – дрожжи, которые
размножаются почкованием
Flagellate – бичевать, пороть, бить
Flagellated – жгутиковый
Flash chromatography – волновая хроматография
Flocculate – выпадать в осадок; выпадать хлопьями; флоккулировать
Flocculent – хлопьевидный; рыхлый
Florentine flask – флорентийская колба
Flotation – флотация
Flow rate – скорость стока; расход потока
Fluor quinolones – фторхинолоны
Flupirtine – флупиртин (ненаркотический анальгетик центрального действия)
Foaming – пенообразование; пенная флотация (отделение
твердых частиц от жидкости путем всплывания)
Folding – складной
Folic acid – фолиевая кислота, витамин B6
Folklore cures – народная медицина
Follicle stimulating hormone – фолликулостимулирующий
гормон
Food additives – пищевые добавки
Food grade oil (e.g. Almond oil) – пищевое масло (например,
миндальное масло)
Food spoiling – испорченные продукты
Food-borne pathogens – пищевые патогены
For the fun of it – шутки ради; чтобы посмеяться
Forage plants rich in secondary metabolites – кормовые растения, богатые вторичными метаболитами
Fortuitous – случайный
Fouled – загрязненный
Fractional distillation – фракционная перегонка
Fractionate extract – фракционировать
Fractionation column – колонна фракционирования
Fragrance – аромат
170
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Fragrance wheel – круг ароматов
Fragrances in perfumery – ароматы в парфюмерии
Fragrant essential oil – душистое эфирное масло
Frankincense/olibanum – ладан
Freeze drying – лиофилизация; сублимационная сушка
Functional genomics – функциональная геномика (отрасль молекулярной генетики)
Fungal and bee product – грибковые и паразитарные
Fungi – грибы
Fusion protein – встраивание белка
G
Gabapentin – габапентин (противоэпилептический препарат)
Gain durable patents rights – получить долгосрочное право
на патент
Gastric juices – желудочный сок
Gastrointestinal tract – желудочно-кишечный тракт
Gel electrophoresis – гель-электрофорез (применяющийся
в молекулярной биологии метод разделения смесей белков в полиакриламидном геле)
Genera Rhizobium (any rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Rhizobium able to fix atmospheric nitrogen) – род организмов, усваивающих азот
Generic – лекарство общего типа; непатентованное средство
Genome – геном (совокупность наследственного материала,
заключенного в клетке организма)
Ginger plant – имбирь
Ginseng – женьшень
Ginsenoside (plant with high level of active constituents) –
гинзенозид
Give a pleasant scent – давать приятный запах
Glycolysis – гликолиз (ферментативный процесс последовательного расщепления глюкозы в клетках)
Glycoside – гликозид (органические соединения, молекулы
которых состоят из углеводного остатка и агликона – неуглеводного фрагмента)
Gonadotropin – гонадотропин (гормональный препарат)
Glossary terms for units
171
Gout – подагра
Gradient – уклон; градиент; подъем
Green algae – зеленые водоросли
Grow as single cells – вырасти как единственные клетки
Grower – производитель, садовод
Guide the referral process between pharmacist and doctor –
выписать направление к фармацевту (о враче)
Gum benzoin – бензойная смола
Gut immunity – нарушить неприкосновенность
H
H2-receptor antagonists – блокаторы H2-гистаминовых рецепторов; H2-блокаторы; H2-антигистаминные средства (антисекреторные лекарственные препараты для лечения кислотозависимых
заболеваний желудочно-кишечного тракта за счет снижения продукции соляной кислоты)
Haematopoietic drugs – гематопоэтические средства (влияющее на кроветворение)
Haemostatic drug – кровоостанавливающий препарат
Hallucinogen – галлюциноген
Handle – обращаться с; поступать; обрабатывать
Haploid – гаплоид (ядро, клетка, организм с одним набором
хромосом, представляющим половину полного набора (n), свойственного исходной форме (2n))
Harbor – укрывать, собирать, скапливать
Harmful side effects – вредные побочные эффекты
Have antipyretic effect – иметь жаропонижающее действие
Have beneficial effects on – иметь благоприятные воздействия на
Have corroborated efficacy – подтвердить эффективность
Have therapeutic actions in humans – оказывать терапевтическое действие на человека
Hay – сено
Healer – целитель
Heart conditions – болезни сердца
Heart failure – остановка сердца
Heat illness – тепловой удар
172
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Heating oil – печное топливо (мазут)
Heavy sedation – сильное успокоительное
Helical composition – спиральная структура
Hemorrhage – кровоизлияние
Heparin – гепарин
Herb’s therapeutic effect – терапевтический эффект трав
Herbal distillate – травяной дистиллят
Herbal medicine, herbalism – растительное лекарственное
средство
Herbal remedies (e.g. aspirin, digitalis, quinine, and opium) –
растительные лекарственные средства (например, аспирин, наперстянка, хинин и опиум)
Herbal treatment – растительный препарат
Herbal wine – травяное вино (мацерация трав в вино)
Herbalist – знаток трав, травник; знахарь, лечащий травами;
торговец лечебными травами
Herbivore – травоядное (животное)
Heterolactic acid fermentation – гетероферментативное молочнокислое брожение
Heterotroph – гетеротроф
Hexane – гексан (растворитель)
High organic strength – высокая концентрация органических
веществ
High-yielding – высокодоходный; высокопродуктивный
Hippocratic Oath – клятва Гиппократа
His-tag – гистидиновый
Histamine – гистамин
Histidine – гистидин
Histoplasmosis – гистоплазмоз, ретикулоэндотелиальный цитомикоз, болезнь Дарлинга
Homolactic – гомоферментативный
Honeycomb – медовые соты
Hoodia (potential source of weight loss drugs) – потенциальный источник лекарств для похудения
Hop – хмель
Host organism (parasitism) – паразит
Hot springs – горячий источник
Human digestion – пищеварение человека
Glossary terms for units
173
Human growth hormone – гормон роста человека
Hybridization – гибридизация, скрещивание
Hydraulic retention time – время гидравлического удержания
(сточных вод на очистном сооружении)
Hydrocodone level – уровень гидрокодона
Hydrogen peroxide – перекись водорода
Hydrogenation – гидрирование
Hydrolate – гидролят
Hydrophobic liquid (that containing volatile aroma compounds
from plants) – гидрофобная жидкость (жидкость, содержащая летучие ароматические соединения из растений)
Hydrosol – гидрозоль
Hydroxyzine – гидроксизин
Hygiene and disease prevention services – санитарно-профилактическое учреждение
Hygiene of hard surfaces (e.g. cooking pots) – санитарное состояние твердых покрытий (кастрюль)
Hypericin (plant with high levels of active constituents) – гиперицин (растение с высоким содержанием активных компонентов)
Hypnotics – снотворные средства
Hypodermic needle – шприц для подкожных впрыскиваний
Hypolipidaemic agents – гиполипидемические препараты
Hypothalamus (a neural control centre at the base of the brain,
concerned with hunger, thirst, satiety, and other autonomic
functions) – гипоталамус (нервный центр в основании мозга, отвечающий за чувство голода, насыщения, жажды и другие чувства нервной системы)
I
Ibuprofen – ибупрофен
Ill formed – недостаточно/слабо сформированный
Immune-suppressant ciclosporin – иммунодепрессант циклоспорин
Immunohistochemistry – иммуногистохимия
Immunosuppressant – иммуносупрессант
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TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Impose law of certain medications prohibition – вводить закон
на запрет определенных препаратов
Improve pain relief – усиливать боль
In vitro (lat.) – в пробирке, в колбе (об опыте); в лабораторных
условиях
In vivo (lat.) – в нормальных условиях
Incorporate – включать; задействовать
Increase the pain-killing ability – увеличивать болеутоляющие
способности
Indigenous – свойственный, присущий
Indigestible carbohydrates – неусваиваемые углеводы
Induce – побуждать
Inefficiency – неспособность; низкая производительность
Infectious disease – инфекционное заболевание
Influent – втекающий/поступающий поток жидкости
Influenza – грипп
Influenza vaccine – вакцина против гриппа
Infusion (hot water extract of herbs) – вливание (экстракт горячей воды на травах)
Ingest – глотать
Ingest medicinal plants to treat illness – принимать внутрь лекарственные растения, чтобы вылечить болезнь
Inhalation – ингаляция
Inhaled cannabis – ингаляционные травы
Inhibit aerobic metabolism in yeast – подавлять аэробный метаболизм в дрожжах
Inhibit bacterial growth – подавлять рост бактерий
Inhibit cyclooxygenases – подавлять циклооксигеназы
Inhibit rotation – подавлять вращение
Input – вход; входное устройство
Interface – граница; поверхность раздела
Interferon – интерферон
Intimate symbiotic relationship – близкие симбиотические отношения
Intravenous administration (into the blood through a vein) –
внутривенное введение (введение в кровь через вену)
Intravenous preparation – внутривенный препарат
Introduce medication through inhalation and rectal means –
вводить препарат в организм путем ингаляции и ректально
Glossary terms for units
175
Introduce medication through intranasal means – вводить
препарат в организм интраназально (через полость носа)
Introduce medication through topical means – местное применение препарата
In vitro activity consistent with traditional use – деятельность
в лабораторных условиях в соответствии с традиционным использованием
Invoke a bitter taste – придавать (иметь) горький вкус
Irradiation – блеск, лучезарность, лучистость
Irrespective – независимо
Irreversible loss – необратимые потери
Isoelectric point – изоэлектрическая точка
Isoflavone – изофлавон (соя)
Isolation of a pure substance – выделение чистого вещества
J
Juniper – можжевельник
K
Kahuna Gynecological Papyrus – «гинекологический папирус» из Кахуна (медицинский текст)
Keep infections at bay – держать инфекции на расстоянии
Keratolytics – кератолитики
Ketoprofen – кетопрофен
L
Labdanum – ладанная камедь
Lactate – лактат, соль молочной кислоты; продуцировать
молоко
Lactic acid fermentation – молочнокислое брожение
Lactic fermentation (short for lactic acid fermentation) – молочная ферментация (сокращенно от «молочнокислое брожение»)
176
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Lactic oil – молочное масло
Lactulose – лактулоза
Lag phase – стадия покоя; индукционный/латентный период
Landfilled – захороненный
Laxative – слабительное средство
Lead to a decrease in prostaglandin production – привести
к уменьшению образования простагландинов
Lead to adverse reactions – привести к неблагоприятным
реакциям
Lead to life-threatening liver damage – привести к опасным
для жизни повреждениям печени
Lead to occasionally kidney damage – привести к повреждению почек
Leavened bread – хлеб на дрожжевой закваске
Lead to occasional shortages of antibiotics or vaccines –
приводить к временному дефициту антибиотиков или вакцин
Lemon balm – лимонный бальзам
Licensed medical practitioner – лицензированный практикующий врач
Lichen – лишай
Lidocaine – лидокаин
Limit survey to adults – ограничить осмотр взрослыми
Linalool – линалоол (цветочный запах с оттенком розы)
Lipase – липаза (водорастворимый фермент, который помогает
переваривать, растворять и фракционировать жиры)
Lipid – липид (гидрофобное органическое вещество, растворимое в органических растворителях)
Liquor – раствор
Lithium salts – соли лития
Local anesthetic – местное анестезирующее средство
Local anesthetic and stimulant – местное анестезирующее
и стимулирующее средство
Local anesthetic reaction – токсическая реакция на введение
местного анестетика
Long-term health – продолжительный период здоровья
Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds – большое количество
окисленных жирных соединений
Luteinising hormone – лютеинизирующий гормон
L-α-amino acid – L-α-аминокислота
Glossary terms for units
177
M
Macerate for a week – размачивать в течение недели
Macerate(s) – вымачивание; вымачивать; размачивать
Maceration (old infusion of plants with high mucilage-content) –
мацерация (метод получения эфирных масел), старый настой растения с высоким содержанием слизи
Macrogol – макрогол
Magnolias (used as Chinese medicine for 5000 years to fight cancer, dementia and heart disease) – магнолия (используется в китайской медицине в течение 5000 лет для борьбы против рака, старческого слабоумия и болезней сердца)
Maintenance cost – эксплуатационные расходы/затраты на техническое обслуживание
Malt – солод; выращивать солод
Malted grains (containing enzymes) – осахаренные с помощью
ферментов зерна с целью получения солода
Marine pharmacognosy – морская фармакогнозия
Mass spectrometry – масс-спектрометрия
Mass-loading – массовый расход
Mast cell inhibitors – ингибиторы тучных клеток
Mature system – хорошо продуманная система
Mean residence time – среднее время пребывания/удержания
Mediate adverse effects – стать причиной неблагоприятных
последствий
Mediate one’s effects on – добиться влияния на
Medical ethnobotany – медицинская этноботаника
Medical guidelines – медицинские рекомендации
Medication – лекарство
Medicinal cream and pill – лекарственный крем и таблетки
Medicine – медицина
Medicine derived from plants – лекарства, полученные
из растений
Membrane bound organelle – органелла/органоид перепонки
мембраны
Metabolic pathway – метаболический путь
Metabolite – метаболит
Metabolize to compounds – преобразовывать в соединения
Metal plating – электроосаждение металлов; металлизация
178
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Metallurgy – металлургия
Metamizole – метамизол
Methanogenesis – метаногенез; образование метана
Methionine – метионин
Methyl salicylate – метилсалицилат
Methylphenidate – метилфенидат
Mexiletine – мексилетин
Microscopic plants (green algae) – микроскопические зеленые
водоросли
Migraine – мигрень
Mimosa – мимоза
Minor medical procedures – малые медицинские процедуры
Miotics – миотики
Misprescription – неправильное назначение препарата
Mixed liquor – иловая смесь
Moderate to strong pain – выносить сильную боль
Mold (conditions where growth of bacteria is prevented by antibiotics) – плесневой грибок (условия, при которых антибиотики
мешают росту бактерий)
Molecular diagnostics – молекулярная диагностика
Monera (lat.) – назначение
Mongoose – мангуст
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors – ингибиторы моноаминоксидазы
Monoclonal antibody – моноклональное антитело
Monoterpene – монотерпен
Mood changing treatment – изменение настроения лечением
Morphinomimetics – морфиномания
Mortality – смертность, летальность
Mucolytics – муколитики
Multicellular organism – многоклеточный организм
Multiple sclerosis – рассеянный склероз
Multitudinous – многочисленный, разнообразный
Muscle relaxant – миорелаксант
Muscle relaxant property – свойство миорелаксанта
Muscular-skeletal disorder – нарушение со стороны скелетномышечной системы
Musk deer – мускусный олень
Musk sac – мускусный мешочек
Mutually beneficial (mutualism) – взаимовыгодный (мутуализм)
Glossary terms for units
179
Mycorrhizal symbiosis – микоризный симбиоз
Mydriatic – мидриатик
Myoclonic jerks – миоклонические судороги
Myrrh – мирра (камедистая смола)
Myxo/myxomatosis – множественная миксома, миксоматоз
(инфекционное заболевание кроликов)
N
Nabumetone – набуметон
Naproxen – напроксен
Narcissus – нарцисс
Narcotic analgesics – наркотические анальгетики
Nascent chain – в стадии возникновения цепи
Natural flavor additives for food – натуральные ароматические добавки
Nausea – тошнота
Nebulisation – распыление
Nebulizer – распылитель
Nefopam – нефопам
Nematode – нематоды, круглые черви
Neoplastic disorders – нарушения, связанные с опухолью
Neroli oil – неролиевое масло
Neuromuscular drug – препараты, блокирующие нервномышечную проводимость
Neuropathic pain – нейропатическая боль
Neutral-smelling oils (e.g. fractionated coconut oil, liquid
waxes) – обычно пахнущие масла (например, фракционированное
кокосовое масло, жидкие воски)
Nibble – откусывание; небольшое количество еды
Nimesulide – нимесулид
Nitrate – нитрат
Non-carbohydrate moiety – неуглеводный радикал
Non-peptide group – непептидная группа
Non-pharmacological treatment – немедикаментозная терапия
Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor – ингибитор обратного захвата норадреналина
Nosology – нозология
180
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Notable exceptions (litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry) –
известные исключения (лицеа кубеба, ваниль и ягоды можжевельника)
Novel antibiotics – новые антибиотики
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) – ядерный магнитный резонанс (ЯМР)
Nucleic acids – нуклеиновые кислоты
Numb a person’s feeling – притуплять чувства; вызывать чувство «онемения»
Numb areas for dental work – сделать заморозку области для
стоматологических работ
Nutritional scientist – диетолог
O
Obstetrics – акушерство
Ocular lubricant – смазывающее офтальмологическое средство
Odor character – характерный аромат
Odorant – ароматное/пахучее вещество
Oestrogen – эстроген
Oil of wintergreen – масло грушанки
Open tank – емкость с нормальным атмосферным давлением
Open-column chromatography – хроматография открытой
колонки
Open-earth – неукрывный
Operation cost – эксплуатационные расходы
Operative skills – хирургические навыки
Opiates – опиаты
Opioid toxicity – опиоидная токсичность
Opioids – опиоиды (снотворное)
Oppose psychiatry – противопоставлять психиатрии
Oral administration (through the mouth) – пероральное применение (через рот)
Orange blossom absolute – цветок апельсина
Orange blossom water – вода цветков апельсина
Orange oil – апельсиновое масло, оранжевое масло
Orchid scents (e.g. salicylic acid) – запах орхидеи (например,
салициловая кислота)
Glossary terms for units
181
Organ/system mechanisms – механизмы органа/системы
Organelles (e.g. cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria) – органоиды (например, ядро клетки, аппарат Гольджи
и митохондрии)
Ormeloxifene – ормелоксифен
Orphans – орфанные препараты (для лечения редких заболеваний)
Orphenadrine – орфенадрин
Orphenadrine combat – лечение с помощью орфенадрина
Osmanthus – османтус
Output – выходное устройство; выход продукции
Overall cost – полная/общая стоимость
Overdose of tropane alkaloid – передозировка тропанового
алкалоида
Overlap in meaning – совпадать по смыслу
Over-prescription – назначение избыточного количества лекарств
Override an interleukin-induced increase in temperature –
не принимать во внимание фактор, стимулирующий повышение
температуры
Oxazolidinones – оксазолидиноны
Oxidative phosphorylation – окислительное фосфорилирование
Oxycodone – оксикодон
Oxygen flux – кислородный цикл (диффузия и усвоение кислорода)
Ozonous metallic marine scent – легкий морской аромат
P
Package – блок; объект; масса
Pain of neuropathic origin – боль нейропатического происхождения
Pain reliever – обезболивающее, болеутоляющее
Painful mouth sores – болезненные язвы рта
Pancreas – поджелудочная железа
Pancreatic ribonuclease – панкреатитная рибонуклеаза (РНКаза)
Paracetamol (acetaminophen) – парацетамол (ацетаминофен)
Parasympatholytics – парасимпатолитические вещества
182
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Parasympathomimetics – парасимпатомиметики
Parental nutritional supplements – пищевые добавки для парентерального применения
Parenteral (introducing the medication directly to the circulatory
system) – парентеральное применение (введение препарата непосредственно в систему кровобращения)
Partial agonist of the opioid receptor – частичные агонисты
опиоидных рецепторов
Pass on safety information and cautions – переходить к безопасной информации и предостережениям
Passage – прохождение; проход
Patchouli – пачули
Pathogenic yeast (Candida albicans) – патогенные дрожжи
Pathogens – болезнетворные микроорганизмы рода Archaea
Pathway – путь
Pediculicides – педикулициды
Peel – кожура
Penicillin – пенициллин
Peptide bond – пептидная связь
Performance – эффективность; характеристика; выполнение
Periodontal disease – пародонтоз
Perioperative setting – периоперационная установка
Peripheral activators – активаторы периферических рецепторов
Permeable – проницаемый
Peru balsam – перуанский бальзам
Petal – лепесток
Pethidine – петидин
Petit grain – мелкое зерно
Pharmaceutical – фармацевтический
Pharmaceutical drug (medicine or medication) – фармацевтический препарат (лекарство или лекарственное средство)
Pharmacodynamics – фармакодинамика (одно из двух основных направлений фармакологии)
Pharmacoenvironmentology – изучение влияния фармацевтических препаратов на окружающую среду
Pharmacognosy – фармакогнозия (раздел фармации, изучающий
лекарственное сырье растительного и животного происхождения)
Pharmacokinetics – фармакокинетика (одно из двух основных
направлений фармакологии)
Glossary terms for units
183
Pharmacologist – фармаколог
Pharmacology – фармакология
Pharmacopoeia – фармакопея
Pharmacotherapy – фармакотерапия/медикаментозное лечение
Pharmacovigilance – фармакологический надзор/фармаконадзор
Pharmacy – фармация
Pharmacy – аптека
Phenazone (antipyrine) – феназон (антипирин)
Phenergan – фенерган
Phenolic – фенольный
Pheromones – феромоны
Phosphoglyceride – фосфоглицерин
Photosynthetic eukaryote – фотосинтетический эукариот
Physical mean – физическое средство
Physician – врач, доктор, терапевт
Physostigmine – физостигмин
Phytochemical – фитохимикат; фитохимический
Phytochemistry – биохимия растений; фотохимия
Phytoestrogen – фитоэстроген
Phytopharmaceutical – растительный, лекарственный
Pilocarpine – пилокарпин
Pinpoint – точно определять, указывать
Plague – чума
Planarians – планарии
Plant water essence – водная эссенция растений
Plasmids – плазмиды (небольшие фрагменты ДНК)
Platelet function – функция тромбоцитов
Plausible case – правдоподобный случай
Plumeria – плюмерия
Polish – совершенствовать
Pollutant – загрязнитель окружающей среды
Polyamide – полиамид
Polyenes – полиены
Polymerase – полимераза
Polypeptide chain – полипептидная цепь
Poly-pharmacy – избыточное назначение лекарств (одновременное назначение больному нескольких препаратов)
Polyphenols (phenolics) – полифенолы (фенолы)
Polysaccharide – полисахарид
184
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Pomade – помада (для волос)
Posttranslational modification – посттрансляционные модификации
Potent antimicrobial – мощное антибактериальное средство
Potentiate effects of analgesics – усиливать действие анальгетиков
Potentiators – потенциаторы
Poultice – припарка; компресс, обертывание
Practice whole herb consumption – практиковать полное усвоение трав
Prayer – молитва
Precipitation – осаждение
Precipitation by salting out – осаждение соли
Precursor – исходный продукт, предшествующее вещество
Predation – хищническое истребление
Predator (e.g. insect, fungi, and herbivorous mammal) – хищник
Predispose to peptic ulcers, renal failure, allergic reactions,
hearing loss – приводить к язвенной болезни, почечной недостаточности, аллергическим реакциям, потере слуха
Pregabalin – прегабалин
Preparation of alkalis – приготовление щелочей
Prescription drugs – рецепт лекарства
Prescription practice – назначение лекарственных препаратов
Prevalence of use – распространенность употребления
Prey – жить за чужой счет
Primary constituents – первичные составляющие
Primary form of health care – основная форма здравоохранения
Primary health care – первая помощь (при заболеваниях
и несчастных случаях); первичная медико-санитарная помощь
Primary metabolites – первичные метаболиты (сахара и жиры
растительного происхождения)
Primary structure – первичная структура
Primary transcript – первичная расшифровка
Primrose – первоцвет
Pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant balance – прооксидантный
и антиоксидантный баланс
Produce spores – производить споры
Products respecting their safety and nutritional value – продукты,
отвечающие требованиям безопасности и пищевой ценности
Glossary terms for units
185
Progestogen – прогестоген
Prokaryote – прокариоты
Promethazine – прометазин
Propionate – пропионат
Propionic acid – пропионовая кислота
Prostaglandin – простагландин
Prostaglandin agonists – агонисты простагландина
Protease inhibitor – ингибитор протеазы
Protective function – защитная функция
Protein backbone – опора белка
Proteinogenic amino acid – протеинсодержащая аминокислота
Proteolytic – протеолитический, расщепляющий белки
Proteomics (the branch of biochemistry concerned with the structure and analysis of the proteins occurring in living organisms) – протеомика, отрасль биохимии, изучающая структуру протеинов
в живых организмах
Protists – протисты
Protozoa – простейшие
Prudent – предусмотрительный; благоразумный
Pruritus, itching – зуд
Pseudoephedrine (for sinus-related preparations) – псевдоэфедрин (для препаратов, связанных с лечением носовой пазухи)
Psilocin – псилоцин
Psychedelic – галлюциногенное, психотомиметическое средство
Psychotropic analgesic agents – психотропные анальгетики
Pumpkin – тыква
Purging intestinal parasites – очищение кишечника от паразитов
Pyreticus (pertaining to fever) – пиретик (относящийся к лихорадке)
Pyrexia/pyresis – пирексия/лихорадка
Pyrolysis – пиролиз
Pyruvate – пируват
Q
Quinidine – хинидин
Quinine – противомалярийное лекарство хинин
Quinine from the cinchona – хинин из хинной коры
186
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Quinolone (any of a group of synthetic antibiotics that inactivate
an enzyme required for the replication of certain microorganisms) –
хинолон (любой из группы искусственных антибиотиков, которые
инактивируют фермент, необходимый для репликации определенных микроорганизмов)
R
Reassemble – повторно собирать
Reassemble drug – повторно составлять лекарства
Recipes – медицинские рецепты
Recombinant gene technologies – технологии, связанные
с рекомбинированием генов
Recombinant interleukins – рекомбинантные интерлейкины
Recreational drug – рекреационный наркотик (употребляют
периодически не по медицинским показаниям или вследствие
сформировавшейся зависимости)
Reduce fever – снижать температуру
Reduce inflammation – уменьшить воспаление
Reduce opioid consumption – снизить потребление опиоидов
Redundancy – избыточность
Refine – усовершенствовать
Refine to produce drug – очистить, чтобы произвести лекарство
Reflux suppressants – супрессанты для подавления гастроэзофагеального рефлюкса
Refractory – трудноперерабатываемый; стойкий
Regenerate – восстанавливать
Reject – отвергать, отказываться принимать
Relative dryness of the wearer’s skin – относительная сухость
кожи человека
Release toxins – выпустить токсины
Relieved by a short course of antiemetic – освобожденный,
избавленный с помощью противорвотного
Rely on traditional medicine – полагаться на традиционную
медицину
Remain dormant for long periods of time – оставаться в состоянии покоя в течение длительного времени
Remnant – остаток; след
Glossary terms for units
187
Remove – удалять; восстанавливать
Render smth odorless – воспроизводить что-либо без запаха
Replicate – повторять, тиражировать
Replication – копирование, дублирование
Reproduce asexually (by budding or binary fission) – размножаться бесполым путем: почкованием или бинарным делением
Reproduce by binary fission – воспроизвести с помощью бинарного деления
Reproductive system/urinary system – репродуктивная (половая) система/мочевая система
Residence time – время пребывания и удерживания (органических отходов в системе дигерирования)
Resilient spores – упругие споры
Resin (used in incense and perfumery) – смола (которая используется в получении ладана и парфюмерии)
Resistant to spoilage – устойчивый к порче
Respiratory depression – угнетение дыхания
Respiratory system – дыхательная система
Result in hospitalization or death – привести к госпитализации
или смерти
Resultant liquid of extracting herbs into water – жидкость,
полученная в результате добавления травяного экстракта в воду
Retention time – срок хранения; время пребывания и удерживания
Return sludge pump – насос возвратного ила
Reversibly – обратимо
Reye’s syndrome (severe liver disorder) – синдром Рейе (тяжелое расстройство печени)
Rhizome – корневище
Rigidity – жесткость
Ringworm – стригущий лишай
Risk of cardiovascular events – риск сердечно-сосудистых заболеваний
Rofecoxib – рофекоксиб
Rosa damascena (lat.) – дамасская роза
Rose absolute (solvent extracted product) – роза абсолютная
(продукт, экстрагированный растворителем)
Rose otto, steam distilled rose oil – роза отто (перегнанное
с паром розовое масло)
188
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Rosemary – розмарин
Rotating biological contactor – вращающийся биологический
контактор
Rotifer – коловратка (микроорганизм, передвигающийся
в воде с помощью вращения ресничек)
Routinely – обычно; регулярно
Run out – заканчиваться; иссякать
S
Sage – шалфей
Salicylate – салицилат
Salicylic acid – салициловая кислота
Saturated fat – насыщенный жир
Scabicide – противочесоточное средство
Scaffolding – клеточный каркас
Scented geranium – герань душистая
Scopolamine – скополамин
Secondary metabolite – вторичный метаболит (промежуточный продукт обмена веществ)
Secrete – выделять, секретировать
Sedimentation – осаждение
Seizures – приступ
Selective breeding – выборочное улучшение сорта
Selective recovery – избирательное (селективное) восстановление
Selenocysteine – селенитовый цистеин (заменимая в питании
человека аминокислота)
Self-medicate – заниматься самолечением
Self-medication in the wild – самолечение в дикой природе
Semi-pure mixture – неочищенная смесь
Semisynthetic – полусинтетический
Semisynthetic modifications – полусинтетические модификации
Separation of minerals – разделение минералов
Settle – осаждать; отстаивать
Glossary terms for units
189
Settleability – осаждаемость
Settling tank – отстойный бассейн, отстойник
Shigellosis – шигеллез, бактериальная дизентерия
Show beneficial synergistic effects – оказывать благотворное
синергетическое воздействие
Sick animals – больные животные
Signal transduction – специфическая трансдукция (перенос
бактериофагом определенных фрагментов ДНК от клетки-донора
к клетке-реципиенту)
Sildenafils – силденафилы
Single loop of DNA – единственная петля ДНК
Single-celled organism – одноклеточный организм
Site-directed mutagenesis – сайт-специфический мутагенез
(процесс направленного получения мутации в строго заданном
месте полинуклеотида, гена или генома)
Slaughterhouse – бойня, скотобойня; магазин по скупке продукции у мелких производителей по очень низким ценам
Sleeping sickness – сонная болезнь
Sludge – ил
Sludge age – возраст ила
Smell solely from smth – чувствовать запах исключительно
чего-либо
Snuff – лекарственный порошок для вдыхания через нос; вдыхание через нос, вдыхать через нос
Soak smth in ethanol – впитывать что-либо в этиловом спирте
Soaking herbs – всасывающие травы
Soil microorganism – микроорганизм почвы
Soil traits – особенности почвы
Solid at room temperature – затвердеть, высохнуть при комнатной температуре
Solvent extraction, effleurage – экстракция растворителя
Solvent-solvent partitioning – разбиение/разделение растворителя
Somatostatin inhibitors – ингибиторы соматостатина
Soy – соя
Space heating – отопление помещений
Spasmolytic agent atropine – антиспазматический атропиновый агент
190
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Specimens of plant species – образцы видов растения
Spectroscopy – спектроскопия
Sperm whale – кашалот
Spermicide – спермицид (средство, разрушающее сперматозоиды)
Spew – изрыгать; выплескивать
Spiced – пряный
Spinal injury – травма спины
Stalked ciliates – стебельковые инфузории
Starting material – исходный материал
Statins – статины
Steam distillation – перегонка с водяным паром
Steam-distilled oil – масло, перегнанное с (водяным) паром
Stem – стебель
Stimulant – стимулятор (вещество); стимулирующий; раздражитель
Stimulant caffeine – стимулирующий кофеин
Straggler – отставший; отбившийся
Stripping – расчистка; удаление; отгонка; десорбирование
Subsequent release in food – последующий отказ от пищи
Suffer from viral illness – страдать от вирусных заболеваний
Suffer with chronic pain – страдать от хронической боли
Sugar manufacture – производство сахара
Sulfonamides – сульфонамиды
Sulfonated – сульфированный
Sulfonylureas – препараты сульфонилмочевины
Supercritical carbon dioxide – сверхкритическая углекислота;
диоксид углерода в сверхкритическом состоянии
Supercritical fluid extraction – сверхкритическая флюидная
экстракция
Supply – снабжать; поставлять; доставлять
Surgery – хирургия
Suspend – отлагать; находиться во взвешенном состоянии
Suspended – взвешенный; суспендированный
Suspended growth – рост во взвешенном слое
Suspended growth system – система с суспендированной
культурой
Sustained use – устойчивое использование
Glossary terms for units
191
Symbionts (i.e. higher-order multicellular organisms) – симбионты (т. е. многоклеточные организмы высшего порядка)
Symbiotic microbes – симбиотические микробы
Sympathomimetics – симпатомиметики
Synergy – успешные, совместные усилия
Synthesis and drug design – синтез и драг дизайн (разработка
лекарства)
Synthetic musk, white musk – синтетическое вещество с мускусным запахом; белый мускус
Syrup (extract of herbs made with honey) – сироп
Systemic absorption of alcohol – системная абсорбция спирта
T
Tailor-made medicine – лекарство, изготовленное по рецепту
Take drug orally or rectally – принимать препарат перорально
или ректально
Take medicines for long periods – применять лекарственные
препараты в течение длительного периода
Tamoxifen – тамоксифен
Tankage – вместимость резервуара; цистерна; отходы; осадок
(сточных вод)
Tannin – танин
Tar products – продукты перегонки дегтя
Tardive dyskinesia – поздняя дискинезия
Terminus – конец (вектора); граница
Terpenes – терпены
Terpenoid – терпеноиды
Tertiary structure – третичная структура
The Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals – фармакотерапевтическая классификация
The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations – Международный совет ООН по контролю над наркотическими средствами
Therapeutic standard – терапевтический стандарт
Therapeutic use – терапевтическое применение
Thiazolidinediones – тиазолидинедионы
192
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Thin layer chromatography – тонкослойная хроматография
Three-dimensional structure – трехмерная структура, пространственная структура, объемная структура, третичная структура
Thrombotic events – тромботические заболевания
Throw up – выбрасывать
Thyme – тимьян
Thyroid hormone – гормон щитовидной железы
Tincture (alcoholic extract of herbs) – настойка (спиртовой экстракт из трав)
Tincture fragrant materials – настойка ароматных веществ
Tisane, herbal tea – отвар, травяной чай
Tissue – ткань
Tolerant of less oxygen – терпеть недостаток кислорода
Tonka bean (a leguminous tree, having fragrant seeds used in the
manufacture of perfumes and snuff) – диптерикс (бобовое растение
с душистыми семенами, которые используются в производстве
парфюмерных изделий и нюхательного порошка)
Topical delivery mechanisms (salves, oils, balms, creams and lotions) – актуальные механизмы поставки (растворы, масла, бальзамы,
сливки и лосьоны)
Topical (systemic) analgesia – актуальное (системное) обезболивание
Toxic to organism – быть ядовитым для организма
Toxoplasmosis – токсоплазмоз
Tradeoff – уступка; побочный эффект; соотношение; компромисс
Tramadol – трамадол
Trans fat – транс-жир (содержащий жирные кислоты типа
«транс»)
Transfer – перенос; перемещение
Translocate across the nuclear membrane – перемещаться
сквозь ядерную мембрану
Treat – обрабатывать
Treat bacterial infection in humans – лечить вирусную инфекцию у людей
Treat disease – лечить заболевание
Treat infections – лечить инфекции
Treating wounds with irrigation – лечение ран путем промывания
Glossary terms for units
193
Treatment plant – очистное сооружение; водоочистная станция
Trickling filter – бактериальный/биологический фильтр
Tricyclic antidepressants – трициклические антидепрессанты
Triglyceride – триглицерид
Tripelennamine – трипеленнамин
Tuberculosis – туберкулез
Tuberose – тубероза
Turn upside down – переворачивать с ног на голову
Turpentine (produced from resin) – скипидар (произведенный
из смолы)
Twig – веточка
U
Ultimate function of the proteins – конечная функция белков
Ultracentrifugation – ультрацентрифугирование
Unattainable – недосягаемый, недостижимый
Under optimal conditions – при оптимальных условиях
Undergo anhydrous pyrolysis – подвергаться безводному
пиролизу
Underutilized resources – недостаточно использованные ресурсы
Unicellular eukaryote – одноклеточный эукариот
V
Vacuum distilling tincture – настой/раствор, отогнанный под
вакуумом
Valdecoxib – валдекоксиб
Valeric acid – валериановая кислота
Value – значение; величина
Vasoconstrictor drug/vasoconstrictor – сосудосуживающий
препарат
Vasodilators – сосудорасширяющие средства
Vasopressin analogues – аналоги вазопрессина
Venlafaxine – венлафаксин
Vetiver roots – ветиверовый корень
Via – посредством
Via micropropagation – посредством микрораспределения
194
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
Viable – целесообразный; возможный; успешный
Vinegar – укус
Violet – фиалка
Vital to humans – быть жизненно важным для людей
Viverridae (lat.) – хищное млекопитающее; плотоядное животное; насекомоядное растение
Volatile hydrocarbons – летучие углеводороды
Volatile oil – летучее масло; летучая смазка; эфирное масло
Volatilized oil – растительное или минеральное испаряющееся масло
Vomiting – рвота
W
Waste discharge – сброс/удаление отходов; сброс сточных вод
Waste sludge – избыточный ил; удаляемый ил
Waste stream – сток
Wasted – отработанный
Wastewaters – сточные воды
Weeds (nettle, dandelion and chickweed) – сорняки (крапива,
одуванчик и песчанка)
Wheat gluten – клейковина пшеницы
White musk – белый мускус
Willow bark – кора ивы
Worm – червь
X
Xanthine (for asthma) – ксантин (для лечения астмы)
X-ray diffraction analysis – рентгеноструктурный анализ,
рентгеноструктурное исследование
Y
Yeast – дрожжи
Yellow fever – желтая лихорадка
Glossary terms for units
195
Yew tree (bark is used for the cancer drug paclitaxel) – тисовое
дерево (кора используется для лекарства от рака)
Yield of high quality products – урожай высококачественных
продуктов
Yield useful medicinal compounds – производить полезные
лекарственные соединения
Ylang-ylang – кунанга душистая, иланг-иланг (дерево с прозрачными лепестками, масло которого применяется в парфюмерной
промышленности)
Z
Zoopharmacognosy – зоофармакогнозия
Zygote – зигота
196
KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES
KEYS
FOR REVISION EXERCISES
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit I
Ex. I: antibiotic; antibacterial compounds; biological; adjuvant
analgesics (or atypical analgesics); paracetamol and NSAIDs; COX-2
inhibitors.
Ex. II: antipyretics; antipyretic medications/antipyretics; flupirtine;
inhaled cannabis; antibacterials.
Ex. III: heat; analgesics, NSAIDs; aminoglycosides; antibacterials;
natural compounds; accidental overdoses.
Ex. IV: 1c, 2d, 3a, 4e, 5b, 6f.
Ex. V: 1. Analgesic choice is also determined by the type of
pain. 2. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules. 3. With advances in medicinal chemistry, most of modern antibacterials chemically are semisynthetic modifications of various
natural compounds. 4. In ethnobotany, plants with naturally occurring antipyretic properties are commonly referred to as febrifuges.
5. Bathing or sponging with lukewarm or cool water can effectively
reduce body temperature in those with heat illness but not usually in
those with fever.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit II
Ex. I: operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar
manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis; aspirin, codeine, and morphine;
surgery, folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds; first sulfa drugs, then penicillin and other antibiotics.
Ex. II: drugs which are prescription only (POM); contraindications; medical guidelines and clinical trials; ecopharmacovigilance;
pharmaceuticals.
Glossary terms for units
197
Ex. III: drug prices; medications; pharmaceutical drug; prescription only medicine (POM); essential medicines.
Ex. IV: 1b, 2a, 3c, 4e, 5d.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit III
Ex. I: medicinal properties of plants; the carotenoids; bacteria,
fungi, plants, and animals; red, yellow and orange shades; magical/shamanic, energetic, functional dynamic, and chemical.
Ex. II: terpenes; phytotherapists; Yew trees; Hoodia; Magnolias.
Ex. III: bee products; bark; herbs; carotenoids; physicians;
plants.
Ex. IV: 1b, 2c, 3d, 4e, 5a.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit IV
Ex. I: medical ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry,
zoopharmacognosy, and marine pharmacognosy; one solution is to
farm medicinal animals and plants, farming alone can never resolve
conservation concerns; solvent-solvent partitioning and chromatographic techniques (examples: HPLC, VLC, TLC, and etc.); various
types of microbes (bacteria, fungi), marine organisms.
Ex. II: pharmacognosy; pharmacy; zoopharmacognosy; HPLC;
ethnopharmacology.
Ex. III: modern medicine; substances; drug action; application;
distribution.
Ex. IV: 1b, 2c, 3d, 4e, 5a.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit V
Ex. I: computational biology/bioinformatics; cleanup sites contaminated by industrial activities; biotechnology; to treat human diseases;
Infliximab, Etanercept, and Rituximab.
Ex. II: traditional pharmaceutical drugs; pharmacogenomics; biotechnology; biopharmaceuticals; vaccines.
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KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES
Ex. III: one application of biotechnology; deactivate; treat; starch;
medicine.
Ex. IV: 1b, 2d, 3e, 4c, 5a.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit VI
Ex. I: prokaryotes, bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes, and protists; “total” bacteria, molds, and coliform bacteria; dust mites and spider mites;
the nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, symbiotic (e.g. fungi and algae) form an association in lichen;
every habitat in nature.
Ex. II: eukaryotes; protists; bacteria; archaea; a microorganism or
microbe; microbiology.
Ex. III: infection; cause; nitrogen; pathogenic viruses; vacuum.
Ex. IV: 1c, 2d, 3e, 4a, 5b.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit VII
Ex. I: ultracentrifugation, precipitation, electrophoresis, and chromatography; the sequence of amino acids; the physical and chemical
properties, folding, stability, activity, and ultimately, and the function
of the proteins; twenty; using information encoded in genes.
Ex. II: polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins; peptide bond; obtaining protein sufficiently pure for laboratory applications;
a polyamide; quaternary structure.
Ex. III: proteins; array of functions; synthesis; nucleotide; selenocysteine.
Ex. IV: 1b, 2c, 3d, 4e, 5a.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit VIII
Ex. I: saturated, unsaturated; cis fats, trans fats; their energy content
and melting point; trans; flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel.
Ex. II: edible; unsaturated fats; older textbooks; commercially; eucalyptus.
Ex. III: 1b, 2a, 3c, 4e, 5d.
Glossary terms for units
199
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit IX
Ex. I: to formulate perfumes; labdanum, frankincense, myrrh,
Peru balsam, and gum benzoin; fragrant; the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source; apples, strawberries, and
cherries.
Ex. II: perfume; maceration or solvent extraction; supercritical fluid
extraction; an absolute; herbivores, infections, and to attract pollinators.
Ex. III: fragrant; volatile; pyrolysis; dimethyl; odorants.
Ex. IV: 1b, 2d, 3e, 4c, 5a.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit X
Ex. I: glycolysis; lactic acid fermentation; lactate; oxygen; additional ATP, NADH in the citric acid cycle.
Ex. II: lactic acid fermentation; glycolysis; homolactic; oxygen;
pyruvate.
Ex. III: yeast; fermentation; lactic acid fermentation; brewing; air;
sugar solution.
Ex. IV: 1c, 2f, 3d, 4a, 5b, 6e.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit XI
Ex. II: pollutant; wastewater; living organism; treatment; biodegradable; clarifier; precipitation; chelating agent; by-product;
food.
Ex. III: treatment; include; living organisms; wastewaters; outputs;
food; decrease; organic matter; pollution; degrade.
Ex. IV: 1d, 2i, 3g, 4a, 5c, 6f, 7j, 8h, 9b, 10e.
Ex. V: 1. Dairy wastewater should be treated by biological means.
2. The pollution from a typical dairy is organic material which is readily biodegradable. 3. Biological methods involve living organisms
which use organic or inorganic substances for food. 4. Biological
treatment is a process in which organic substances are used as food by
microorganisms. 5. Organic matter is composed of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and many additional elements in small amounts.
200
KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES
6. Microorganisms get rid of excess carbon atoms and excess hydrogen
atoms. 7. Microorganisms exist in a hierarchical food chain in which
bacteria and fungi feed on the organic matter. 8. Bacteria and fungi are
the primary converters of organic materials into waste materials. 9. Microorganisms are unable to degrade some organic molecules in the untreated wastewater. 10. The degradation of organic matter by the microorganisms is not 100% complete.
Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit XII
Ex. II: anaerobic; suspension; sludge; dissolved; oxygen; retention
time; tankage; predation; scarce; enzyme.
Ex. III: suspended; oxygen; sludge; tank; predation; metabolize;
effluent; droplet; anaerobic; conversion.
Ex. IV: 1c, 2f, 3a, 4e, 5g, 6j, 7b, 8h, 9d, 10i.
Ex. V: 1. Methanogenesis is the conversion of the products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis to methane and carbon dioxide. 2. Ethanol is
the primary product of the hydrolytic breakdown of complex organic
substances. 3. The anaerobes first convert ethanol to acetic acid. 4. Two
important characteristics of industrial wastewaters as candidates for
treatment are alkalinity and sulfur content. 5. Hydrogen sulfide is a byproduct of the anaerobic degradation process. 6. Methane recovered
from anaerobic treatment processes is used as a source of energy.
7. Anaerobic systems can treat some substances that are not readily
treated by aerobic systems. 8. Air diffusers are divided into two categories. 9. Air diffusers introduce bubbles of air into the liquid within the
aeration tank. 10. As the food supply comes to an end and predation
exceeds growth, the population declines.
Glossary terms for units
201
LIST
OF REFERENCES
1. Plant as a bibliographic database about medicinal plants / Maria
C. Silva [et al.]. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
2. Duke, James. Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases /
James Duke // Nature Biotechnology, September 29, 2011. – London:
Nature Publishing Group, 2011.
3. Herbal Medicine Past and Present: A reference guide to medicinal plants / J. K. Crellin [et al.]. – Durham: Duke University
Press, 1990.
4. Plant Database. – London: Nature Publishing Group, 2011.
5. Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. – 1947. – Vol. 8.
6. Gilman, Alfred. The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics /
Alfred Gilman, Louis Sanford Goodman. – New York: Pergamon
Press, 1990.
7. Woodard and Curran. Industrial Waste Treatment. – USA: Elsevier, 2006.
8. Essential Oils – Nomenclature: ISO 4720:2002. – Geneva: International Organization for Standardization, 2002.
202
KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES
CONTENTS
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ ...........................................................................
PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES ..................................
UNIT I. CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINE ........................
UNIT II. PHARMACEUTICALS ...........................................
UNIT III. MEDICAL PLANTS ...............................................
UNIT IV. PHARMACOGNOSY ............................................
PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY .......................................................
UNIT V. BIOTECHNOLOGY ................................................
UNIT VI. MICROORGANISMS ............................................
UNIT VII. TECHNOLOGY OF PROTEINS AND BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES ......................................
UNIT VIII. TECHNOLOGY OF FATS AND ESSENTIAL
OILS ..................................................................................................
UNIT IX. TECHNOLOGY OF PERFUME-COSMETICS
PRODUCTS .............................................................................
UNIT X. FERMENTS AND VITAMINS ...............................
PART III. BIOECOLOGY ..............................................................
UNIT XI. WASTEWATER TREATMENT ...........................
UNIT XII. TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER ...............................................................................
APPENDIX .....................................................................................
A. IT IS INTERESTING TO KNOW .....................................
B. TOXICOLOGY OF ESSENTIAL OILS ............................
LISTS OF HERBS ..........................................................................
THE LIST OF PLANTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED AS
HERBAL MEDICINE .............................................................
THE PARTIAL LIST OF HERBS AND HERBAL TREATMENTS WITH KNOWN OR SUSPECTED ADVERSE
EFFECTS .................................................................................
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY ........................................
ABBREVIATION ....................................................................
GLOSSARY TERMS FOR UNITS ........................................
KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES ...........................................
LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................
3
5
5
12
22
38
48
48
57
67
77
84
93
101
101
112
127
127
138
139
139
146
149
149
152
196
201
Glossary terms for units
Учебное издание
Романова Анна Михайловна
Лесневская Галина Николаевна
ENGLISH
FOR PHARMACEUTICS
AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Учебно-методическое пособие
Корректор Е. С. Ватеичкина
Компьютерная верстка С. С. Белявская
Подписано в печать 04.09.2014. Формат 60×841/16.
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Усл. печ. л. 12,8. Уч.-изд. л. 12,2.
Тираж 150 экз. Заказ 888.
Издатель и полиграфическое исполнение:
УО «Белорусский государственный технологический университет».
Свидетельство о государственной регистрации издателя,
изготовителя, распространителя печатных изданий
№ 1/227 от 20.03.2014.
ЛП № 02330/12 от 30.12.2013.
Ул. Свердлова, 13а, 220006, г. Минск.
203